1

Quran

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Difference Between Science and Engineering

Science: Try to find All the Legal possible moves (theoretical)

After each player has moved a piece 5 times each (10 ply) there are
69,352,859,712,417 possible games that could have been played. 693 Kharab

Engineering: Select the best possible moves to win the game (Practical)

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Atomic Bonding

6
 Atomic Structure
7

• Physicist Ernest Rutherford postulated:

– Positive charge in an atom is at center of the
atom-charge magnitude being 1.602 1019 C,
– 1.67 1027 kg,
– Electrons orbit around it- 9.11 1031 kg
• Niels Bohr, from Rutherford's theory and Max Planck’s
quantum theory, proposed orbiting electrons in
discrete fixed shells
• An electron in one of these orbits has a specific
quantity of energy (quantum)
• Electron movement between shells results in a photon
either emitted or absorbed

ELO 1.1

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 Neutrons and Protons
• Protons and neutrons are located in 8

center of atom – called nucleus

• Each element made up of atoms having
a unique number of protons that defines
chemical properties
• Neutrons are electrically neutral – no
electrical charge
• Protons are electrically positive -
electrical charge of +
– Gives nucleus positive charge
– One proton has a +1, two protons Figure: Simple Carbon Atom

have +2
• Neutrons and protons essentially equal
in mass ELO 1.1

– > 1800 times size of an electron

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10

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 Electrons
12

• Electrons orbit the nucleus

– Orbit in concentric orbits referred to as orbitals
or shells
– Mass of 1/1835 the mass of a proton or neutron
• Each electron has -1 electrical charge = in
magnitude to one proton
• For the atom to be electrically neutral, number of
electrons must equal protons
• Electrons are bound to the nucleus by electrostatic
attraction (opposite charges attract)
• Atom remains neutral unless some force causes a
change in the number of electrons
• energies of electrons are quantized

ELO 1.1

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Electrons have dual nature?
• Wave Behaviors
images and diffraction patterns
wavelength can be tuned by energies

• Charged Particle Behaviors

strong electron-specimen interactions
chemical analysis is possible

Basic electron optics

• Electrons and ions are charged particles, they can be accelerated in a E field.

• The trajectory of an accelerated charged particle can be deflected by E and/or B field.

• According to de Broglie, the accelerated (high energy) particles also behave like waves.

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atomic number (Z)

number of protons in the nucleus

1 for hydrogen to 92 for uranium, the highest of the naturally

occurring elements

atomic mass (A)

of a specific atom may be expressed as the sum of the masses of protons and
neutrons within the nucleus

isotopes
two or more different atomic masses,

atomic weight
of an element corresponds to the
weighted average of the atomic masses of the atom’s naturally occurring isotopes

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 Isotopes
15
• Isotopes – nuclides that have same atomic number and are
same element, but differ in number of neutrons
• Most elements have a few stable isotopes and several
unstable, radioactive isotopes
– Oxygen has three stable isotopes that can be found in
nature (oxygen-16, oxygen-17, and oxygen-18) and eight
radioactive isotopes
– Hydrogen has two stable isotopes (hydrogen-1 and
hydrogen-2) and single radioactive isotope
(hydrogen-3)

ELO 1.2

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16

atomic mass unit (amu) may be used to compute atomic weight. A scale has
been established whereby 1 amu is defined as of the atomic mass of the most
common isotope of carbon, carbon 12 (12C) (A 12.00000). the
masses of protons and neutrons are slightly greater than unity

AZ+N

1 amu/atom (or molecule) = 1 g/mol

atomic weight of iron is 55.85 amu/atom, or

55.85 g/mol.

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 Atomic Notation
17

Figure: Nomenclature for Identifying Nuclides

ELO 1.2

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 Bohr Model of Atom
18
• Bohr’s model is shown on the next slide
– An electron is shown to have dropped from the third shell
to the first shell releasing energy
– Energy is released as a photon = hv
• h = Planck's constant - 6.63 x 10-34 J-s (joule-seconds)
• v = frequency of the photon
• Accounts for the quantum energy levels
• Bohr's atomic model is designed specifically to explain the
hydrogen atom – has applicability as first generation model
to all atoms

ELO 1.1

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 Bohr Model of Atom
19

Figure: Bohr's Model of the Hydrogen Atom

ELO 1.1

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24

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Fe =3 example
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How Atoms Emit Light

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The free electron collides with the atom, knocking an electron out of a lower
orbital. A higher orbital electron fills the empty position, releasing its excess
energy as a photon.

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29

The free electron is attracted to the atom nucleus. As the electron speeds past,
the nucleus alters its course. The electron loses energy, which it releases as an
X-ray photon.

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30

What's an X-Ray?
X-rays are basically the same thing as visible light rays. Both are wavelike forms of
electromagnetic energy carried by particles called photons.

Frequency
102 102 101 101 101 10 10 10
4 1 8 5 2 9 6 3 (Hz)
Amateur
Band

Gamma Rays UV IR Long Radio Waves

X-rays Micro TV FM AM

10- 10- 10-9 10-6 10-3 1. 10 10

15 12 3 6 Wavelength
0
(m)

Difference between X-rays and visible light rays: energy level

Electromagnetic radiation of very short wavelength

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 Wave and particle like behavior
31

X-rays

Wave and particle like behavior

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 Forces Acting in the Nucleus
35

• Both protons and neutrons exist in atomic nucleus

– Some attractive force must exist to oppose the
repulsive force between protons
• Forces present in the nucleus are:
– Electrostatic forces between charged particles
– Gravitational forces between any two objects
that have mass
• The magnitude of these forces can be calculated
based upon principles from classical physics

ELO 1.3

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 Gravitational Force
36

ELO 1.3

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 Gravitational Force
37
• Greater gravitational force is because of either
– Larger masses
– Smaller distance between objects
• Distance between nucleons is extremely short
– Makes gravitational force significant
• Gravitational force between two protons separated by 10-20
meters is about 10-24 newtons

ELO 1.3

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 Electrostatic Force
38

ELO 1.3

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 Electrostatic Force
39

• Electrostatic force between two protons

separated by distance of 10-20 meters is ≈
1012 newtons
• Results:
– Electrostatic force – 1012 newtons
– Gravitational force – 10-24 newtons
• Gravitational force is so small that it can be
neglected

ELO 1.3

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 Nuclear Force
40

• If only electrostatic and gravitational forces exist

stable nuclei composed of protons and neutrons
can’t exist
• Must be some other force at work, specifically
nuclear force
• Nuclear Force – strong attractive force that is
independent of charge
– Acts equally only between pairs of neutrons,
pairs of protons, or a neutron and a proton
– Has very short range - approximately equal to
diameter of nucleus (10-13 cm)
– Attractive nuclear force drops off with distance
much more quickly than electrostatic force

ELO 1.3

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 41

Forces Acting in the Nucleus

Force Interaction Range

1. Gravitational Weak attractive Relatively long

force between all
nucleons

2. Electrostatic Strong repulsive Relatively long

force between like
charged particles
(protons)
3. Nuclear Force Strong attractive Extremely short
force between all
nucleons

ELO 1.3

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 Nuclear Force
42
• In stable atoms, attractive and repulsive forces in nucleus
balance
• If forces do not balance, the atom is unstable
– Nucleus will emit radiation in an attempt to achieve more
stable configuration

ELO 1.3

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 Forces Acting in the Nucleus
43

Knowledge Check
Very weak attractive force between all nucleons
describes which of the forces listed below?
A.Electrostatic
B.Nuclear
C.Gravitational
D.Atomic

Correct answer is C.

ELO 1.3

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44

Interatomic separation

Equilibrium

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 TLO 1 Summary
46

• Atoms consist of three basic subatomic

particles:
– Proton – positive charge, same mass as
a hydrogen atom, and exist in the
nucleus; +1 charge
– Neutron – no electrical charge, about the
same mass as a hydrogen atom, and
exist in the nucleus; no charge
– Electron – negative charge, mass about
eighteen hundred times smaller than the
mass of a hydrogen atom, and exist in
orbital shells around the nucleus; -1
charge TLO 1

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 TLO 1 Summary
47

• Bohr model – dense nucleus of protons and

neutrons surrounded by electrons traveling
in discrete orbits at fixed distances from
nucleus
• Nuclides are atoms that contain a particular
number of protons and neutrons
• Isotopes are nuclides that have the same
atomic number and are therefore the same
element, but differ in the number of
neutrons
• Atomic number – number of protons in the
nucleus.
• Mass number of an atomTLO 1
is the total
number of nucleons (protons and neutrons)
in the nucleus
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48

Primary Interatomic Bonds

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 4.1 – Ionic Bonding

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 Valence electrons are the outer shell electrons of an
atom. The valence electrons are the electrons that
participate in chemical bonding.
Group e- configuration # of valence e-
1A ns1 1
2A ns2 2
3A ns2np1 3
4A ns2np2 4
5A ns2np3 5
6A ns2np4 6
7A ns2np5 7

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 • Why do substances bond?
– More stability
– Atoms want to achieve a lower energy state

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 Ionic Bonding

• Between a metal and a non-metal.

• Metals lose electrons becoming a cations, while non-metals
gain electrons becoming anions.
• An ionic bond is an electrostatic attraction between the
oppositely charged ions.

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 The Ionic Bond
[Ne]
[He]
Li + F Li+ F -
1s22s1 1s22s22p5 1s2 1s22s22p6

Li Li+ + e-
e- + F F -

Li+ + F - Li+ F -

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 Electrostatic (Lattice) Energy
Lattice energy (E) is the energy required to completely separate
one mole of a solid ionic compound into gaseous ions.

Q+ is the charge on the cation

Q +Q-
E=k Q- is the charge on the anion
r
r is the distance between the ions

cmpd lattice energy

MgF2 2957 Q= +2,-1
Lattice energy (E) increases MgO 3938 Q= +2,-2
as Q increases and/or
as r decreases. LiF 1036
r F- < r Cl-
LiCl 853
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 Ionic Structures

• In an ionic compound (solid), the ions are

packed together into a repeating array called
a crystal lattice.
• The simplest arrangement is one in which the
spheres in the base are packed side by side.
Opposite charges are attracted to each other.
• Its called simple cubic packing (NaCl is an
example)

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 4.5 Physical Properties

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 General physical properties

• Depend on the forces between the particles

• The stronger the bonding between the particles, the higher
the M.P and BP
– MP tends to depend on the existence of a regular lattice
structure

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 Impurities and Melting points

• An impurity disrupts the regular lattice that its particle

adopts in the solid state, so it weakens the bonding.
– They always LOWER melting points
– Its often used to check purity of a known molecular
covalent compound because its MP will be off, proving its
contamination

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 4.2 – Covalent Bonding

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 A covalent bond is a chemical bond in which two or more
electrons are shared by two atoms.

Why should two atoms share electrons?

F + F F F
7e- 7e- 8e- 8e-

Lewis structure of F2

single covalent bond lone pairs F F lone pairs

single covalent bond

lone pairs F F lone pairs

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 Lewis structure of water single covalent bonds

H + O + H H O H or H O H
2e- 8e- 2e-

Double bond – two atoms share two pairs of electrons

O C O or O C O
8e- 8e- 8e- double bonds
double bonds
Triple bond – two atoms share three pairs of electrons

N N or N N
8e-8e-
triple bond
triple bond
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65

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 Lengths of Covalent Bonds

Bond Lengths

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Triple bond < Double Bond < Single Bond 9.4
NUTECH 9.4
 Polar covalent bond or polar bond is a covalent
bond with greater electron density around one of the
two atoms (electrons are shared unequally)

electron poor electron rich

region region
e- poor e- rich

F H F
H
d+ d-

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 Electronegativity is the ability of an atom to attract
toward itself the electrons in a chemical bond.

Electronegativity - relative, F is highest

electron poor electron rich

region region
H F

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 The Electronegativities of Common Elements

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 Classification of bonds by difference in electronegativity

Difference Bond Type

0 Nonpolar Covalent
2 Ionic
0 < and <2 Polar Covalent

Increasing difference in electronegativity

Nonpolar Covalent Polar Covalent Ionic

share e- equally partial transfer of e- transfer e-

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 Classify the following bonds as ionic, polar covalent,
or covalent: The bond in CsCl; the bond in H2S; and
the NN bond in H2NNH2.

Cs – 0.7 Cl – 3.0 3.0 – 0.7 = 2.3 Ionic

H – 2.1 S – 2.5 2.5 – 2.1 = 0.4 Polar Covalent

N – 3.0 N – 3.0 3.0 – 3.0 = 0 NonPolar Covalent

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 The enthalpy change required to break a particular bond in
one mole of gaseous molecules is the bond energy.

Bond Energy
H2 (g) H (g) + H (g) DH0 = 436.4 kJ
Cl2 (g) Cl (g) + Cl (g) DH0 = 242.7 kJ
HCl (g) H (g) + Cl (g) DH0 = 431.9 kJ
O2 (g) O (g) + O (g) DH0 = 498.7 kJ O O
N2 (g) N (g) + N (g) DH0 = 941.4 kJ N N

Bond Energies
Single bond < Double bond < Triple bond

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 Polarity and shape

• The shape of the molecule directly influences the overall

polarity of the molecule.
• If there is symmetry the charges cancel each other out,
making the molecule non-polar
• If there is no symmetry, then its polar

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 • Polar bonds do not guarantee a polar
molecule
• Ex: CCl4 and CO2 both have polar
bonds, but both are NON-POLAR
molecules. They have a dipole moment
of zero
• The greater the dipole moment, the
more polar the molecule

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 Why is molecular polarity important?

• Polar molecules have higher melting and boiling points (for

example the BP of HF is 19.5° C, and the BP of F2 is –188°
C).
• Polar solvents dissolve ionic and polar molecules more
efficiently than non-polar solvents

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 Dipole Moments and Polar Molecules

electron rich
electron poor
region
region

H F

d+ d-

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NUTECH 10.2
 Which of the following molecules have a dipole moment?
H2O, CO2, SO2, and CH4

O S

dipole moment dipole moment

polar molecule polar molecule

H C H
O C O

no dipole moment H
nonpolar molecule no dipole moment
nonpolar molecule
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 Summary of Polarity of Molecules

• Linear:
– When two atoms attached to central atom
are the same, the molecule will be Non-
Polar (CO2)
– When the two atoms are different the
dipoles will not cancel, and the molecule
will be Polar (HCN)
• Bent:
– The dipoles created from this molecule will
not cancel creating a net dipole moment
and the molecule will be Polar (H2O)

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 Allotropes of Carbon

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 Allotropes

• Carbon can bond with itself in at least three different ways

giving us 3 different materials
– Diamond
– Graphite
– Buckyballs and nanotubes

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 Diamond

• Carbons are
bonded via sp3
hybridization to 4
other carbon atoms
forming a giant
network covalent
compound.

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 Properties of Diamond

• High melting point due to strong directional

covalent bonds (3550 C)
• Extremely hard because it is difficult to
break atoms apart or move them in relation
to one another
• No electrical conductivity because electrons
are localized in specific bonds
• Insoluble in polar and non-polar solvents
because molecular bonds are stronger than
any intermolecular forces

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 Graphite

• Carbon atoms are

bonded via sp2
hybridization.
• Carbon atoms form
sheets of six sided
rings with p-
orbitals
perpendicular from
plane of ring.

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 Graphite Structure

• Carbon has 4
valence e- to bond
with. 3 are used
for closest atoms in
rings. 1 is
delocalized in p-
orbitals
• The presence of p-
orbitals allows for
strong van der
waals forces that
hold the sheets
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together
 Properties of Graphite

• Different from Diamond

– Conducts electricity because of delocalized electrons
– Slippery can be used as lubricant, sheets can easily slip
past each other (think of a deck of cards)
• Same as Diamond
– High melting point (higher actually because of delocalized
e-, 3653C)
– Insoluble (same reason)

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 Fullerenes

• Buckyballs:
spherical
• Nanotubes: tube
shaped
• Both have very
interesting
properties
– Super strong
– Conduct electricity
and heat with low
resistance
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 Buckyballs

• Carbon atoms bond in

units of 60 atoms (C-
60) forming a
structure similar to a
soccerball with
interlocking six sided
and five sided rings.
• sp2 hybridization
• Extra p-orbitals form
pi bonds resulting in
– Electrical conductivity
– Stronger covalent
bonds, therefore
stronger materials
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 4.4 Metallic bonding

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 Types of Crystals
Metallic Bonds- electron sea model - metal cations in a sea of valence
electrons
• Lattice points in crystal are occupied by metal atoms
• the valence electrons do not “belong” to a single cation, but
are delocalized and may move about
• Good conductors of heat and electricity
Cross Section of a Metallic Crystal
nucleus &
inner shell e-

mobile “sea”
of e-

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 Metallic bond

• Occurs between
atoms with low
electronegativitie
s
• Metal atoms pack
close together in
3-D, like oranges
in a box.
• Close-packed
lattice formation
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 • Many metals have an
unfilled outer orbital
• In an effort to be
energy stable, their
outer electrons
become delocalised
amongst all atoms
• No electron belongs to
one atom
• They move around
throughout the piece
of metal.
• Metallic bonds are not
ions, but nuclei with
moving electrons
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 Physical Properties

Conductivity
• Delocalised electrons
are free to move so
when a potential
difference is applied
they can carry the
current along
• Mobile electrons also
mean they can
transfer heat well
• Their interaction with
light makes them
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 Malleability

• The electrons are

attracted by the nuclei
and are moving around
constantly.
• The layers of the metal
atoms can easily slide
past each other without
the need to break the
bonds in the metal
• Gold is extremely
malleable that 1 gram
can be hammered into a
sheet that is only 230
atoms thick (70 nm)
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 Melting points

• Related to the energy

required to deform
(MP) or break (BP) the
metallic bond
• BP requires the
cations and its
electrons to break
away from the others
so BP are very high.
• The greater the
amount of valence
electrons, the stronger
the metallic bond.
• Gallium can melt in
your hand at 29.8 oC,
but it boils at 2400 oC!
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 4.5 Physical Properties

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 General physical properties

• Depend on the forces between the particles

• The stronger the bonding between the particles, the higher
the M.P and BP
– MP tends to depend on the existence of a regular lattice
structure

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 Impurities and Melting points

• An impurity disrupts the regular lattice that its particle

adopts in the solid state, so it weakens the bonding.
– They always LOWER melting points
– Its often used to check purity of a known molecular
covalent compound because its MP will be off, proving its
contamination

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 How would this ideal heat curve look
different if the substance was
contaminated?

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 Volatility
• A qualitative measure of how readily a
liquid or solid is vaporised upon heating or
evaporation
– It is a measure of the tendency of molecules
and atoms to escape from a liquid or a solid.
– Relationship between vapour pressure and
temperature (B.P)
• Mostly dealing with liquids to gas,
however can occur from solid directly to
gas (dry ice).
• The weaker the intermolecular bonds, the
more volatile

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 Conductivity

• Generally molecules have poor solubility in polar solvents

like water, but if they do dissolve they do not for ions
• There are no charged particles to carry the electrical charge
across the solution.
• Example: sugar dissolves in water

• C12H22O11(s)  C12H22O11(aq)

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 Ionic compounds

• The energy needed to break the ionic bond must be less than
the energy that is released when ions interact with water.
• The intermolecular ion-dipole force is stronger than the
electrostatic ionic bond
• Breaks up the compound into its ions in solution.

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 • Soluble salt in water breaks up as
NaCl (s)  Na+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)
• http://www.mhhe.com/physsci/chemistry/essen
tialchemistry/flash/molvie1.swf

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 Ionic compounds

• Held together by strong 3-d electrostatic forces.

• They are solid at room temperature and pressure
• If one layer moves a fraction, the ions charges are off and
now repulsion occurs. This is the reason they are strong, yet
brittle.

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 • Molten or dissolved ionic compounds conduct electricity
• Insoluble in most solvents, yet H2O is polar and attracts both
the + and – ions from salts

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 Covalent bonding properties

Giant covalent Molecular covalent

• Ex: diamond, silicon
dioxide
• Very hard
• Very high MP (>1000oC)
• Does not conduct
• Insoluble in all solvents
• Ex: CO2, alcohols, I2
• Usually soft, malleable
• Low MP (<200oC)
• Does not conduct
• More soluble in non-
aqueous solvents, unless
they can h-bond

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 Solubility of methanol in water

• http://www.mhhe.com/physsci/chemistry/animations/chan
g_7e_esp/clm2s3_4.swf
• Alcohols generally become less soluble, the longer the carbon
chain due to the decreasing tendency for hydrogen bonding
to occur intermolecularly.

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109

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 States of matter

• Physical state depends on intermolecular forces

• The weaker the attraction, the more likely it’s a gas, while
stronger attractions indicate solid.

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