11 BUILDING PHYSICS Selected Problems of The Sub Structure and Their Solution Od Net

Moderné vzdelávanie pre vedomostnú spoločnosť/
Projekt je spolufinancovaný zo zdrojov EÚ
BUILDING PHYSICS
Selected problems of the sub-structure and their solutions
Stavebná fakulta
prof. Ing. Dušan Katunský, CSc.

doc. Ing. Anna Sedláková, PhD.
Building Physics – Module 1
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v rámci Operačného programu VZDELÁVANIE.
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vedomostnej spoločnosti.
Názov projektu: Balík prvkov pre skvalitnenie a inováciu vzdelávania na

TUKE
ITMS 2611020070
Názov: BUILDING PHYSICS

Selected problems of the sub-structure and their solution
Autori: prof. Ing. Dušan Katunský, CSc., doc. Ing. Anna Sedláková, PhD.
Vydavateľ: Technická univerzita v Košiciach
Rok: 2015
Vydanie: prvé
Počet výtlačkov: 50 ks
Rozsah: 94 strán
ISBN: 978-80-553-2078-6
Rukopis neprešiel/prešiel jazykovou úpravou.

Za odbornú a obsahovú stránku zodpovedá/zodpovedajú autor/autori.
2
Moderné vzdelávanie pre vedomostnú spoločnosť/

Projekt je spolufinancovaný zo zdrojov EÚ
BUILDING PHYSICS
Selected problems of the sub-structure and their solutions
Stavebná fakulta
prof. Ing. Dušan Katunský, CSc.

doc. Ing. anna Sedláková, PhD.
Názov: Building physics - Selected problems of the sub-structure and their solution
Autori: prof. Ing. Dušan Katunský, CSc., doc. Ing. Anna Sedláková, PhD.
Druh publikácie: Skriptá
Vydala: Technická univerzita v Košiciach
Rok: 2015
Vydanie: prvé
Náklad: 50 kusov
Rozsah: 94 strán
Tlač: Univerzitná knižnica TUKE
ISBN: 978-80-553-2078-6
4
Content 5
Module 1 Content, mission, entry conditions for passing the module, bibliography 5
1. Introduction to Building Physics, steady state temperature, calculation of temperature,
evaluation of homogeneous, multilayer structures and structures with air cavities 8
1.1 Basic physical factors 11
1.1.1 Criterions for assesment 11
1.1.2 Physical units 12
1.1.3 Conversion of units – multiples and submultiples 15
1.1.4 Factors affecting the thermal properties of building materials 15
1.2 Development of the Department of Building Thermal Engineering 16
1.3 Basic models of heat transfer 17
1.3.1 Conduction 18
1.3.2 Convection 20
1.3.3 Radiation 21
1.3.4 Transition 24
1.4 Calculation and graphical determination of temperature rates in the construction 27
1.5 Inhomogeneous structures 29
1.6 Air cavities 31
1.6.1 Enclosed air cavities 31
1.6.2. Opened air cavities 32
Self-evaluation questions, Summary 35
2. The concept of building envelope in terms of thermal transient response, moisture
tolerance, thermal effusivity of the floor 36
2.1 Thermal transient response 36
2.1.1 Detailed analysis of thermal transient response 37
2.1.2 Schimdt´s differential method of heat conduction differential equation solution 39
2.1.3 Temperature damping 40
2.1.4 Phase shift of temperature damping amplitude 43
2.2 Moisture tolerance at the envelope level at night 44
2.2.1 Humidity sources 44
2.2.2 Air humidity 45
2.2.3 Vapour diffusion 47
2.2.4 Interstitial condensation 47
2.2.5 Consequences and requirements for the building fabric 53
2. 2.6 Building fabric evaluation of moisture limiting 56
2.3 Floor constructions performance 58
3. Introduction to Building Physics - Selected problems of the sub-structure and their
solutions 59
3.1 Insulation - Technical analysis land and its impact on the basement floor solutions of hall
buildings 60
5
3.1.1 Temperature of soil 60

3.1.2 Thermal swing in untouched soil 61
3.2 Temperatures in underground of industrial building 63
3.3 Description and aims of temperature measurements in underground of the industrial
building 65
3.4 Measured values of temperatures in underground of the industrialbuilding
(see fig.3 – fig.5). 65
4. Options for addressing the problems of thermal subsoil industrial production
buildings 69
4.1 Method of folding stationary heat flows 70
4.2. Method of calculation and modelling of thermal fields in structural detail of contact
of base, external cladding and floor on the background terrain 73
4.3. Structural detail of contact of base, external cladding and floor o thebackground 74
4.3.1 Boundary conditions of calculation 77
4.3.2 Structural detail of contact of base, external cladding and floor on the background
terrain designed by architect of building - Variant V1 83
4.3.3 Confrontation of measurements with the designing of structural detail of contact
of base, external cladding and floor on the background terrain 85
4.4 Modified structural detail of contact of base, external cladding and floor on background
terrain in the industrial building of hall type variant V0 – V 86
4.4.1 Evaluation of the results obtained by modeling design detail of the lower structure
variant V0 - V8 88
Summary 90
Bibliography 90
6
Role
Δ Module 1 mission is to introduce students to the issue of building physics and building
thermal engineering. Building physics consists of several disciplines such as
construction, urban and spatial acoustics, daylighting and insolation of buildings,
aerodynamics, hydrodynamics, water-proofing technology, optics etc. In the first part,
which deals with the issues of building thermal engineering, are solved issues of
thermal protection of buildings. The mission is to pass and gain knowledge that affect
the design, evaluation and assessment of building structures for thermal protection, i.e.
design of building envelope (exterior, roofs, transparent parts - windows, doors; and
the floor above grade) with aim to create a suitable heat-air-moisture microclimate.
Entry conditions for passing the module
δ Knowledge gained from 1st year:

B-501101 Civil engineering,
B-502102 Building materials,
B-502103 Building and environment,
B-502177 Architectural drawing.
Bibliography
1. Hagentoft, C. E. Introduction to Building Physics, Studentlitteratur AB, 2001.
2. HENS, H. Building Physics – Heat, Air and Moisture, 2007.
3. HENS, H. Applied Building Physics, Boundary Conditions, Building Performance
and Material Properties, 2010.
4. Pitts, D., Sissom L. E. Schaum's Outline of Heat Transfer, Mcgraw-Hill Professional,
2011.
5. Incropera, F., Dewitt, D. Introduction to Heat Transfer, John Wiley & Sons, 1996.
6. BLOMBERG, T.: Heat conduction in two and three dimensions computer modeling
of building physics applications, 1996.
7
1. Introduction to Building Physics, steady state temperature, calculation of

temperature, evaluation of homogeneous, multilayer structures and structures with
air cavities
Mission
Δ The purpose of this chapter is to introduce students to the problems of building

physics describing its basic parts, which are the building thermal technology,
daytime running lights and building acoustics. The entire section is devoted to the
construction of heating technology. The mission is to describe the evolution of
structures and the internal environment of the construction of thermal equipment
and basic chapter give way to spread the heat in homogeneous and
inhomogeneous, multilayer packaging structures possible in structures with air
cavities (open and closed).
Objectives
After studying this chapter you should know:
- Describe the basic physical factors to explain the basic physical units of
shares and multiples,
- Basic methods of heat transfer, heat flow density,
- Explain the basic criteria for evaluation of structures in terms of steady-state
temperature (UTS),
- Assess building structures homogeneous, heterogeneous, multi-layer,
- To assess the structure using open and closed air spaces.
Introduction
ζ Buildings are inextricably linked with the natural environment must therefore be
designed to meet the criteria imposed on them. Last but not least is the thermal
protection of buildings. The building is to create a suitable internal environment,
among others Hygrothermal microclimate. This environment is made up of not only
building structures as well as technology environment (hardware installations of
buildings - heat, heating, cooling, ventilation, air conditioning, etc.).
This part of the physics building will be devoted to the description of processes in
nature (heat and moisture flow, the movement of matter (air) - on the basis of
temperature, humidity, pressure and their changes.
The first chapter is devoted only to idealized steady thermal state, i.e. such a state
when the temperature change with time.
8
List of symbols and abbreviations
Key to symbols and abbreviations

A symbol value unit
b Δ θsi The safety margin K

θae The ambient temperature °C
θai indoor air temperature °C
θag soil temperature and soil °C
θe external computing temperature in winter °C

θi internal computing temperature °C
calculation of soil temperature adjacent to the
θg °C
building structures
θm,e average annual ambient temperature °C
amplitude of temperature fluctuations on the soil o
(θ ni)0 C
surface
θp average temperature at the depth of soil °C
θse outer surface temperature °C

θsi inner surface temperature °C
θsi,N the lowest inside surface temperature °C
critical surface temperature on the formation of
θsi,80 °C
mold
 thermal conductivity W/(m.K
λn thermal conductivity of unfrozen soils W/(m.K
λz thermal conductivity of frozen soils W/(m.K
ν propagation speed of thermal waves m/s
νa air velocity m/s
3
ρ density kg/m
3
ρs density of dry soil kg/m
χ point thermal transmittance W/K
Ψ linear thermal transmittance W/(m.K)
linear thermal transmittance of contact walls and
Ψg W/(m.K)
floors
linear thermal transmittance for marginal thermal
Ψg,e W/(m.K)
insulation floor
wm mass of soil moisture %
φ relative humidity %
basic heat loss heat transfer
Qo W
(STN 06 0210)
9
μ diffusion resistance factor 1

2
a coefficient of thermal diffusivity m /s
2
A cooled part of the building structure m
1/2 2
b Thermal effusivity W.s /(m .K)
b width m
1/2 2
bN normalized value of the thermal effusivity (floor) W.s /(m .K)
B´ characteristic dimension of the floor m
c specific heat capacity J/(kg.K)
3
co volume specific heat capacity J/(m .K)
d thick layers of flooring m
width or depth of the insulation at the edge (or
D m
foundation below ground level)
Hg Heat transfer coefficient of the groundfloor W/K
hZ depth of foundation building m
L Thermal conductivity (thermal transmittance) W/K
thermal transmittance (linear thermal
L2D W/(m.K)
conductivity) of two-dimensional calculation
(surface) thermal transmittance (surface) thermal 2
Λ W/(m .K)
conductivity
number of harmonics in the measured curve of
n -
periodic temperature fluctuations
P perimeter floor m
2
R thermal resistance (construction) m .K/W
normalized value of thermal resistance 2
RN m .K/W
(construction)
2
Rse thermal resistance on the outside of construction m .K/W
2
Rsi thermal resistance on the inside of construction m .K/W
2
Rsg thermal resistance on the outside (ground) m .K/W
s (w) thickness of the peripheral (outer) walls m
t time (time) s
t´ period of temperature fluctuations h, deň, rok
2
U Thermal transmittance W/(m .K)
thermal transmittance of the floor without 2
U0 W/(m .K)
boundary insulation (base value)
2
UN normalized value of thermal transmittance W/(m .K)
X depth m
x, y, z spatial coordinates of the points examined m
10
1.1 Basic physical factors
Temperature, light and sound are among the physical factors of the environment in buildings where a long
and active again. Therefore, a temperature has significant impact on working and resting, ultimately the
health of users of building. Nowadays people spend most of their time indoors.
According to WHO (World Health Organization), it is up to 90%. The design and construction of buildings is
to create an environment whose parameters should be for humans:
- More favorable than the state of the natural environment outdoors.
- Construction and building protects us:
 from extremes of temperature,,
 moisture,
 excessive noise.
In contrast, allows:
 access to daylight into the interior,
 and where necessary - sunlight into the interior,
 building solution can also affect desirable listening to audio signals and
productions.
Physical factors are not only for users of the building but the building itself, its construction and the
equipment. In this regard, individual departments of construction physics differ significantly:
 The sound is perceived by hearing of living organisms including humans, while the influence on the
construction in this case is virtually eliminated
 Daylight perceive visually living organisms including humans, in this respect is also considered
daylight. In particular, direct solar radiation can sometimes affect the function and durability of structures
and objects are located in the interior due to temperature and chemical changes induced by the action of
ultraviolet and infrared components of sunlight
 Temperature affects the hygrothermal state of the environment and in our latitudes (climates) is
associated with energy demand for heating (cooling). Therefore, thermal engineering design of the building
significantly affects fuel economy of the building, because the temperature is very closely related to the
transition structures of water vapor (water vapor diffusion), condensation of water vapor, resulting in effects
on engeneering solution, the function of structures and their life.
Knowing the importance of physical factors leading to create the gradually need for legislation to control the
state of environment in buildings. Selected physical quantities are: sanitary regulations, technical
standards as set out criteria for assessing buildings and their external environment and their ability to
ensure the protection status or influence.
1.1.1 Criterions for assessment
As criteria are also concepts that have the following characteristics:
11
 value is closely related to exposure evaluation of physical factors on the construction and building
users. Sound and light are evaluated solely in terms of their effect on humans.
 The criteria therefore reflect the degree of influence of acoustic and visual comfort and
health of people using the building.
 They can’t therefore describe only the actual physical phenomena (sound, light), but not
necessarily respond to the physiological and psychological circumstances of human perception of these
phenomena. Account of the sensitivity of sensory organs (hearing and vision).
 The design of the building is reasonably available and reasonably accurate method of predicting values
of demanding criteria calculation, which takes into account all relevant factors affecting the value of the
criteria.
 To put the building into a permanent use for the current control is suitably challenging and reasonably
accurate method of control values, criteria for measuring the realized buildings.
 Criteria for the limit values to be fair to all participants of construction investment, ie particularly
compatible with the relevant provisions of the Civil Code. Using criteria to effectively contribute to the health
and quality of life for building users and users of premises and their surroundings. In developing the criteria
and the establishment of limit values is necessary to exclude all other interests than the efforts to ensure an
optimal environment in buildings.
 Comply with all requirements imposed on the criteria is not easy.
Each of the criteria are appropriate limits. These can be basically threefold nature:
 the lowest (minimum) required value (napr. č.d.o. D %)
 the highest (maximum) acceptable – (napr. the equivalent sound pressure level LAeq (dB))
 acceptable range (interval value) - a standard reverberation time T (s)
The limit value is a criterion that at any given time in the company and the territory is considered
borderline between satisfactory and unsatisfactory condition. The choice is always a compromise. Basic
criteria imposed on the building structures. According to the Act. no. 50/1976 those are:
- mechanical resistance and stability of the structure,
- fire safety of buildings,
- hygiene and health and the environment,
- security building with its use,
- protection against noise and vibration,
- energy efficiency and heat buildings.
1.1.2 Physical units
Basic physical SI units are meter, kilogram, second, ampere, kelvin, mole, candela and supplementary
units radian, steradian.
Derived units are those which are:
12
A. in the title only basic units

-1
 meter per second (speed) : m.s
-2
 meter per second squared (acceleration) : m.s
3 -1
 cubic meter per mole (MW) : m .mol
B. single name
 coulomb (electric charge ) : C / s.A
-2 -1 4 2
 farad (capacity ) : F / m .kg .s .A
-1
 hertz (frequency ) : Hz / s
2 -2
 joule (energy work) : J / m .kg.s
-2
 lux ( light ) : lx / m .cd.sr
-2
 newton ( force ) : N / m.kg.s
2 -3 -2
 ohm (electrical resistance) : Ω / m .kg.s .A
-1 -2
 pascal (pressure) : Pa / m .kg.s
-2 -1 3 2
 siemens (electrical conductivity) : S / m .kg .s .A
2 -3 -1
 volt (voltage) : V / m .kg.s .A
2 -3
 watt ( power) : W / m .kg.s
C. by unit
outside the SI, but the so-called. legal entity permitted by standard hours., min., h, l, t, and so on.
 time : minute ( min) 1 min = 60 s
hour ( h ) 1 h = 3 600 s
day (d) 1 d = 86 400 s
2
 surface area: hectare (ha) 1 ha = 10 000 m
3 -3 3
 volume : liter ( l) 1 l = 1 dm = 10 m
3
 weight : tonne (t) 1 t = 10 kg
 temperature : Celsius degree (°c) T = t + 273,15 K
T .. thermodynamic temperature
t .. Celsius temperature (θ,υ)
13
water boiling
temperature
room temperature
water freezing
temperature
Fig. 1. View the different scales of temperature - a comparison
The comparison
0° C melting point of ice, or 23°F
100°C boiling point of water, or 212°F
0 °C or 273 K
0 K or – 273 °C
VACUUM
SEA LEVEL AIR PRESSURE
MERCURY
AIR
PRESSURE
MERCURY
Fig. 2 The pressures and their comparison
Combination of units
6
 work : kilowatt-hour (kWh) 1 kWh = 3,6.10 J
14
-1 -1
 speed: kilometer per hour 1 km.hod = 0,27 m.s
-1 3 -3
 density: 1 kilogram per liter 1 kg.l = 10 kg.m
Glossary the text 1.1

Ab Definitions
kelvin – a unit of thermodynamic temperature, is 273.16 - the part of the thermodynamic

temperature of the triple point of water.
candela – the intensity of black body in a direction perpendicular to the surface, whose
2
size is 1 / 600 000 m , at a temperature of freezing platinum under a pressure of 101 328
pascals.
radian - plane angle is sandwiched by two radial ray that Vytina arc of a circle has the
same length as its radius.
steradian – the cone angle, with a peak in the center of the sphere Vytina surface of a
sphere with a surface equal to the square of the radius.
The limit value is a criterion that at any given time in the company and the territory is
considered borderline between satisfactory and unsatisfactory condition. The choice is
always a compromise.
1.1.3 Conversion of units – multiples and submultiples
The tables provides an overview of the multiples and submultiples of units used, the meaning and
calculation of measures of length, volume and rate of conversion to m3, mass expression and conversion
2
of 1 kg, pressure units and conversion of Pa, as well as land units and their conversion to m .
1.1.4 Factors affecting the thermal properties of building materials
Thermal conductivity „“ is an essential feature of thermal matter.
The „“ depend mainly on the structure and building materials. It can still be influenced by:
1. density – that is to say the content of the pores in the mass of the substance
for air   0,028 W/(m.K) in pore size cca 0,1 mm
  0,071 W/(m.K) in pore size cca 2,0 mm
15
2. moisture agents for water   0,58 W/(m.K)
for ice   2,3 W/(m.K)
3. temperature of the substance with increasing temperature increases the value of 

[W/(m.K)]
o
for temperatures ranging from 0 to 100 C approximately true
 = =0 . (1 + 0,0025 . )
4. direction of heat flow in layered substances in the direction perpendicular to the value „“
less than in a direction parallel
5. effect of chemical composition of the substance inorganic substances, in general, lead to

better heat as organic. Inorganic substances acidic in nature (granite, quartz, ...) have higher
values "" as alkaline substances (limestone, sandstone, ...)
Thermal conductivity "" as you can see there is a constant value, is influenced by many factors. Therefore,
it must be defined according to certain rules - according to EN ISO 10456th To ensure the thermal
properties of building structures and thermal protection of buildings in the construction equipping of thermal
insulation. Certified products have the certificate of conformity with the thermal conductivity "" expressed
the declared value, but to characterize the products built in the state of the specific boundary conditions is
necessary to establish the design - the calculated value of the coefficient of thermal conductivity "".
declared value of thermal variables - expected values of thermal properties of building material or product
(product certification)
 estimated from measured data at reference conditions of temperature and humidity
 for the fixed part and a confidence level
 appropriate reasonable expected service life under normal conditions
The certificate of conformity according to the declared value must be alleged in one of two sets of conditions
o o
with reference temperature + 10 C (I) or + 23 C (II) and the moisture content corresponding to the steady-
state moisture sorption (conditioning at least 6 hours before the test) relative humidity of 50%. Declared
o
values are given mostly at+ 23 C v II. grup.
a. design-calculated value of thermal values - values of thermal properties of building material

or product for specific internal and external conditions that are considered typical of the behavior of the
material or product when it is incorporated into the building block (in the design of structures in the
circumstances).
1.2 Development of the Department of Building Thermal Engineering
Building Thermal Engineering Department is dealing with thermal protection of structures and buildings.
Science dealing with the heat-technical issues of building structures. It deals with the general spread of
heat, mass transfer of moisture, the accumulation of heat, moisture conditions and prievzdušnosťou.
16
Objective – to ensure proper heat and humidity inside the climate-comfort.

Roads – appropriate choice of materials and subsequent proposal bulkheads and structural details. These
are affordable and provide thermal-defined parameters to ensure the thermal comfort of indoor environment.
I. stage of development
to 1950 - Heavy, Material - classic brick exterior walls with a weight m > 500 kg/m2
evaluation of steady-state temperature
II. stage of development
since 1950 - External walls - panels of silicate-based direction with a weight between 100 to
500 kg/m2
evaluation of thermal transient state
III. stage of development
since 1960 - Assembled and light prefabrication - exterior walls with a weight m < 100 kg/m2
Evaluation of thermal stability of buildings (winter - cooling, summer - overheating)
IV. stage of development
Since 1980 - The trend of energy saving - thermal insulation of buildings
assessment of savings for heating buildings
V. stage of development
Since 2005 - Low energy buildings
reduction of total energy (heat demand for heating, hot water, lighting, etc.).
Fig. 3 The development of science of the Building Thermal Engineering Department and other
constructions
1.3 Basic models of heat transfer

Necessary condition for heat transfer is that there must be a temperature difference
 = 1 – 2  0
Heat is spread in any environment is always from higher temperature to lower temperature.
a Conduction – conduction
b Convection – convection
c Radiation – radiation
d Transition – transmissions
17
1.3.1 Conduction
Heat is spread mainly in solids, in liquids and gases only under certain conditions. It's the gradual transfer of
kinetic energy oscillations of one molecule (around the equilibrium position) when striking the second
molecule. This energy is gradually transferred from the direction of higher energy state (high temperature) to
lower.
Fig. 4 Dissemination of heat conduction - heat flow change
q – heat flow

q 2
[W/m ]
A
A – area through which heat transfers
at 1  2
d
q  grad
dx
18
Fourier law:
Fig. 5 Temperature gradient - change in heat flux and temperature change
  2
 a. 2
t x
d
q =  .   .grad 2
[ W/m ]
dx
1   2 1   2
Q= . . A.t = . A.t
d R
Thermal resistance
d 2
R= [ m .K/W ]

 - coefficient of thermal conductivity
represents the amount of heat in the "J", which moves in direction "1 sec" through the material (s) thickness
"1 m" from warmer places to colder temperature difference
 = 1 – 2 = 1 K [ W/(m .K)]
a – thermal diffusivity

a 2
[m /s ]
c.
19
Fig. 6 Definition and determination of coefficient of thermal conductivity
1.3.2 Convection
The heat spreads only in fluids, so that the particles of substances move - move while transmitting heat.
Local heating or cooling of air causes the movement of particles
 natural (free) convection. The natural air movement is bounded by the speed of movement.
To increase the velocity used mechanical devices (fans, pumps, ...)
 forced (artificial) airflow.
the vertical position hk = 1,98.4 
the horizontal position of the bottom hk = 2,5.4 

for a forced flow (according to Jurgens) hk = 4,36 + 3,55 . v
FIg. 7 Effect of air velocity on heat transfer coefficient for flow
20
Newton's law: heat transfer
q = hk . (s – a)
2
[ W/m ]
Q = hk . (s – a) . A . t [J]

2
hk – heat transfer coefficient for flow [ W/m .K]
in determining the "hk" is used based on the

similarity theory of similarity numbers
 k .l
Nu   c.Gr. Pr 
n
Nuselt´s number

 .g.l 3 .
Grashof´s number Gr 

heat flux

Prandtl´s number Pr 
a
1

273
Fig. 8 Defining heat transfer
1.3.3 Radiation
Heat radiation is dependent on the thermal state of body and character of its surface.
Radiation heat transfer - the transfer of electromagnetic waves with a length of about 760-3000 nm. Radiant
bodies ability at a given temperature is limited by the maximum value. At the same temperature or the same
substance (bodies) do not have the ability radiant.
Ideal - the absolute (black) body  maximum radiant ability

-8 2 4
Coefficient of black body radiation Cč = 5,67 . 10 [W/(m .K ) ]
The total radiant energy and its decomposition Φ = Φ + Φ + Φ
    
   ++=1
  
 - absorption of radiation
 - ray reflectivity
 - throughput radiation
21
Fig. 9. The total radiant energy and its decomposition
The density of radiant energy flow - describes the radiation of absolutely black bodies
 qč = Cč .T
4 2
Stefan - Boltzmann law [W/m ]
In fact, they occur in nature only "gray" - real bodies that are unable to absorb all radiant energy incident
wave.
The ratio between the radiant flux density gray body "qs" radiant flux intensity and black body "qč" is the
emissivity, it is defined as a dimensionless number:
qs
emissivity =
qč
Kirchhof law  for real – gray bodies

qs =  . qč = . Cč .T = C .T
4 4 2
[W/m ]
Coefficient of gray body radiation
C = . Cč = . Cč  0  5,67 . 10
-8 2 4
[W/(m .K ) ]
Mutual radiation from objects.
Every body that has power  its surface radiates this energy into the environment. On the surface of
another body there is a decomposition of the re-radiating energy and the mutual influence of the radiation
energy of the body. The mutual radiation consists of multiple repetition of absorbing and passing on the
surfaces of bodies involved. It is expressed  coefficient of mutual radiation „Cvs“
22
Fig. 10 Heat transfer by radiation to A / Parallel walls, B / put arbitrary surfaces - surface surrounded by a
surface A1 A2 Φ1-2 = Cvs . A1 . (T14 - T24 ) .  1,2
parallel to the wall

1 1
Cvs = = = Cč . E
1 1 1 1 1
   1
C1 C 2 C č 1  2
surfaces for arbitrarily asked about true relationship Nusseltov

C1 .C 2
Cvs =
Cč
The surface „A1“ surrounded by flat „A2“ obr. B/
1
Cvs =
1 A1  1 1 
 .  
C1 A2  C2 Cč 
if A1 / A2 very small
 Cvs = C1
in practice is often used
 heat transfer coefficient for radiation „hr“
Process to determine the value of „hr“
23
Φ1,2 = hr . A1 . (T1 – T2 ) = Cvs . A1 . (T1 - T2 ) .  1,2

4 4
where the mean temperature „Tm“

Tm = 0,5 . (T1 – T2 )  hr = Cvs . Tm .  1,2
3
Glossary of Text 1.3

Ab Definitions
 - coefficient of thermal conductivity
represents the amount of heat in the „J“, which moves in direction „1 sek“ hrough the
material (s) thickness „1 m“ from warmer places to colder temperature difference
 = 1 – 2 = 1 K [ W/(m .K)]
Density (specific) heat capacity„c“ - shows how much heat in the „J“ s to be added
to the unit amount of substance in „kg“ („m3“), was heated to about o 1 K.
Q = c . m. (2 – 1 ) [J]
Q
c=
m.t
3
physical dimension [J/(kg.K)] alebo [J/(m .K)]
as the highest value of “c” is water c = 4186,8 J/(kg.K)

for air c = 1010 J/(kg.K)
for concrete c = 1020 J/(kg.K)
1.3.4 Transition
If the temperature at various points of the body - structure constant over time, then such a state is said
 Steady state temperature   = f (x)
If both sides of the circuit design ambient temperature (air) varies
 = 1 - 2  0  tructure passes through the heat flow direction from higher to lower temperatures. The
density of heat flux "q" passing through the structure is directly proportional to the temperature difference
between air „a“ and further depends on the thermal properties of partition structures
- This process is called  heat transfer design
24
i = const.
e = const.
i > e
q   i - e
q = U . (i - e)
q = qi = qv = qe
THE LAW OF CONSERVATION OF

ENERGY
Ro = Rsi + Rj + Rse

2
[m .K/W]
Fig.11 Heat transfer design
Temperature gradient indicates that the temperature drop is from a higher temperature „i“ already on the
internal surface „si“, inside structure „x“, on the outer surface „se“ to the outside temperature „e“. This
resistance of structure to the transfer of heat flow is called Thermal resistance  Thermal resistance of
structures in terms of transition of heat – which is made of:
1. heat transfer by convection of surface film of structures
2. heat transfer by conduction inside the structures
Outer surface Inner surface
Fig. 12 Convection heat transfer in internal and external surface structures
25
Thermal resistance thermal resistance

on the outer surface on the inner surface
1 1 1 1
Rse =  2
[m .K/W] Rsi =  2
[m .K/W]
q e he qi hi
Fig.13 The heat transfer within the construction management - conduction
heat flow direction

 si   se  
qv = . = =
2
[W/m ]
d d R

surface thermal conductivity
1 
v = L = =
2
[W/m K]
R d
thermal resistance of structures
k dj k
 R
d 2
R= = = [m .K/W]

j
j 1 j j 1
How much heat passed through the crossing structure, given the characteristics of the interior to the
exterior?
Applicable law of conservation of energy  q = qsi = qv = qse
1
qi = hi . (i –si )  . qsi = Rsi . qi = (i –si )
hi
26
 si   se  si   se d
qv = =  . qv = R . qv = (si – se )
d R 

1
qe = he . (se – e )  . qse = Rse . qe = (se – e )
he
Fig. 14 Heat Transfer design - passage - management - transfer
heat flow rate we add together
1 d 1
q.( + + ) = q . ( Rsi + Rj + Rse )
hi  he
 q . Ro = (i – e )= q/U
i  e
q= = U . (i – e)
Ro
1 q

2
U= = [ W/(m .K) ]
Ro  i   e
thermal transmittance of the structure – „U“
It expresses the amount of heat in the „J“, which passes per time unit in the “s“ from a warmer environment
over a given area in „m “ to a cooler environment in terms of temperature difference  = 1 K. - [ W / m .K ].
2 2
1.4 Calculation and graphical determination of temperature rates in the

construction
The equality of heat flow densities in the construction we give computation of temperatures at steady state
temperature.
27
Determination of temperature in the course of construction

q = qsi = qv = qse
 si   se
q = U . (i – e) = hi . (i –si ) = = he . (se –e )
d

U . (i – e) = hi . (i –si )  hi . si = hi . i - U . (i –si )
si = i - U . (i –si ) / hi = i - U . (i –si ) . Rsi
 si   x  si   x
q = U . (i – e) = =
dx Rx

x = si - U . (i – e) . Rx
together to determine the temperature at any point of construction „x“ from the source computing in
temperature between the interior and exterior „i – e“
x = i - U . (i – e) . (Rsi + Rx )
Fig. 15 Graphical determination of temperatures during the construction
28
Glossary of text 1.4

Ab Definitions
thermal transmittance of the structure – „U“
It expresses the amount of heat in the „J“, which passes per unit time in
2
the “s“ from a warm environment over a given area in a design unit „m “ to a cooler
environment for a temperature difference  = 1 K. - [ W / m .K ]
2
1.5 Inhomogeneous structures

2
Thermal resistance in m .K/W inhomogeneous structures is determined from the solution of two-
dimensional temperature field. Thermal resistance is possible to determine the approximate procedure for
transforming one-dimensional solution to the following procedure:
Proper selection of the structure is divided into sections parallel to the direction of heat flow (single-layer,
multi-layer), assuming that the sections do not affect each other. Representation of individual sections is
expressed by the areal proportion of the total area of selection fa + fb + fc = 1
Further characteristic design selection is divided into layers perpendicular to the direction of heat flow
(homogeneous, heterogeneous)
layers
sections
Fig. 16 Schematic design of homogenous
Calculation of thermal resistance determination continues
 Upper limit of resistance to heat transfer „R/T“
The upper limit of resistance to heat transfer is determined by assuming one-dimensional heat flow
perpendicular to the surface sections of the building structure
29
1 fa fb fc
/ = + +
RT RTa RTb RTc
where d5 = d6 = d2 + d3
resistances to heat transfer in various sections in the direction of heat
d1 d d4
RTa = Rsi + R1a + R6a + R4a+ Rse = Rsi + + 6 + + Rse
1a 6 a 4 a
d1 d2 d3 d4
RTb = Rsi + R1b + R2b + R3b + R4b+ Rse = Rsi + + + + + Rse
1b 2b 3b 4b
d1 d5 d4
RTc = Rsi + R1c + R5c + R4c+ Rse = Rsi + + + + Rse
1c 5c  4 c
 Lower threshold of resistance to heat transfer „R T“

//
The lower limit of resistance to heat transfer is determined by assuming that all parallel planes (layers) of
the building structure surfaces are isothermal
In the diagram is 1. a 4. layer is homogeneous throughout the section with layers behind
2. a 3. is non-homogeneous layer with adjacent layers
thermal resistance of homogeneous layers
d1 d4 2
R1 = R4 = [m .K/W]
1 4
thermal resistance of non-homogeneous layers
it is advisable to first determine for each inhomogeneous layer in the whole area of the equivalent thermal
//
conductivity „ “
d2
//2 = 6a . fa + 2b . fb + 5c . fc R2 =
//2
d3
//3 = 6a . fa + 3b . fb + 5c . fc R3 =
3//
//
R T = Rsi + R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 + Rse
2
Resistance to heat transfer „RT“ v m .K/W building structure of thermally homogeneous and inhomogeneous
layers parallel to the surface is determined as the arithmetic average of the calculated upper and lower
threshold of resistance to heat transfer
Resistance to heat transfer The thermal transmittance
RT/  RT// 1
RT = [m2.K/W] 30 U= [W/ (m2.K)]
2 RT
This approximate procedure for determining the structure of resistance to heat transfer is
appropriate if the criteria are respected for the accuracy of the calculated heat transfer design. The
relative error „e“ of this process is determined by calculating.
RT/  RT//
e= .100  20 %
2 . RT
1.6 Air cavities
The air has very little value „“  good and cheap thermal insulation material
Air as a liquid substance with specific properties, allowing all modes of heat transfer under certain boundary
conditions
1.6.1 Enclosed air cavities
Here they combine all three modes of heat transfer ie conduction, convection (transfer) and radiation.
q= qv + qk + qr
height of air layer (cavity)
Fig. 17 Heat transfer in a closed air cavity
31
where
heat flow of heat conduction

qv = .(1 – 2 )
d vv
heat transfer in flow
qk = hk . (1 – 2 ) = 0,5 . hk . vv
vv - mean air temperature in the cavity
vv = 0,5 . (1 – 2 )
heat transfer „hk“ depends on the width of the air cavity „d“. In narrow cavities may occur that hk = 0. When
increasing the width of the cavity increases air flow and increases the „hk“. For more accurate expression
„hk“ methodology is used similarity numbers
n
Nu = C . (Gr . Pr)
heat flow by radiation
qs = hs . (1 – 2 )
add up all the ingredients of heat transfer in an air cavity
 vv hk    0,5.d vv .hk  hs .d vv

qvv =    hs .1   2  = vv .1   2 
 vv
d 2  d vv
equivalent value of the coefficient of thermal conductivity of air cavity „ekv“
ekv = vv + 0,5 . dvv .hk .+ dvv .hs
d vv

2
thermal resistance of air cavity Rvv = [m .K/W]
ekv
1.6.2 Opened air cavities
Open air cavity can be considered as
 horizintal
 vertical
Vertical open air layer
32
Fig. 18 Heat transfer in the open air cavity
The vertical air layer - thermal balance in these cavities
Air movement and subsequent heat exchange

between the surface and the air flow causes a pressure difference due to air
- Different density
caused by temperature
pt =h . (2 -.1) . g
- wind pressure (air velocity)
pv =A . 0,5 . v2 . m
- total pressure difference
p = pv + p
air density m = 353,15 / (273,15 + ae )
The horizontal air layer

Heat balance of air flow in a horizontal layer of air
Q3 = Q1 – Q2
33
lenght of air cavity
Fig. 19 Heat transfer in a horizontal open-air cavity
Of temperature in a horizontal open air roof cladding layer is determined mainly at determining the possible
condensation.
 U Ue 
A0   o .U i  U e   A0 . exp   i .x 
x =
 Gm .c 
Ui Ue
where A0 = Ui . i . + Ue . e
Note: For general purposes of calculating the thermal resistance of double-roof with a sufficient margin to
considering only the thermal resistance of the lower mantle roof structure. Orientation for current
2
computational methods are thermal resistance of air layer with Rev = 0,08 m .K/W.
At present, according to the applicable EN air layer defined as follows:
a. Stuffy air layer
If the air layer is sealed against the surroundings, or with small holes with the arrangement so that there is
no airflow in the air layer and cross-sectional area „Aot“. They are used tabulated values of „Rg“.
2
– Aot < 500 mm for each “bm” dĺžky he length of the vertical air layer, or
2 2
– Aot < 500 mm for each “m ” horizontal air layer
b. Poorly ventilated air layer
If the air exchange with the outside environment through openings made with cross-sectional „Aot“
2 2
– 500 mm < Aot < 1500 mm for each “bm” the length of the vertical air layer, or
2 2 2
– 500 mm < Aot < 1500 mm for each “m ” horizontal air layer
c. Heavily ventilated air layer
34
If the air exchange with the outside environment through openings made with cross-sectional area „Aot“
2
– 1500 mm < Aot for each “bm” the length of the vertical air layer, or
2 2
– 1500 mm < Aot for each “m ” horizontal air layer
In that event, the note referred to the balance of horizontal layers of air.
Self-evaluation questions
? 1. Describe the basic physical factors that create the internal environment of
buildings. What are the limits to the assessment of building structures and indoor
environment in terms of construction of heating technology.
2. What are the basic methods of heat transfer. How do you calculate the density
of heat flow in various ways to spread the heat.
3. Describe the basic criteria for the assessment of structures in terms of steady-
state temperature and define them.
4. How would you rate homogeneous and inhomogeneous multilayer structures

at UTS
5. What is the difference in the assessment of structures containing closed and

open air spaces?
Summary
Σ Buildings are inextricably linked with the natural environment must therefore be
designed to create suitable building has indoor environment including thermal-
moisture microclimate. The Chapter is devoted to the assessment, calculation of
criteria that are placed on buildings in terms of thermal insulation of buildings.
The first is to explain the basic physical units, their multiples, calculation,
comparison. The entire chapter is devoted to thermal steady state, ie such a
case, when the temperature in indoor environments or in exterior change. Task is
to assess the packaging structures, ie claddings, roofs and according to the
homogeneous one mA multi-layer, also using air cavities, but also the evaluation
of structures that are heterogeneous and can be assessed when considering
jednorzmerného heat distribution in a fragment of such structures.
35
2. The concept of building envelope in terms of thermal transient response,

moisture tolerance, thermal effusivity of the floor
Role
Δ The purpose of this chapter is to familiarize students with the concept and design of
Building Structures in terms of transient thermal state, i.e. state when the temperature
varies with time. Since expression of this state is quite difficult and mathematically
impossible, evaluate design in terms of so-called quasi - stationary temperature state,
i.e., temperature varies only in the external environment. Within the calculation and
evaluation remains virtually constant. This is a review of packaging structures that are
exposed to the external environment, i.e. perimeter, roof deck and the ground floor. In
terms of transient conditions are also evaluated packing structures when exposed to
moisture conditions and evaluates the annual balance of condensed and evaporated
moisture to water vapor diffusion.
Objectives
- Evaluate building design in terms of transient thermal state
- Humidity regime, i.e., condensed and evaporated moisture by diffusion of water vapor in
the annual session
- Rate floor design in terms of trapping heat in the building
- Rate floor design in terms of thermal techniques for field
Introduction
ζ In this chapter we will address the design and creation of construction building envelope
structures. Gradually, we will explain what it is unstable temperature condition, what are
the evaluation criteria, such as packaging design are evaluated in terms of heat storage,
heat absorption, the floor in terms of trapping heat, resulting in the evaluation of the
thermal inertia of building structures and their impact on internal environment of buildings.
2.1 Thermal transient response
In real environment, the ambient temperature varies depending on time  = f {x,y,z,t}
We talk about  Thermal transient response.
Practically it can demonstrate to the specific example of heating the body over time. The body moved to a
warmer environment will gradually begin to heat.
36
Temperature - Ɵ
s - surface temperature
m - core temperature – inside the body
Time - t
Fig.1 The gradual heating body
2.1.1 Detailed analysis of thermal transient response
For homogeneous and isotropic radiators heat transfer at the time describes the Fourier partial differential
equation of heat conduction
   2  2  2 
 a .  2  2  2 
t  x y z 
 2
with a= – thermal diffusivity [m /s]
 .c
For detailed analysis of thermal transient response need to find the dependence of temperature and heat
transfer in the amount of time at any place "x" housing - structures.
Assume that the heat spreads only in one direction (in flat structures perpendicular to the surface). This is
possible if we assume a sufficiently large area of the structure compared to its thickness. This is the most
common case in practice. In Figure 2 /:
in section plane 1: temperature gradient “1”
d
1 = 
dx
in time “dt” conduction heat flow rate
d
dQ1 =  . . A. dt [J]
dx
in section plane 2: temperature gradient “2”
37
 d 
d   . dx 
2 = 
 dx 
dx
in time “dt” conduction heat flow rate
 d 
d   . dx 
dQ2 =   .
 dx  . A. dt [J]
dx
In section 1.
Fig.2 Temperature gradients in sections: 1 a 2
The heat flow passing through the first planes and 2 are not the same. Therefore in the layer of "dx" remains
a certain proportion of heat coming from the difference of heat flows.
  d 
 d d   . dx  
dQ = dQ1 - dQ2 =  . (1 - 2 ) A. dt = -     dx   . A . dt
 dx dx 
 
 
 d d d 2  d 2
dQ = -  .    2
dx  .A . dt =  . 2
. A . dx . dt
 dx dx dx  dx
A.dx represents the product of a particular substance – density of material "" and specific heat capacity "c"
in which the accumulated heat "dQ" difference of heat flows between the first planes and 2 As a result, the
time interval "dt" changed the temperature of the layer "x“.
38
d d 2 d  d 2
dQ = A . dx .  . c . . dt =  . . A . dx . dt  = .
dt dx 2 dt  .c dx 2
   2  2 Fourier differential equation

= . = a.
for t  . c x 2  x2 one-dimensional heat

a – thermal effusivity  a =
2
with [m /s]
 .c
2.1.2 Schmidt´s differential method of heat conduction differential equation

solution
The practical tasks of modeling unsteady thermal state, using computer technology is used  Differential
method.
The simplest case is the solution of heat conduction in one-dimensional array with differential changes
 2
a. 2
t x
+ From right side
- From left side
Fig.3 Temperature gradients in sections: 1 a 2
The left side of the differential equation – time change in temperature is first according to the time derivative
expressed in a differential form – according to the scheme
39
  x,t 1   x,t
=
t t
The right side – a local change in temperature has two first derivatives (in the middle layer "x")
    x,t   x1,t     x1,t   x,t

left    = right    =
 x   x  x   x
second derivative in a differential form
2 1         x 1,t  2 .  x ,t   x 1,t

 .      =
x 2
x  x    x    x 2
substitute into the differential equation
 x,t 1   x,t  x 1,t  2 .  x ,t   x 1,t

= a.
t x 2
adjustment equation for the unknown temperature at the "x" for “ x,t+1” the elementary time increment “t”
2 . a . t    x1,t 
 x,t+1 - x,t = .  x1,t   x ,t 
x 2  2 
 constant /
2 . a . t
 =  .
/
x 2
2 . a . t
 if =1
x 2
Once we receive final treatment relationship, which expresses the calculation or determination of
temperature at x but at the time t-1
 x1,t   x1,t
 x,t+1 =
2
2.1.3 Temperature damping
40
Dissemination of periodic temperature fluctuations
The outer temperature of the real environment is constantly changing, but every day we have a maximum
and a minimum  harmonic periodic action
External time variation of temperature causes the temperature fluctuations on the inner surface of the outer
partition structures  harmonic temperature changes in one-day period
How does the (fluctuating) temperature on the inner surface in relation to external temperature change
depends on the thermal storage properties of built-in materials
Bordering curves
Fig.4 Definition temperature damping
Temperature damping ““
 - indicates how many times the temperature amplitude at the inner surface of the structure “Ais“ lower than
the amplitude of ambient temperature (outside air) “Ae“.
Temperature damping ““
building construction is characterized in terms of thermal stability in the transient state. Thermal stability 
ability to maintain its temperature structural state at a time, then some time to external temperature changes
occurring in the inner surface of the decrease (increase) the surface temperature.
This design features is  thermal inertia
Temperature damping calculation is determined by complex numbers
For single layer building fabric
41
 
h s  s   h  s  2.
   i   . sinh  . d   1  i  cosh  . d  with sj  . j . cj .  j .i
 s he     he    t0
 
calculation result is a complex shape  =a+b.i
the complex shape of the absolute value of the temperature depression "" is translated into real form using
the module   = mod  = a2  b2
approximate calculation of the thermal decay of multilayer structure according to Šklover
 D  si  hi s 2  U 1 s  U n1 he  U n
  0,7 . exp  . . ..... n .
 2  s1  U 1 s 2  U 2 sn  U n he
with D – thermal inertia
per layer Dj = Rj . sj
per layers:
D = Dj = R1 . sj +R2 . s2 + R3 . s3 +. . . .
2.

2
heat absorption of layer sj = . b j = 0,00853 . bj [W/(m .K)]
to
- one day period to = 24 hod = 86 400 s
- thermal effusivity of layer bj = j . cj . j

2
heat absorption of outside surface of j layer „Uj“ of structure, [W/(m .K)]
R j . s 2j  U j 1
Uj = s j for Dj = Rj . sj  1 Uj = for Dj = Rj . sj  1
1  R j . U j 1
U j 1
Per closed air cavity Uj =
1  Rvv . U j 1
Lightweight envelope parts, windows and other fabrics have a negligible heat absorption (thermal inertia)
1
 temperature damping  = Ro /Rsi =
U . Rsi
42
A B
Fig.5 Example of determination of temperature damping
Example of determination of temperature damping, if thermal insulation is:
A/ from inner side of building envelope,
B/ from outer side of building envelope.
The example clearly demonstrates a higher value of temperature depression and hence greater storage
capability envelope, which has thermal insulation located on the outer surface of the structure.
2.1.4 Phase shift of temperature damping amplitude
The structures that have the ability to store heat (thermal inertia) at the time the outside temperature change
in slow responding to these changes and their speech is time-shifted with respect to change of temperature
on the inner surface of the structure.
 Phase shift of temperature damping amplitude „“
Calculation of phase shift of temperature damping amplitude „“ may consider the following
of complex shape   = a + b.i
““ gives
b
 = arctg  k . [rad]
a
43
Some approximate value of the phase shift of temperature damping amplitude
 = tAsi - tAe = 2,7 . D [hours]
For structures with negligible heat absorption (thermal inertia) - foil materials, sheet glass, etc.
=0
Temperature - Ɵ (K)
Time - t (hours)
Fig.6 Scheme of phase shift of temperature damping amplitude
2.2 Moisture tolerance at the envelope level at night
Building materials, with few exceptions, always contains moisture. Moisture may be present in all the states
of water. Humidity greatly affects the thermal properties of building materials, especially thermal conductivity
"" and specific heat capacity "c". Distribution of moisture in building structures is usually uneven and
depends mainly on water vapor pressure, temperature, structure of a substance or composition structures.
2.2.1 Humidity sources
In seeking the causes of moisture is necessary to find out how the moisture got into the design and how
long it works. Moisture can manifest in several forms. Therefore, the source of moisture can be divided into
groups:
1. Built-in moisture  so. technological moisture, which in structure gets wet process (bricking,
concreting, plastering, etc.).
Possibility of removing  prefabrication, lean assembly
44
2. Rising damp  enters the structure from the ground by capillary action through the
capillary structure of substances.
Possibility of removing  waterproofing below grade and above grade

3. Meteorological moisture  penetrates into the structure by direct contact with the surface structures in
meteorological precipitation (rain, snow).
Possibility of removing  low-absorptive, hydrophobic finishing

4. Sorption moisture  moisture in the air is getting into structures by sorption. Each substance
somewhat hygroscopic.
Possibility of removing  appropriate finishing

5. Condensation  mostly the only source of moisture – inappropriate hygrothermal designs.
Possibility of removing  suitable design to the correct selection of materials, which is incorporated
into the construction
6. Operating humidity  penetrates into the construction of plants producing high-moisture
(washing, cooking, swimming, etc.)
Possibility of removing  suitable water- and vapour barrier finishing
2.2.2 Air humidity
Atmospheric air is always a mixture of dry air and water vapour. The total pressure and air mixture is the
sum according to Dalton law of partial - the partial pressures of the components (O 2, N2, CO2, H2O vapour,
etc.), from our perspective is needed analysis for assessing the mixture of dry air and water vapour
pb = pa + pd [Pa]
amount of absolute humidity "v“ in the air (water vapour) in unit volume "V"
3
v=m/V [kg/m ]
or with a relative humidity “a“ or partial - partial pressure (actual) vapor "pd", or partial pressure of saturated
water vapor “psat“
-5 p sat . a -3
pd 3
v = 2,16642 . 10 . = 2,16642 . 10 . [ kg/m ]
273   a 273   a
air can saturate only after a certain threshold that depends on temperature. After crossing the border there
is the condensation of vapour. This follows from the equation of gas:
p . V = (pa + pd ) . V = k . T [Pa]
maximum amount of vapour that air can take at a given temperature

is called  the partial vapour saturation pressure, „psat“ in Pa
45
temperature at which the vapour saturated air

 the dew point temperature „dp“ [ C ]
o
is called
if the temperature of the assessment "" will   dp  condensation occurs
relative humidity "a” [%] expresses at a given temperature level of saturation by vapour
pd
a = .100 [%]
p sat
partial vapour saturation pressure “psat“ in Pa can be given by:
 23,589991 .  1513,86688 
psat = exp   for   0 [Pa]
 236  
 28,9205 .  1751,21042 
psat = exp   for   0 [Pa]
 273  
and relative humidity outdoors “e“ approximately by:
93. ae  3153,5
e = for – 21 C    + 25 C
o o
 ae  39,17
dew point temperature “dp“ is calculated:
 .p 
1513,86688  236. ln  a sat 
 100 
dp = for   0 o
[ C]
 .p 
ln  a sat   23,589991
 100 
 .p 
1751,21042  273. ln  a sat 
dp =  100  for   0 o
[ C]
 .p 
ln  a sat   28,9205
 100 
46
2.2.3 Vapour diffusion
The different air temperatures in the environment and the same relative humidity "”  are partial vapour
pressure "pd" different (gas equation of state), even though the moisture content in a given space is
constant. Therefore, there is a displacement of molecules of vapour from sites with higher pressure to
places of lower pressure  vapour diffusion.
If the indoor air temperature will change  also the “pd” will change
therefore pd = f {  }
 diffusion of vapour carried by the same physical laws as heat flow rate and diffusion flow rate “qd”
p d
qd =  . 2
[ kg / (m .s) ]
dx
 - diffusion coefficient of vapour [s]
represents the amount of vapour in "kg", which passes by diffusion in the thickness of the fabric of the unit
"m" per unit of time in "s" in per unit difference of partial vapour pressure in 'Pa'
 = [(kg.m/(m2.s.Pa)]  [kg/(m.s.N/m2)]  [ kg/(m.s.kg.m/(s2.m2)) ]
  [s]
 - vapour resistance factor [-]
expresses the relative ability of a material vapour transmittance. Indicate how many times the diffusion
resistance of the substance (layer structure) is larger than equal layer of air at the same temperature.
 for air  = 1
 = 1 / (N. ) N = 5,31215 . 10
9
[1/s] pre str = 10 C
o
transfer   .  = 0,18824 . 10-9
sd – equivalent diffusion thickness [m]
the air layer thickness, which is the same as the diffusion resistance of the material (foil, cardboard)
sd = . d
2.2.4 Interstitial condensation
Transient of water vapour
Diffusion of water vapour carried from the higher partial pressure to a lower value through a structure that
separates areas with different partial pressures. The partial vapour pressure "pd" is dependent on
temperature "a” and the water vapour air saturation - "a”, and therefore the direction of "qd" is the same
way with "q" as opposed to air filtration.
47
Fig.7 Scheme for determination of diffusion fluxes in the construction
Partial vapour pressure
p di  p de
pdx = pdi - . Rdx [Pa]
Rd
Diffusion resistance
d k dj
Rd =  =  dj . j . N [m/s]
 j 1 j
Surface condensation
The surface condensation in residential rooms is not allowed.
 basic hygienic demand
occur of condensation is determined  s  dp

a. sweep condensation the entire surface of structure
s  dp
b. local – spotted condensation
only in some places (corners, thermal bridges, heterogeneity, etc.).
s,krit  dp  s
c. fluctuating condensation - e.g. fluctuating outside air temperature „e“
48
s,min  dp  s
d. the evaluation of building structures on the surface condensation is not possible to

determine the upper limit ai,max, even when there will be no condensation of water vapor in the
space defined humidity.
p sat,si   si 
ai,max  .100
p sat,ai   ai 
Interstitial condensation
It is determined from the mathematical - a graphical procedure, when compared with each other for places
in all courses of construction “pdx” and “psat,x”
Mathematics – graphical approach:

1. Calculation of temperatures inside of building fabric „x“
2. From temperatures “x” calculate “psat,x”
3. By relative humidity “ai”, “ae” calculate “pdi” a “pde”
4. Create graphical courses of partial vapour pressures in scale, axis giving
“x“ – values of diffusion resistances “Rdj“
“y“ – values of partial vapour pressures “pd“

5. If pdx > psat,x courses are intersected  occur of condensation
6. Determine the worst case condensation tangents that define
 condensation zone
9 9
Rdsi = 0,1 . 10 m/s Rdse = 0,05 . 10 m/s
Since the resistance values for the transfer of water vapor on the inside "Rdsi" and the outside "Rdse" both of
the frame are very small in relation to the diffusion resistance layer structure, the calculations we neglect
them.
 pdi = pdsi pde = pdse [Pa]
 Rdo = Rd [m/s]
49
condensation
zone
tangents
Fig.8 Graphic determination of condensation zone
CONDENSATION ZONE DETERMINATION PROCESS
partial pressures of
water vapor pd,x
A.
First we need to calculate the characteristic temperatures in places construction according to
x = i - U . (i – e) . (Rsi + Rx )
50
partial pressures of
water vapor psat,x
[Pa]
B.
SELF COMPARISON OF PARTIAL VAPOUR PRESSURES COURSES
pdx a psat,x
Transfer without condensation

(lines do not intersect)
C.
51
Theoretical limit of saturation at

median „m” – condensation point
(lines intersect at one point)
D.
CONDENSATION SCOPING
teoretical range
of condensation
E.
52
Determination of
condensation zone
condensation zone
F.
Fig.9 Graphic determination of condensation zone, steps A – F – process
2.2.5 Consequences and requirements for the building fabric
Moisture in the structures deteriorates their thermal properties. It is therefore necessary to design
building structures where possible, to avoid condensation. Depending on the type of internal
operations humidity in indoor environments can be divided into operations
dry ai  50 % moist ai  60 – 80 %
normal ai  60 % wet ai  80 %
From an economic point of view is not always possible to design structures without condensation.
If the condensed moisture in the structure does not interfere with the character design in terms of
static safety, durability or service life and so on. is possible within the construction permit a certain
amount of condensation. In no case is it possible surface condensation (with selected exceptions).
If construction occurs in the condensation must be satisfied.
Annual moisture balance
Calculation distinguishes: with solar radiation
without solar radiation
53
for a = i - e
annual period (365 days)
Fig.10 Determination of the diffusion flow rate at the beginning and the end of condensation zone
p di  p dA
gdA =
RdA
p dB  p de
gdB =
RdB
annual balance according to the number of days with the duration of the occurrence of
characteristic temperatures in cloudy or clear sky "t" [s]
gd = gdA - gdB 2

[kg/(m .year)]
(+) condensate (-) vapour
gk =  gdk . t
gv =  gdv . t
if absolute value „gv“ is
gk  gv positive gk  gv negative
In terms of frequency of occurrence of temperatures to determine the duration of the annual moisture
balance of the territory of Slovakia is divided according to the calculation of outside temperature “e” for two
zones table 3. [STN730540/3]
e  - 15 oC e  - 15 oC
54
distinguish between the frequency of the outside air temperature, for:
 overcast sky conditions „tz“ [s]
 clear sky conditions „tj“ [s]
althought is  t = tj + tz  year-round abundance
The computational procedure for determining annual balance
a. without the solar radiation
Annual moisture balance without affecting the solar radiation is determined from the total duration of
temperatures in the abundance of selected "j" - intervals of ambient temperatures "e". Usually determines
the difference e = 5 K in the range defined in Table 3. (from – 20 °C to 25 °C).
 gj = (gdAj - gdBj ) . tj
for “j” - intervals 

o o o o o o
from –20 C to –15 C, from -15 C to -10 C, from –10 C to –5 C,
o o o o o o
from -5 C to 0 C, from 0 C to +5 C, from +5 C to +10 C,
o o o o o o
from +10 C to +15 C, from +15 C to +20 C, from +20 C to +25 C,
condensation
evaporation
Fig.11 The moisture balance courses g inside structure for different temperature intervals.
b. with solar radiation
The annual moisture balance of solar radiation, the calculation carried out in parts, taking only the frequency
of the outside air temperatures
 overcast sky conditions
 clear sky conditions
The part of calculation for overcast sky conditions is carried out without solar radiation, only the
calculation of values instead of the total abundance of "t" to insert the table 3 values “tz”.
The second part of calculation for clear sky conditions is realised with values “tj” from table 3 and outside air
temperature is enhanced by solar radiation and sol-air temperature “ej” is at stake. It is given by:
55
ej = e +  . Im . Rse
with  - absorptivity of solar radiation by the outside surface

2
Im – main radiation intensity, [W/m ]
2
Rse – outside surface film resistance factor, [W/(m .K)]
Sol-air temperature “ej” is posed into calculation of the outside partial vapour pressure “pde”.
Another procedure of calculating the annual balance is similar as mentioned above.

In evaluating the annual balance of moisture, summary values are:
positive  condensation occurs, i.e.
amount of condensed water vapour during the year is „gk“
gk =  gdj . t > 0 alebo  gdj . tz > 0  gdj . tj > 0
negative  condensation not occurs, i.e.
amount of evaporated vapour during the year is „gv“
gv =  gdj . t < 0 alebo  gdj . tz < 0  gdj . tj < 0
annual balance of moisture is, when absolute value „gv“
gk  gv positive
gk  gv negative
Note:
If the annual moisture balance calculated without the impact of solar radiation is positive, such a
construction is still reserve for potential further drying in the course of solar radiation.
2.2.6 Building fabric evaluation of moisture limiting
Hygienic demand  The surface condensation indoors is not allowed.
critical surface temperature for the hygienic evaluation criteria, especially the critical details of relating it to
80% relative humidity at the inner surface of the structure, which is to prevent the formation of mould
“si,80”.
For solved surface:
p sat,i
psat{ si,80 }   psi ;+
0,8
i. e., that the partial saturation vapour pressure “psat,si“ for surface temperature indoors “si“ have to be
higher value than the partial saturation vapour pressure “psat,ai“ for air temperature indoors “ai“ with relative
air humidity ai = 50 %.
for ai = 20 C a ai = 50 %  functional demand

o
Example:
psat{ ai =20 C } = 2336,74 Pa 

o
2336,74 / 0,8 = 2921 Pa
56
 2921 * 0,5 = 1460,5 Pa  si,80 = 12,6 C  si

o
For the fixed value of partial vapour pressure p = 1460,5 Pa temperature is calculated in relation to the
saturation state  = 12,6 C (equals to the dew point temperature pd ).
o
For the fixed indoor conditions, critical surface temperature indoors “si,80“ is approximately given by:
 p 
237,3 . ln  di 
si,80 =  488,4  for pdi  488,4 Pa
 p 
17,269  ln  di 
 488,4 
 p 
265,5 . ln  di 
 488,4 
si,80 = for pdi < 488,4 Pa
 p 
21,875  ln  di 
 488,4 
Under certain conditions, the structures there may be condensation. Condensation is undesirable in the
structures, in which the condensed vapour affects the required function (formation of mold, static strength,
reduced service, etc.). Therefore, full-year amount of condensed amount in the construction “gk“ should be
gk = 0.
tangents
Fig.12 Propose of vapour barrier prevents occur of condensation.
In structures where there is no threat desired function can accept a limited condensation of water vapour,
but during the whole year of operation, the annual balance of condensed water vapor “gk“ and evaporated
moisture “gv“ has to be positive.
gk  gv
2
[kg/(m .year)]
The single-roofing is permitted during operation year-round condensation of water vapour
gk  0,1
2
[kg/(m .year)]
for the rest of fabrics
57
gk  0,5
2
[kg/(m .year)]
Glossary of text 2.2

Ab Definitions
 - diffusion coefficient of vapour [s]
represents the amount of vapour in "kg", which passes by diffusion in the thickness of the
fabric of the unit "m" per unit of time in "s" in per unit difference of partial vapour pressure
in 'Pa'
 = [(kg.m/(m .s.Pa)]  [kg/(m.s.N/m )]  [ kg/(m.s.kg.m/(s .m )) ]

2 2 2 2
  [s]
 - vapour resistance factor [-]
expresses the relative ability of a material vapour transmittance. Indicate how many times
the diffusion resistance of the substance (layer structure) is larger than equal layer of air at
the same temperature.  for air  = 1
 = 1 / (N. ) pre str = 10 C

9 o
N = 5,31215 . 10 [1/s]
transfer   .  = 0,18824 . 10
-9
sd – equivalent diffusion thickness [m]
the air layer thickness, which is the same as the diffusion resistance of the material (foil,
cardboard)
sd = . d
Self-evaluation questions
? 1. Give examples of thermal bridges the divide-by-aspects, how would you

assess the thermal bridge construction.
2. You know how there is a spread of heat in two-dimensional sense, ie the

temperature fields and the so-called space. Are considered as 3D building structures
when considering two-and three-dimensional distribution of heat?
3. Explain the basic assessment criteria transparent filler structures such as

doors and windows of thermo-technical point of view?
4. Spread the air structures, air permeability of materials, joints and joints.
58
Summary
Σ This part of building physics, construction techniques, the heat given to the description
of heat and moisture flow, the movement of matter (air) - on the basis of temperature,
humidity, pressure and changes in multidirectional spread the heat and moisture in
building structures and their elements.
This chapter has been paid to the stable temperature condition, ie, when the
temperature change with time, but while there is a multidirectional spread the heat in
the details of building structures. This is the assessment of thermal fields, transparent
panes (windows, doors) and the installation of the packaging structures. Assessment of
the details of these structures in terms of transfer of air - the air permeability of
materials, materials, building structures, focusing also on transparent panels and their
connections and joints.
59
3. Introduction to Building Physics - Selected problems of the sub-structure and

their solutions
Δ Role
The industrial buildings of hall type are in many ways realized as large
buildings. The accurate design of construction of substructure is influenced
by many entry parameters from the standpoint of static’s, building thermal
technology, building hydro-insulation technology and anti radon measures.
By respecting these specific requirements of individual science disciplines,
the symbiosis expressing the optimal solution in the theory of structural
production of buildings have to be presented.
Objectives
 Technical analysis land and its impact on the basement floor solutions of hall
buildings,
 Temperature of soil,
 Temperatures in underground of industrial building,
 Description and aims of temperature measurements in underground of the
industrial building,
 Options for addressing the problems of thermal subsoil industrial production
buildings,
 Method of folding stationary heat flows,
 Method of calculation and modelling of thermal fields in structural detail of
 contact of base, external cladding and floor on the background terrain,
Introduction
ζ The solution of problems of building thermal technology in the field of
substructure of industrial buildings and underground based on the knowledge
of thermal regime of soil - sub base, as one of the important components of
soil climate. It is obvious, that every correct thermo technical calculation
requires precise specification of boundary conditions. The soil temperature is
presented in our case as one of the boundary conditions at the production of
structure details of substructure of analyzed buildings.
60
3.1 Insulation - Technical analysis land and its impact on the basement floor
solutions of hall buildings
The solution of problems of building thermal technology in the field of substructure of

industrial buildings and underground based on the knowledge of thermal regime of soil - sub base,
as one of the important components of soil climate. It is obvious, that every correct thermo
technical calculation requires precise specification of boundary conditions. The soil temperature is
presented in our case as one of the boundary conditions at the production of structure details of
substructure of analyzed buildings.
3.1.1 Temperature of soil
Within the regulation of temperature regime of soil (heating and cooling), the thermotechnical
characteristics of soil plays an important role. The most important of them is based on the
continuous change of humidity, the high variable factor of thermal conductivity of soil λ
(W/(m.K)), which is the function of soil density, soil porosity, weight moisture, temperature, soil
granularity and other factors. For example, with the descending of soil porosity and increasing of
soil density increases the factor of thermal conductivity of soil. With the moisture content of soil
increases its factor of thermal conductivity (f. e. the factor of thermal conductivity of sabulous
clay with natural humidity is 1,4 and the factor of thermal conductivity of humid sabulous clay is
up to 2,3), and the increase is rapid at lower humidity. With the rise of soil granularity slowly
increases the factor of thermal conductivity. The higher the value of thermal conductivity factor
of soil is, the faster increase or decreases the temperature of soil. Among other thermotechnical
characteristics we can include the factor of thermal conductivity of soil and (m2/s), thermal
capacity of soil b (W.s1/2/ (m2.K)), ability to accumulate heat and others.
An enormous amount of energy reaches the Earth’s surface in form of solar radiation. Solar energy,
which falls on the Earth, does not reach the Earth’s surface in whole amount. The large amount of
solar energy is redirected back through the atmosphere into the space, before it reaches the Earth’s
surface (see fig. 1). The electromagnetic radiation is therefore partly absorbed by the atmosphere
and partly by the Earth’s surface. Solar radiation, which after passing the atmosphere, reaches the
Earth ´s surface, has the spectral scope from λ = 280nm to λ = 3000 nm. In our climatic and
geographical conditions the intensity of global solar radiation, which consists of right and diffused
part, available at horizontal surface at no cloudy conditions, can reach the value of 900 – 1000
61
W/m2. At cloudy sky the diffusive solar radiation at horizontal surface can have value of 100 – 200
W/m2.
Fig. 1 Solar radiation reaching the Earth’s surface
The Earth’s surface regulates the thermal regime of soil by absorbing and reflecting the solar
energy. Proportion of basic parts of solar radiation changes depending on condition of sky, whether
it is clear or cloudy, as well as on cloudiness and degree of atmosphere pollution. The highest
influence of solar radiation on course of temperatures in soil is in summer season.
3.1.3 Thermal swing in untouched soil
The soil temperature, as one of the entry boundary conditions at production of structures of
substructure of industrial building from standpoint of thermal technology, influences daily and
nightly swing, which can be only found to the certain depth. The highest thermal swing is on the
Earth’s surface due to the influence of solar radiation. For example (see fig. 3), the dynamic
thermal differences on the Earth’s surface, which were measured in a distance of 1 m from outer
62
skin of industrial building on the northern and southern side on chosen day of the measured
period.
Daily thermal swing in soil can be observed approximately into a depth of 1 m. It changes
depending on arrangement and co lour of soil surface, on absolute altitude and surface protection
and also on speed of wind. In moisture soils we can see smaller daily thermal swing, because the
temperature difference among layers of soil profile is smaller. Annual thermal swing is influenced
by thermal regime of soil, depending on heat accumulated by soil in summer period, in our climatic
conditions at a depth of 15 m. From depth of 15 metres under the ground level in our climatic
conditions the temperature in soil does not change in dependence of an amount of solar radiation
falling and year seasons changing, i.e. we assume with the constant temperature soil (see fig. 3).
.
Fig. 2 Thermal swing on Earth’s surface.
Within the solution of thermo technical problems of sub base of industrial buildings of hall type
found on background terrain are important for us only the thermal courses at a depth of 3 metres
under the ground level. The modelling of the structural details of substructure for basement less
buildings, for example, the contact of base, external cladding and floor on the background terrain,
aimed to determine the temperatures on inner surface of the building structure, is based on this
idea.
63
Fig. 3 Annual thermal swing in soil
3.2 Temperatures in underground of industrial building
Distribution of temperatures in underground of industrial buildings is not a much studied area of

building physics so far, although it is closely related to correct calculations of thermal loss of the
buildings.
Measurement of soil temperature in underground of building is not an easy realizable task. In
principle, it is possible to do such measurement, if it is included in advance, before the realization
of the industrial buildings, or before realization of background concretes.
Nowadays designing of the structural details in substructure of industrial buildings of hall type
is based only on the theoretical assumption of temperature, which assumes the same temperature of
5 °C under the whole floor area (at a depth of 3 m). Considering that mentioned temperature is
used as entry parameter for calculation of thermal loss of industrial floor structure on background
terrain, it is an assumption, which should offer thermal loss on the safety side, it means rather
higher than the real loss is. In our case, based on the idea, that temperature of soil at a depth of 3
meter under the level of ground is equal to average annual outer temperature θm,e (in our place
from 5,9 °C in Poprad to 9,9 °C in Bratislava), with the estimated temperature θ z = 5 °C, we are
on the safety side.
64
The centre of by us solved problems is the industrial building and underground. Under the term
industrial building we understand the upper and lower structure. The lower structure of industrial
buildings of hall type, which based on background terrain, is made of the base structures connected
to the floor structures. The underground is represented by mechanical properties of soils (f. e. angle
of inner abrasion, shear strength, and etc.) and physical properties of soils (thermal conductivity,
thermal capacity, density, weight moisture and etc.). Properties of soils are influenced by
conditions of outer climate (daily and nightly thermal swing, intensity of rain, snow layer and etc.),
geological – hydrological conditions (ground waters and their chemical structure) and geothermal
data.
In underground of industrial building (ground plan size of 72 380 x 36 460 mm).The description
of individual measured points is shown on fig. 4,5.
Industry in the building concentrates on the production of electro technical components and
metal production (light industry), where we assume the inner calculation temperature θi = 18 °C
and relative moisture φi = 50 %.
Fig. 4 The industrial building of hall type
65
3.3 Description and aims of temperature measurements in underground of the

industrial building
Measurements were realized in March, July, and November 2007, in March, July, and
November 2008 of which we chose the most favorable weekly measurements from 12.03.2007 to
18.03.2007. Within the scope of these measurements, the temperatures in sub base of building at a
depth of 1 meter, two and three meters under the level of adjacent ground (in vertical direction)
were measured. At measurement were used 20 sensors (5 probes x 4 Ntc. readers) of soil
temperatures. The temperatures were recorded in vertical direction in a distance of 1,0 m in front of
building (I.), near the base structure on the northern (V.) and southern side (II.), in a distance of 2
meters form base structure (IV.) in direction into and in the middle of the building (III.) (See
figure 5). At the same time the temperatures and relative moistures of inner and outer air were
recorded by 2 readers. In this time period were also measured immediate surface temperatures on
the floor (in close proximity with the external cladding), in a distance of 0,5 m, 1,0 m, 1,5 m and
2 m from the inner surface of external structure and in the middle of the industrial building by
contact thermometer.
The aim of individual measurements is to analyze courses of temperatures in sub base of the large
buildings of hall type. It is obvious that soil temperatures measured near the base structure are
different from temperatures measured in the middle of the building of hall type, sometimes up to 2
or 3 °C. This knowledge can be applied at new structural solutions of building structures and
details of contact of base, external cladding and floor on background terra at large buildings of hall
type.
3.4 Measured values of temperatures in underground of the industrial building (see

fig.3 – fig.5).
As an example are quoted temperature courses measured at a depth of 3 meters under the
level of adjacent ground in a distance of 1,0 m in front of building (probe I.) and close to the
base structure (probe II.) at the beginning of week, in the middle and at the end of week (see graph
No. 3).
It is the numerical value of soil temperature at a depth of 3 metres under the level of adjacent
ground, which appears to be one of the boundary conditions at designing the structures and details
in contact with the ground, with the aim to determinate temperatures on inner surface of the
building structure.
66
At the same time, outer and inner air temperatures (see graph No. 1) and moisture courses in outer
and inner environments (see graph No. 2) are recorded. Courses of temperatures measured at a
depth of 3m, 2 m, 1m and close under the ground level only for probe I. (in a distance of 1,0 m in
front of building) at the beginning of week (see graph No. 4), in the middle (see graph No. 5) and
at the end of working week (see graph No. 6) are also presented for clearness and closer
comparison.
67
Fig. 5 Description of measurements in the industrial building of hall type.
Fig. 6 Course of indoor and outdoor air temperatures week measurement.
Fig. 7 Course of indoor and outdoor air relative humidity week measurement.
68
69
Fig. 8 Course of temperatures in underground of industrial building during chosen week.
70
4. Options for addressing the problems of thermal subsoil industrial production

buildings
The measured temperature values in the subsoil industrial production buildings can be applied
to model the construction details of its understructure. Thermal problems subsoil of these buildings
can be solved by application of various theories and methods:
a - the method of folding the stationary flow heat transfer in the massive of a planar surface
that can be applied to the approximate calculation of heat loss of heated floor industrial production
buildings fixed with a terrain,
b - the analytical method for the calculation of temperature fields and modeling the change in
the aggregate state of matter, which we can apply to more accurately determine the temperature of
freezing the soil, especially in their high moisture content,
c - Finite Difference Methods for Fourier differential equation for two-dimensional and three-
dimensional heat conduction in the modification of a wide range of programs that can be applied
to determine the temperature regime detail contact base, white walls and floors to the natural
terrain of the specific structural and material solutions.
Currently, there are a number of computer programs that will address the issue of subsoil industrial
buildings, be it a program for the calculation of transfer of heat and moisture in the almost
stationary, or calculation applications based on solving a large number of equations for the
nonstationary model boundary conditions of the external environment in the form of in the
reference test, and the like. We are more dedicated folding method of stationary flows, which can
be applied to approximate calculation of heat losses industrial floor design and modeling of
temperature fields in order to determine the temperature at the inner surface of the construction
details contact base, external cladding and flooring on the ground grew in the industrial building
hall type.
4.1 Method of folding stationary heat flows
Energy transport in industrial production basement of the building based on intermolecular

exchange pulse. The driving forces are temperature differences. This creates a complex process
that can be described by physical laws (eg. The law of conservation of energy).
In applying this method we are considering the curve of heat flows from the inside surface to the
cooler outer surface, which will have a circular shape. Isotherms are displayed as a beam
emanating from a point
71
Fig. 9 Schematic representation of the footprint of industrial production buildings
Elementary differential heat flow of a width dx and length of 1 m away from the vertical plane
a0 – x can be expressed:
Δθ
dQx,o1  λ. dx W/m (1)
π.(ao  x)
Where:
Δθ – temperature difference on the inner and outer surface cooler (K),

Λ – thermal conductivity coefficient of solid wood (W/(m.K)).
Elementary differential heat flow of a width dx and unit length relative to a point O2 (vertical
plane on the heated surface of solid wood basement) comment:
72
Δθ
dQx,o 2  λ. dx W/m (2)
π.(ao  x)
The total heat flux per unit length dx belt computed by combining the two elementary heat
flows:
λ 2.a
dQx  dQx,o1  dQx,o 2  .(θsi  θse ). 2 o 2 dx W/m (3)
π ao  x
Heat flux density with respect to the unit area of the strip width dx determine:
dQx  2.a
qx   .( si   se ). 2 0 2 (W/m2 (4)
dx  a0  x
If the belt is wide floor structure 2a, 2b long and is bounded by two planes / walls / positioned
perpendicular to the two previous walls, then the total elemental heat flux for a strip of width dy in
the y direction:
 2.b
dQ y  .( si   se ). 2 0 2 dy W/m (5)
 b0  y
Also, the density of heat flow due to a unit area of the strip width by can be approximated by:
dQ y  2.b
qy   .( si   se ). 2 0 2 (W/m2 (6)
dy  b0  y
The total heat flow density per unit area with respect to the heated surface of solid wood, which
is bounded by the four sides, it is possible in the first approximation to determine the composition
of the different densities and heat flows qx qy, and we get:
  2.a 2.b 
q x , y  .( si   se ). 2 0 2  2 0 2  (W/m2 (7)
  a0  x b0  y 
The total amount of heat Qs (W), which spreads the heated surface of the massif of the surface
A = 2a. 2b, in consideration of the thickness of the flanking vertical walls shall be determined:
73
a b
4.  a
dx
b
dy 
Qs  2 dQ 2.b  2 dQ 2.a  .( si   se ).2.a 0 b  2  2.b0  2
a 2 

0 0
  0 a0  x
2
0 b0  y 
(8)
4.  a a b  b
 .( si   se ).b. ln 0  a. ln 0 
  a0  a b0  b 
For a sufficiently small thickness of partition, we can consider that the points O1 and O2 are
in the middle of the thickness of the walls that enclose the heated surface of the massif:
s
a0  a  (9)
2
s
b0  b  (10)
2
Where:
s – thickness of the peripheral wall (m).
Substituting in the formula (7) and (8) we get the final shape of the total heat flux density
with respect to the unit area of the heated surface of solid wood (11) and the total amount of heat
that spreads the heated surface of the massif of the surface A = 2a. 2b (12):
 
 
  2.a  a 2.b  s 
q x, y  .( si   se ).  (W/m2 (11)
  s
2
 s 
2 
 a    x 2 b    y 2 
  2  2 
4.   a  b 
Qs  .( si   se ).b. ln 1  4   a. ln 1  4  (W) (12)
   s  s 
4.2 Method of calculation and modelling of thermal fields in structural detail of

contact of base, external cladding and floor on the background terrain
The method of modelling of thermal fields is useful at designing and evaluating the structural
details from standpoint of thermal technology, for example, aimed to determinate temperatures on
inner surface of the building structure θsi (°C). It is obvious, that the designer influences the
74
complex plan of the building within the plan of partial building structure. The industrial buildings
of hall type are characterised by their large built – in up area. Their floor structures design and
realisation in connection to the others building structures requires the appropriate attention to
provide the normative requirements at optimal economical seriousness, as well as suitable inner
working conditions, that influence the activity of workers, quality of work and consequently all
economical aim of operating company. Therefore the quality of working environment can be
reached only by respecting the specific claims resulting from the base of working action, using
knowledge of actual level of scientific and technological knowledge and creative attitude with
regard to evaluation process.
At designing the floor structures on the background terrain in connection to the other bearing
constructions are important two require men.
a), hygienic requirement (on the inner surface of the building structures cannot condensate
water vapour).
b), economical requirement (floor structures on the background terrain with external structures
included should participate with their physical and technical properties on complex power
performance of building).
Currently, there are a number of computer programs that will address the issue of subsoil
industrial buildings, be it a program for the calculation of transfer of heat and moisture in the
almost stationary, or calculation applications based on solving a large number of equations for the
nonstationary model boundary conditions of the external environment in the form of in the
reference test, and the like. We are more dedicated folding method of stationary flows, which can
be applied to approximate calculation of heat losses industrial floor design and modeling of
temperature fields in order to determine the temperature at the inner surface of the construction
details contact base, external cladding and flooring on the ground grew in the industrial building
hall type.
4.3 Structural detail of contact of base, external cladding and floor o thebackground
At designing the building structures and premises determined by condition of internal

environment of all building types are required four basic criteria in terms of valid normative
regulations. One of them is the hygienic requirement, that says, that temperature on the inner
surface should by higher, at most equal to critical temperature of surface defined at 80 % of
relative air moisture in close proximity of inner surface of the building structure, at inside air
75
temperature θai (°C) and relative moisture of inside air φi (%), with safety loading included, which
regards the way of heating and use of a building.
θsi ≥ θsi,N = θsi,80 + Δθsi (°C) (1)
For inner surfaces of the industrial buildings with inner calculation temperature θi = 18 °C and
relative moisture φi = 50 % is the minimal required temperature on the inner surface of the
building structure θsi = 11,73 °C, with the radiant heating of the industrial buildings assumed.
Another important criterion at designing the floor structures is the criterion of minimal thermal
insulation properties of the building structures. The floor structures in new buildings should be
designed the way, that the value of their coefficient of passage of heath U (W/(m2.K)) is lower, at
most equal to the normative value of coefficient of passage of heath UN = 0,40 W/(m2.K) in a
distance of 2 metres from the inner surface of the outer wall.
Our referential building has designed the skeleton structural system. Base structures consist of
base Springer under the steel pillars and base bands under the light external cladding from PUR
boards. Necessary parameters of air in inner working environment are secured in winter period by
radiant heating, in summer period by necessary air conditioning. The production of electro
technical components and small production operates at two – shift system, but we think, that the
industrial building, at such defined conditions will not show inside profits higher than 25 W/m3.
The centre of analyzed experiment is the structural detail of contact of base, external cladding
and floor on background terrain. This serious structural detail has existed also in the past, but it
gains its unique importance nowadays, with the development of modern technologies and with the
tendencies of reducing of material and power seriousness of industrial buildings. It is important to
mention, that the referential building evaluated by us had incorrectly designed and realized
structural detail of contact of base, external cladding and floor on background terrain, from the
analyzed standpoint of building thermal technology (see fig.10).
76
Fig. 10 Structural detail of contact of base, external cladding and floor on the background terrain
in the industrial building of hall type with marked critical places
Fig. 11 Thermogram temperature distribution on the outer surface of the industrial envelope
structure with 1 reference thermal bridges Variat V1.
77
4.3.1 Boundary conditions of calculation
hS
a ( 3 x hS ) a ( 3 x hS )
( 18130 mm ) ( 1000 mm )
EXTERIÉR ROZMERY PRE VÝPOČET ˇ

INTERIÉR (0e, e, Rse) POVRCHOVÝCH TEPLOT
(0i, i, Rsi) 1.N.P.
U.T.
( 3000 mm )
3000 mm
ˇ
PODA (PODLOŽIE)
(0g, g, Rsg)
Fig. 12 Schematic model of boundary conditions and minimal dimensions for calculation model of
lower structure, surface temperatures.
Basic parameters of boundary condition for thermal calculation based in standards STN:
INTERIOR:
θi - based in technical standard STN EN 12 831

φi - information in STN 06 0210
Rsi - based in technical standard STN EN ISO 10211, or STN EN ISO 13788
EXTERIOR:
θe - based in technical standard STN 73 0540-3, or STN EN 12 831

φe - information
Rse - based in technical standard STN EN ISO 10211, or STN EN ISO 13788
GROUND (BELOW THE FLOOR):
θg - based in technical standard STN EN 12831 / STN EN ISO 10211 (θm,e), or

78
information STN 06 0210

φg - based in technical standard STN EN ISO 13370
Rsg - based in technical standard STN EN ISO 10211, or STN EN ISO 13788
Fro designed detail of base are calculated the minimal surface temperature:
θsi  θsi,N = θsi,80 +  θsi (ºC) (8.1)

θsi  θsi,N = 10,73 ºC + 1,00 ºC *1 = 11,73 ºC
*1 With intermittent heating, wit decrease of internal temperature of air θai do 5K (pre hi < 8,0).
Minimal required internal surface temperature, that are achieve in any considered place is
calculated to the value θsi = 11,73 °C (wit relative air humidity 80 % at clouse quarter on
construction surface, and with internal air temperature θai (°C) and relative humidity of internal air
φi (%) with an insertion safety margin ∆θsi (°C)), while considering the interrupted heating of
industrial production buildings (in tab.1, page. 6, STN 73 0540-2 a tab. 8, page. 14, STN 73 0540-
3).
Calculation of boundary conditions for modeling construction details of lower structure:
INTERIOR: based in technical standards STN EN 12 831 / STN 06 0210 / STN EN ISO 10211
θi = + 18,0 °C
φi = 50 %
Rsi = 0,35 m2.K/W
EXTERIOR: based in technical standards STN 73 0540-3 / STN EN ISO 10211
θe = - 15 °C
φe = 84 %
Rse = 0,04 m2.K/W
GROUND: based in technical standards STN 06 0210 / STN EN ISO 13370 / STN EN ISO
10211/ STN EN ISO 13788
(first version)
79
θg = + 5,0 °C ( in depht 3,0 m )

φg = 99 %
Rsg = 0,04 m2.K/W
GROUND: based in technical standards STN EN 12831/STN EN ISO 10211/STN EN ISO

13788/ STN EN ISO 13370
(second version)
θg = + 8,3 °C ( in depht 3,0 m )

φg = 99 %
Rsg = 0,04 m2.K/W
Note – Parameters of soil and ground near below the industrial hall building fitted on original terrain are
were based on documents research of structural geology did in place in year 1985 (according to the
original documents, processor: Ing. E. Durbák, May 1985) carried through boreholes V1 to V6 (borehole
depth 7.0 to 8.0 m), as well as by boreholes 1-5 performed in December 2006, under the experimental
measurements (sensor S1 to S5, the depth of wells from 3.0 to 3.2 m).
Thermal conductivity of (soil) ground (λ = 1,4 W/(m.K)), was determined on the basis of soil
actual site under normal moisture content (STN EN ISO 13370, part 5.1 Thermal properties of
soils, page. 9), based on information contained in the standard STN 73 0540-3 [70] (tab. 11, page.
27) and in the standard STN EN ISO 13370 (tab. 1, page. 10 a addition G, tab. G1, page. 34), soil
loamy-sandy.
80
Maps of temperature region in Slovakia
In Figure from 13 to 17 are maps of temperature region in Slovakia, on which to base the
external boundary conditions for modeling design detail substructure of reference industrial
buildings mounted on field grown.
Prešov
θe = -15,0 °C
θe = -15,0 °C
LEGENDA :
TEPLOTNÁ OBLASŤ 0e (100 m.n.m.) 0e
STN 73 0540-3:2002 ( C)
-10
(K)
-1,0
-12 -0,5
-14 -0,3
-16 -0,2
-18 -0,2
-9,5 -0,6
POZNÁMKA- Ako oblasť 0 sa počítajú vyvýšené miesta
STN 73 0540-3: 2002 nad blízkym okolitým terénom, podľa 3.2.1
Fig. 13 Map of temperature region in Slovakia – winter.

Prešov: temperature region 3, θe (100 m n.m.) = -14 °C , ∆θe ═ -0,3 K
LEGENDA :
TEPLOTNÁ 0ae,m
OBLASŤ ( C)
20,5
18,2
STN 73 0540-3: 2002
Fig. 14 Map of temperature region in Slovakia – summer.

Prešov: θae,m = 20,5 °C
81
LEGENDA :
STN 06 0210 TEPLOTNÁ 0g
OBLASŤ ( C)
5,0
Fig. 15 Temperature of ground in depht 3m below the structure.

Prešov: θg = + 5,0 °
LEGENDA :
TEPLOTNÁ OBLASŤ 0m,e

( C)
5,9
6,3
6,6
6,8
7,2
7,4
7,7
8,0
8,1
8,3
8,4
8,5
8,8
9,0
9,1
9,2
9,4
9,5
9,6
9,7
9,8
9,9
bez údaja
POZNÁMKA- Ako oblasť s najnižšou teplotou 5,9 C
Poprad a Liptovský Mikuláš. Ako oblasť s najvyššou
STN EN 12 831 / STN EN ISO 10 211 teplotou 9,9 C Bratislava.
Fig. 16 Average year external temperature and temperature of ground in depht 3 m.

Prešov: θm,e / θg = + 8,3 °C
82
LEGENDA :
TEPLOTNÁ OBLAST Rýchlost vetra v

(m/s)
v 2
2 v 5
POZNÁMKA- Na vzvýšených miestach
(100 m nad rovinou, dolinou, kotlinou v
5 m/s
STN 73 0540-3: 2002
Fig. 17 Map of wind region in Slovakia - winter.

Prešov: temperature region 1, wind velocity v < 2 (m/s)
83
4.3.2 Structural detail of contact of base, external cladding and floor on the
background terrain designed by architect of building - Variant V1
θsi ≥ θsi,N = θsi,80 + Δθsi = 10,73 + 1,00 = 11,73 °C (1)

θsi,N = 11,73 °C
θsi = 9,58 °C < θsi,N
Fig. 18 Simulation of thermo vision and course of isotherms in the structural detail of the contact
base, external cladding and slab on ground (designed by the architect) at normative boundary
conditions (θe = -15 °C, φe = 84 %, θi = 18 °C, φi = 50 %) and θz = 5 °C. Variant V1), the
calculation program Psi-THERM 2D.
84
Our task was to evaluate the structural detail of contact of base, external cladding and floor
on background terrain in the industrial building of hall type designed by architect of building (see
fig. 10), based on boundary conditions defined according to STN 73 0540:2012 (θe = -15 °C, φe =
84 %), STN EN 12 831 (θi = 18 °C, φi = 50%) and from the theoretical assumption of soil
temperature at a depth of 3 metres under the level of adjacent ground (θz = 5 °C). Designed
structural detail of contact of base, external cladding and floor on the background terrain is
evaluated by the calculation programme Psi-THERM 2D, which can be applied to evaluate the
thermo technical properties of building structures and structural details. Such designed floor
structure on the background terrain does not fulfill by norm recommended values of temperatures
on inner surface (see fig. 18).
θsi ≥ θsi,N = θsi,80 + Δθsi = 10,73 + 1,00 = 11,73 °C

θsi,N = 11,73 °C
θsi = 9,58 °C < θsi,N
The second requirement of minimal thermal insulation properties of building structures, i.e. R >
RN, and at the same time U < UN, is not fulfilled. Similarly the requirements of moisture spread
through the structure , i.e. Mc < Mev a Mc  0,5 kg/(m2.a), are not fulfilled, and in the structural
detail of contact of base, external cladding and floor on the background terrain will appear the
condensation of water vapour on the inner surface at given boundary conditions.
Considering that the error was done within the project design, the required criteria according to
STN 73 0540:2012 are not fulfilled. It is obvious, that such designed structural detail is from
standpoint of thermal technology thermo technically undersized. The reason can be found not only
in small thickness of added vertical thermal isolation of the base structure, but also in the position
of light external cladding in the structural detail. At realization of the industrial building of hall
type, these defaults were multiplied by the incorrect realization of structural detail of contact of
base, external cladding and floor on the background terrain and by violation of the principles,
aimed to create the healthy environment for user of building, to avoid the formation of
condensation of water vapour on the surface and inside the building structures, and to secure
economical use of energy for building heating at keeping the required thermal comfort.
85
4.3.3 Confrontation of measurements with the designing of structural detail of

contact of base, external cladding and floor on the background terrain
At the same time the measurements of surface temperatures on the marked places were realized
(see fig. 2) In one – hour intervals from 12.03. To 18.03., by the thermometer 830 – T2, with
attached external thermal probe - contact measurement of temperature. For clearness and closer
comparison we chose the thermal courses on the inner surface of the floor structure in close
proximity of the external structure, at a distance of 1 m and 2 m from the external structure and in
the middle of the industrial building of hall type during chosen day (14.03.), i.e. in the middle of
the week (see fig.2)
The aim was to evaluate the structural detail of contact of base, external cladding and floor on
background terrain in the industrial building of hall type designed by architect of building at
measured boundary conditions (Table 1) and compare with the recommended values of surface
temperatures defined in STN 73 0540-2,3:2012.
Table 1 Temperatures on the inner surface of the floor structure during chosen day (14.03.2007)
temperature structural detail designed by architect of building

of inner min. measured values of temperatures calculated values of temperatures
surface in value of inner surface at measured of inner surface at measured
contact defined boundary conditions at 6 o ćlock boundary conditions at 6 o ćlock
space of am am
external acc. to
cladding (θai = 13,80 °C, φi = 82,3 %, (θai = 13,80 °C, φi = 82,3 %,
STN
and floor θae = 1,90 °C, φe = 100 %, θae = 1,90 °C, φe = 100 %,
73 0540-
(°C) 3 θz = 10,23 °C) θz = 10,23 °C)
in close at a at a at a at a
in close
proximi- distance distance distance distance
proximi-
of 1 m of 2 m of 1 m of 2m
ty of ty of
θsi 11,73 from from from from
external external
external external external external
cladding cladding
cladding cladding cladding cladding
9,5 10,2 10,6 10,85 12,50 12,95
The final values of temperatures in table No. 1, on the inner surface of floor structure point out,
that the measured values are lower than calculated values of surface temperatures. The reason can
be found in quality of realized building operations of the structural detail of contact of base,
external cladding and floor on background terrain in the industrial building of hall type.
86
4.4 Modified structural detail of the contact base, external cladding and slab on ground in
the industrial hall building Variant V0 – V8
Consequently we determine to design optimally economical and structurally accurate detail of

contact of base Variant V0 – V8, external cladding and floor on background terrain in the industrial
building (see fig. 19) and evaluate it from the standpoint of hygienic criterion, based on the
boundary conditions defined in accordance with STN 73 0540:2012 (θe = -15 °C, φe = 84%), STN
EN 12 831 (θi = 18 °C, φi = 50 %), and from the theoretical assumption of soil temperature of at a
depth of 3 m under the level of adjacent ground (θz = 5 °C). At the same time there was the
requirement to leave the designed material base by architect. To eliminate the thermal loss in
structural detail of contact of base, external cladding and floor on background terrain, not only in
the floor, but also on outer side of the external structure, we place the thermal insulation (extruded
foam polystyrene) from outer side of the base structure with regard to optimal thermo technical
sequence of the external cladding and already mentioned base. This will markedly influence the
whole course of factor of floor heat transfer on background terrain. At the same time it was
necessary to place thermal insulation under the prefabricated light – weight external cladding (in
joggle - a band of thermal isolation of thickness of 30 mm).
The critical spaces of junction of the floor structure on the background terrain, base and
external cladding in the corners of interior are specific by lowering of surface temperature
roughly by 2 °C. In this case, these places are heated from outer side by additional bands of
thermal isolation, by which the normative requirements (hygienic criterion) at designing the
mentioned building structures and details in the inner working environment are fulfilled.
V0 V1 V2 V3
87
V4 V5 V6 V7/V8
2,0 m
Fig. 19 Schematic representation variant V0 - V8.
Table 2 Representation of the structural modifications for each considered variants detail.
STRUCTURAL MODIFICATION DETA

VARIANT
DETAIL
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
V0 X
V1 X X
V2 X X
V3 X
V4 X X
V5 X X X
V6 X X X X
V7 X X X X
V8 X X X X
1 - floor slab with cement spreading the thickness of 200 mm, 2 - XPS insulation base thickness of
30 mm on the level of the terrain, 3 - XPS insulation base on thickness of 30 mm over the entire
height, 4 - Insulation of floors XPS thickness of 60 mm over the entire surface, 5 - Insulation
aerated concrete masonry parapet of XPS thickness of 60 mm, 6 - Insulation XPS on the outer sill
thickness of 30 mm, 7 - XPS Insulation basis of thickness of 40 mm over the entire height, 8 -
Lagging porous concrete parapet masonry XPS on thickness of 40 mm, 9 - Insulation of floors
XPS thickness of 60 mm in length 2.0 m from the inner surface of the outer wall, the rest filled
screed, 10 - Insulation of floors XPS thickness of 60 mm in length 2,0 m from the inner surface of
the outer wall, the rest filled with polystyrene.
88
4.4.1 Evaluation of the results obtained by modeling design detail of the lower
structure variant V0 - V8
Fig. 20 Evaluation results 2D receives design detail Variant V0 – V8, of substructure modeling
constructive detail bottom builing at normative boundary conditions θe = -15 °C, φe = 84 %, θi =
18 °C, φi = 50% and θz = 5 °C.
Table 3 Representation of the structural modifications for each considered variants detail.
Sign Evaluation of options 2D

Variant detail V0 V1 V2 V3 V4 V5 V6 V7 V8
2
U plinth bric [W/(m .K)] 0,418 0,418 0,418 0,418 0,418 0,241 0,241 0,241 0,241
Ufloor [W/(m2.K)] 1,396 1,396 1,396 0,411 0,411 0,404 0,404 0,404 0,359
θsi [C°] 7,59 9,58 10,33 10,60 11,94 12,45 12,63 12,75 12,54
fRsi [-] 0,68 0,74 0,77 0,77 0,77 0,78 0,78 0,80 0,79
L2D [W/(m.K)] 1,765 1,557 1,449 1,182 1,057 1,021 0,997 1,083 0,999
L2D,wall [W/(m.K)] -0,125 -0,125 -0,125 -0,125 -0,125 -0,072 -0,072 -0,072 -0,072
L2D,floor [W/(m.K)] -0,620 -0,620 -0,620 -0,183 -0,183 -0,180 -0,180 -0,485 -0,431
Ψ2D [W/(m.K)] 1,019 0,811 0,704 0,873 0,749 0,769 0,745 0,525 0,496
89
The other task was evaluate by us modified structural detail V7 und V8 of contact of base, external
cladding and floor on background terrain in the industrial building of hall type at measured
boundary conditions (Table 4).
Table 4 Temperatures on inner surface of the floor structure
temperature of modified structural detail of contact of base, external cladding and floor on
inner surface background terrain
in contact min. value calculated values of inner surface temperatures at measured
space of defined boundary conditions at 6 o ćlock am (θai = 13,80 °C,
external acc. to
cladding and STN φi = 82,3 %, θae = 1,90 °C, φe = 100 %,
floor (°C) 73 0540-3 θz = 10,23 °C)
in close at a distance of 1 at a distance of 2

Vari proximity of m from external m from external
ant external cladding cladding cladding
θsi 11,73
V7 11,58 13,24 12,92
V8 11,50 13,28 13,15
New industrial buildings start to come near to the non – productive buildings by their variety
from standpoint of architecture. In close future, we can expect increasing interest in the quality
architecture of the industrial buildings. The accurate design of individual building structures and
structural details should contribute to this. One of them is also the structural detail of contact of
base, external cladding and floor on the background terrain. The mentioned structural detail has
already existed in the past, but it gains its unique importance with the development of modern
technologies and with the tendencies of reducing of buildings material and energy seriousness.
This serious structural detail occurs in wide range of the low – floor buildings, also in industrial
buildings of hall type. The correct and economical solution of thermo technical problems of
substructure of industrial buildings, with regard to the normative requirements, gains an unique
importance, as these buildings are in many cases designed and realized as large – sized buildings.
At substructure structure solving is important to respect not only the static requirements, but also
the physical and technical requirements, preservation of quality of the details and arrangements of
substructure.
90
Summary
Σ Thermal insulation is now a word that we heard all around particularly with
respect to rising energy prices in line with long-term strategic goals of
reducing emissions and improving energy efficiency in buildings. What is
the subject of European Parliament and Council 2013/31/EU of 19th May
2010 on the energy performance of buildings. The European Union has
committed to reduce by 2020 overall greenhouse gas emissions by 20% at
least compared to year 1990. To the same date to reduce energy
consumption in EU countries by 20% and achieved in total energy
consumption 20% share of renewable energy sources. This can also
contribute to solving the lower structure for a new generation of energy
efficient buildings.
Bibliography:
[1] A. Sedláková, R. Rudišin, Desk study and experimental analysis basic
structure construction of hall buildings, Košice 2009.
[2] A. Sedláková, A. Rusnák, Thermotechnical problems of substructure in
industrial buildings, Selected Scientific Papers / Journal of Civil Engineering. 2
(2007), 49-67.
[3] Rusnák, A., Sedláková, A.: Floor structures in industrial buildings, In: Materials for
building 5/2007, June 2007, p.42-46, ISSN 1213-0311
[4] CLAESSON, J., HAGENTOFT, C.-E.,: Heat loss to the ground from
a building - I. General theory, Building and Environment, 1991, Vol. 26, pp. 195-
208.
[5] CLARKE, J.A.: Energy Simulation in Building Design, 2nd Edition,
Butterworth / Heinemann 2001, ISBN 0-7506-5082-6
[6] DLESEK, V.: Energetická náročnost pozemních staveb, Ediční středisko
ČVUT Praha 1991, ISBN 80-01-00602-6.
[7] DUNAJSKÝ, E.: Teplota pôdy vo väčších hĺbkach, Slovenský
hydrometeorologický ústav, Košice, www.shmu.sk.
[8] EICHLER, F., ARNDT, H.: Bauphysikalische Entwurfslehre, Bautechnischer
Wärme- und Feuchtigkeitsschutz, Berlin 1989, ISBN 3-345-00198-5.
[9] HALAHYJA, M. a kolektív: Stavebná tepelná technika, akustika
a osvetlenie, vydavateľstvo ALFA a SNTL, Praha 1985.
[10] HALAHYJA, M., CHMÚRNY, I., ŠTERNOVÁ, Z.: Stavebná tepelná
technika, Tepelná ochrana budov, vydavateľstvo Jaga group, Bratislava 1998,
ISBN 80-88905-04-4.
91
[11] HORNIAKOVÁ, L.: Vybrané problémy riešenia podláh nepodpivničených

bytových a občianskych stavieb, Habilitačná práca, ES Bratislava 1972.
[12] HUPFER, P., KUTTLER, W.: Witterung und Klima, Eine Einführung in
die Meteoro-logie und Klimatologie, Published B. G. Teubnerverlag 2005, ISBN
3-519-10208-0.
[13] CHMÚRNY, I.: Tepelná ochrana budov, vydavateľstvo Jaga group,
Bratislava 2003, ISBN 80-88905-27-3.
[14] JIRÁNEK, M., SVOBODA, Z.: Teplotní pole v zemině pod objekty,
Tepelná ochrana budov, 6/2002, str. 16-21, ISSN 1213-0907.
[15] KAŇKA, J., SVOBODA, Z.: Stavební fyzika 31, Vydavatelství ČVUT,
Praha 2004, ISBN 80-01-02861-5.
[16] KATUNSKÝ, D.: Vývoj a hodnotenie konštrukcií priemyselných halových
objektov z hľadiska fyzikálneho a vplyvu na ich ocenenie: Záverečná práca
postgraduálneho štúdia Súdneho inžinierstva v odbore stavebníctvo, TU
v Košiciach, SvF, 2002.
[17] VAVERKA, J. a kolektiv: Stavební tepelná technika a energetika budov,
Vysoké učení technické v Brně, nak. Vutium 2006, ISBN 80-214-2910-0.
[18] STN 06 0210: Výpočet tepelných strát budov pri ústrednom vykurovaní.
[19] STN EN ISO 6946: Stavebné konštrukcie, Tepelný odpor a súčiniteľ
prechodu tepla. Výpočtová metóda (ISO 6946: 2007) (August 2008).
[20] STN EN ISO 10211: Tepelné mosty v budovách pozemných stavieb,
Tepelné toky a povrchové teploty, Podrobné výpočty (ISO 10211: 2007) (August
2008).
[21] STN EN 12831: Vykurovacie systémy v budovách, Metóda výpočtu
projektovaného tepelného príkonu (November 2003).
[22] STN EN ISO 13370: Tepelnotechnické vlastnosti budov, Šírenie tepla
zeminou, Výpočtové metódy (ISO 13370: 2007) (Júl 2008).
[23] STN EN ISO 13788: Tepelnovlhkostné vlastnosti stavebných dielcov
a konštrukcií,Vnútorná povrchová teplota na vylúčenie kritickej povrchovej
vlhkosti a kondenzácie vnútri konštrukcie, Výpočtová metóda (ISO 13788: 2001)
(August 2003).
[24] STN EN ISO 13789: Tepelnotechnické vlastnosti budov, Merný tepelný tok
prechodom tepla a vetraním, Výpočtová metóda (ISO 13789: 2007) (Júl 2008).
[25] STN EN ISO 13790: Energetická hospodárnosť budov, Výpočet potreby
energie na vykurovanie a chladenie (ISO 13790: 2008) (Máj 2009).
[26] STN EN ISO 13792: Tepelnotechnické vlastnosti budov, Výpočet vnútornej
teploty v miestnosti bez strojového chladenia v letnom období, Zjednodušené
metódy (ISO 13792: 2005) (September 2005).
[27] STN EN ISO 14683: Tepelné mosty v stavebných konštrukciách, Lineárny
stratový súčiniteľ, Zjednodušené metódy a orientačné hodnoty (ISO 14683:
2007) (Júl 2008).
92
[28] STN 72 1001/Z1: Pomenovanie a opis hornín v inžinierskej geológii,

Zmena 1 (December 2004). STN 72 1001: Pomenovanie a opis hornín
v inžinierskej geológii (Jún 1989).
[29] STN 73 0540-1: Tepelnotechnické vlastnosti stavebných konštrukcií
a budov, Tepelná ochrana budov, Časť 1: Terminológia (Marec 2002)
a budov, Tepelná ochrana budov, Časť 2: Funkčné požiadavky (Marec 2002).
a budov, Tepelná ochrana budov, Časť 3: Vlastnosti prostredia a stavebných
výrobkov (Marec 2002).
a budov, Tepelná ochrana budov, Časť 4: Výpočtové metódy (Marec 2002).
[33] STN 73 1001: Zakladanie stavieb, Základová pôda pod plošnými základmi
(Jún 1987).
[34] STN EN 73 0540-1,2,3,: Thermotechnical properties of building structures
and buildings. Thermal protection of buildings. Part 1: Terminology Part 2:
Functional requirements, Part 3: Properties of environment and building
products, Slovak institute of technical standardization, 2012
[35] STN EN 12831: Heating systems in buildings. The method of calculation of
designed thermal Input. Slovak institute of technical standardization, 2003,
[36] STN EN 73 0540-1,2,3,4: Thermotechnical properties of building structures
and buildings. 2002,
[37] Directive 2010/31/EU of 19 May 2010 on the energy performance of
buildings
93
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Moderné vzdelávanie pre vedomostnú spoločnosť/

Projekt je spolufinancovaný zo zdrojov EÚ

prof. Ing. Dušan Katunský, CSc.

Táto publikácia vznikla za finančnej podpory z Európskeho sociálneho fondu

Prioritná os 1 Reforma vzdelávania a odbornej prípravy

Názov projektu: Balík prvkov pre skvalitnenie a inováciu vzdelávania na

Názov: BUILDING PHYSICS

Rukopis neprešiel/prešiel jazykovou úpravou.

Moderné vzdelávanie pre vedomostnú spoločnosť/

prof. Ing. Dušan Katunský, CSc.

3.1.1 Temperature of soil 60

Entry conditions for passing the module

δ Knowledge gained from 1st year:

1. Introduction to Building Physics, steady state temperature, calculation of

Δ The purpose of this chapter is to introduce students to the problems of building

List of symbols and abbreviations

Key to symbols and abbreviations

b Δ θsi The safety margin K

θe external computing temperature in winter °C

θse outer surface temperature °C

μ diffusion resistance factor 1

x, y, z spatial coordinates of the points examined m

1.1 Basic physical factors

1.1.1 Criterions for assessment

As criteria are also concepts that have the following characteristics:

1.1.2 Physical units

Derived units are those which are:

A. in the title only basic units

t .. Celsius temperature (θ,υ)

Fig. 1. View the different scales of temperature - a comparison

0° C melting point of ice, or 23°F

100°C boiling point of water, or 212°F

Fig. 2 The pressures and their comparison

Glossary the text 1.1

kelvin – a unit of thermodynamic temperature, is 273.16 - the part of the thermodynamic

1.1.3 Conversion of units – multiples and submultiples

1.1.4 Factors affecting the thermal properties of building materials

Thermal conductivity „“ is an essential feature of thermal matter.

for air   0,028 W/(m.K) in pore size cca 0,1 mm

  0,071 W/(m.K) in pore size cca 2,0 mm

2. moisture agents for water   0,58 W/(m.K)

for ice   2,3 W/(m.K)

3. temperature of the substance with increasing temperature increases the value of 

5. effect of chemical composition of the substance inorganic substances, in general, lead to

values "" as alkaline substances (limestone, sandstone, ...)

 for the fixed part and a confidence level

 appropriate reasonable expected service life under normal conditions

a. design-calculated value of thermal values - values of thermal properties of building material

1.2 Development of the Department of Building Thermal Engineering

Objective – to ensure proper heat and humidity inside the climate-comfort.

evaluation of steady-state temperature

II. stage of development

evaluation of thermal transient state

III. stage of development

Evaluation of thermal stability of buildings (winter - cooling, summer - overheating)

IV. stage of development

Since 1980 - The trend of energy saving - thermal insulation of buildings

assessment of savings for heating buildings

Since 2005 - Low energy buildings

1.3 Basic models of heat transfer

Fig. 4 Dissemination of heat conduction - heat flow change

A – area through which heat transfers

Fig. 5 Temperature gradient - change in heat flux and temperature change