Professional Documents
Culture Documents
BUILDING: - Permanent or temporary structure enclosed within exterior walls and a roof,
and including all attached apparatus, equipment, and fixtures that cannot be removed without
cutting into ceiling, floors, or walls.
Buildings are divided as following types by international building code –
1. Assembly Buildings
2. Business Buildings
3. Educational Buildings
4. Factory Buildings
5. Hazardous Building
6. Institutional Buildings
7. Mercantile Buildings
8. Residential Buildings
9. Storage Buildings
10. Utility & Miscellaneous
1. Assembly Buildings
In this type of buildings people gather for some reason. These reasons can be any types. Such
as social purpose, religious purpose, patriotic purpose or simply recreation purpose. This type
of buildings is –
Restaurant
Cinema hall
Theatre
Gymnasium
Swimming pool
Prayer hall, etc.
2 Business Building
This type of buildings is used for providing various types of services. Below are this type of
buildings –
Bank
Dispensaries and clinic
Libraries
Insurance agencies
Fire station
Police station, etc.
3 Educational Buildings
This type of buildings constructed for various activities in primary, secondary or college level
educational system. Example of this type of buildings are –
School
College
Training institute,
Day care centre, etc.
4 Factory Buildings
In this type of buildings, products are assembled or processed or fabricated or repaired. For
example –
Gas plant
Power plant
Refineries
Dairies
Laundries etc.
5 Hazardous Buildings
This type of buildings is used to produce or storage highly flammable or toxic materials
(Don’t be confused with factory building). Such as fireworks, hydrogen peroxide, cyanide,
etc.
6 Institutional Buildings
Although this type of buildings provide facility of sleeping accommodation these are not
included in residential buildings. Institutional buildings are those where people are physically
unable to leave without assistance.
Followings are the institutional buildings –
Hospitals
Infants care homes
Old homes
Nursing homes
Prisons, etc.
7 Mercantile Buildings
In this type of buildings goods or materials are displayed or sold.
Following are this type of buildings –
Shopping mall
Grocery Store
Departmental store
8 Residential buildings
All those buildings with sleeping accommodation facility are called residential buildings.
Following are example of residential buildings –
Apartments
Flats
Hotels
Hostels
Private Houses
9 Storage Buildings
This type of buildings are used for storing goods, animals or vehicles.
The storage materials should not be hazardous. Such types of buildings are –
Garage
Warehouse
Cold storage
Transit sheds
Perking, etc
3. COMPONENTS OF BUILDING
Construction of the building is done in at least two steps. Which are following:
• Sub Structure
• Super Structure
3.1.1 FOUNDATION
A foundation is the element of any structure which connects it to the ground, and transfers
loads from the structure to the ground. Foundations are generally considered either shallow or
deep.
The low artificially built part of a structure which transmits the load of the structure to the
ground is called foundation.
Foundation is a load bearing structure which bears all loads coming on the building or any
structure. Foundation is generally of two types:
A. Shallow Foundation.
B. Deep Foundation.
Generally, foundation in building construction is Shallow foundation (Raft Foundation).
And in our building shallow foundation is used.
3.1.1.1 SHALLOW FOUNDATION:
Shallow foundations are also called spread footings or open footings. The 'open' refers to the
fact that the foundations are made by first excavating all the earth till the bottom of the
footing, and then constructing the footing. During the early stages of work, the entire footing
is visible to the eye, and is therefore called an open foundation. The idea is that each footing
takes the concentrated load of the column and spreads it out over a large area, so that the
actual weight on the soil does not exceed the safe bearing capacity of the soil.
It includes some types of shallow foundation such as:
3.1.1.1 INDIVIDUAL FOOTINGS:
Individual footings are one of the most simple and common types of foundations. These are
used when the load of the building is carried by columns. Usually, each column will have its
own footing. The footing is just a square or rectangular pad of concrete on which the column
sits. To get a very rough idea of the size of the footing, the engineer will take the total load on
the column and divide it by the safe bearing capacity (SBC) of the soil. For example, if a
column has a vertical load of 10T, and the SBC of the soil is 10T/m2, then the area of the
footing will be 1m2. In practice, the designer will look at many other factors before preparing
a construction design for the footing.
Individual footings are usually connected by a plinth beam, a horizontal beam that is built at
ground or below ground level.
3.1.1.2 STRIP FOOTINGS:
Strip footings are commonly found in load-bearing masonry construction, and act as a long
strip that supports the weight of an entire wall. These are used where the building loads are
carried by entire walls rather than isolated columns, such as in older buildings made of
masonry.
Friction Piles:
Friction piles work on a different principle. The pile transfers the load of the building to the
soil across the full height of the pile, by friction. In other words, the entire surface of the pile,
which is cylindrical in shape, works to transfer the forces to the soil.
To visualise how this works, imagine you are pushing a solid metal rod of say 4mm diameter
into a tub of frozen ice cream. Once you have pushed it in, it is strong enough to support
some load. The greater the embedment depth in the ice cream, the more load it can support.
This is very similar to how a friction pile works. In a friction pile, the amount of load a pile
can support is directly proportionate to its length.
3.2 SUPER STRUCTURE:
Super-structure is a part of structure that is above plinth level (P.L). Generally, columns and
walls are constructed in super structure. Following are the important parts of super-structure.
1) Floor
2) Roof
3) Lintel
4) Parapet
5) Sun Shade
6) Doors & Windows
FLOOR:
Floor is that part of a building on which furniture, household, commercial, industrial or any
other type of items are stored. Floor is used for walking around .
Floor separates the different levels of a building. Building is also named with reference to
floor. Like Ground floor, first floor, or a floor that is below ground level like basement floor.
ROOF:
Roof is made to cover room from upper face. Different types of roofs are used in building
depending on the location and weather. Sloping roofs are generally considered better in
mountain areas. While, in plan areas flat roofs are preferred.
LINTEL:
Lintel is constructed above doors, windows etc. to support load of wall on openings. Lintel
beam is generally made as reinforced cement concrete member. While, in residential houses
sometime lintel is made by using concrete and bricks.
Breadth of lintel is generally equals to the breadth of wall. In case of metric unit, it is
normally equals to 10cm, 15cm, 20cm etc. While, in case of FPS system it is consider as 6”,
9”, 12” etc.
Thickness of lintel should not be less than 10cm (4.5”) and maximum thickness of lintel
should not be more than its breadth.
SUN SHADE:
Sun shade is a slab that is cast on the top of doors and windows. Sun shade protects doors and
windows from sun and rain. Sun shade is cast monolithically with the lintel.
4.1 CEMENT:
Cement was first discovered by an English brick layer named Joseph Aspdin in 1824. He
called it Portland cement for the reason that the cement he discovered resembled the
limestone found in Portland. There are many other types of cement. The approximate
composition of Portland cement is given below
Table - Composition of Portland cement
The function of cement is to combine with water and to form cement paste. This paste first
sets i.e. it becomes firms and then hardens due to chemical reaction, called hydration,
between the cement and water. On setting & hardening, the cement binds the aggregate
together into a stone like hard mass & thus provides strength, durability & water-tighten to
the concrete. Quality of cement is based on grade of cement. There are different types of
Grade which use in construction work. These are given below.
33 Grade OPC is used for general construction works like plastering and finishing
works in normal environmental conditions. However, its use is virtually phased out
today.
Coming to the 43 Grade OPC, it is the most commonly used grade for home
construction. It has its applications in plastering, finishing works, precast items,
material Composition
1. Lime (Cao) 60-70%
2. Silica (SiO2) 20-25%
3. Ferric Oxide (Fe2O3) 2-3%
4. Alumina (Al2O3) 5-10%
foundations, brick work, and compound wall and so on. It has more strength
development than the 33 Grade cement.
53 Grade OPC develops strength very fast. High rise building constructions use 53
grade cement. This is applicable for use in structures where high-Grade concrete is
required.
We used Portland cement of 43 grades (JK LAXMI CEMENT) at the construction
site RRTI, AJMER, detail of this cement is
The cost of cement per beg = 285 rupees
The initial setting time of cement = 30 minutes (1/2 hr)
The final setting time of cement = 10 hrs.
We used this cement in different works at site like plastering, brick masonry, finishing
work, foundation work etc.
4.2 AGGREGATE:
Aggregates are small pieces of broken stones in irregular size and shapes. Neat cement is
very rarely used in construction works since it is liable to shrink too much and
become cracks on setting. Moreover, it will be costly to use neat cement in construction
work. Therefore cement is mixed with some inert strong & durable hard materials.
They also reduce the cost of concrete because they are comparative much cheaper as cement.
There are two types of aggregates
1.Fine Aggregate
2.Coarse Aggregate
GRADING OF CONCRETE:
Concrete for construction work is defined by different grades as the ratio of cement: sand:
coarse aggregate.
The principle of grading is that the smaller particles will fill up the voids between large
particles. This results in the most economical use of cement paste for filling the voids &
binding together the aggregate in the preparation of concrete.
Thus proper grading of fine & coarse aggregate in concrete mix produces a dense concrete
with less quantity of cement.
At our construction site the grade of concrete which was used in R.C.C slab,
Column, Beams was M20. Ratio for cement : sand: coarse aggregate was 1:1.5:3 .
REINFORCEMENT:
The material which is used to develops a good bond with concrete in order to increase its
tensile strength is known as reinforcement. Steel bars are highly strong in tension, shear,
bending moment, torsion. So steel bars are used as reinforcement.
FUNCTION OF REINFORCEMENT:
Reinforcement works as a tension member because concrete is strong in compression and
week in tension so reinforcement resists the tensile stresses in the concrete members.
At the site contractor was using the high strength steel bars and T.M.T. (Thermo
Mechanically Treated) bars of diameter 8 mm, 10 mm,12mm, 16 mm, & 25 mm as per
requirement of design in column, beams, slabs.
4.3 WATER:
It is an important ingredient of concrete because it combines with cement and forms a
binding paste. The paste thus formed fills up the voids of the sand and coarse aggregate
bringing them into close adhesion. We should check pH value of water, TDS, sodium
potassium carbonate and bicarbonates, chloride content, calcium chloride, sodium sulphide,
sodium hydroxide and should be perform various tests before using it in construction work.
In our project source of water is a tube well which is already there in construction site. The
quality of water is good for purpose of construction work and can be used for drinking
purpose also.
4.4 R.C.C.
Though plain cement concrete has high compressive strength and its tensile strength is
relatively low. Normally, the tensile strength of a concrete is about 10% to 15% of its
compressive strength. Hence if a beam is made up of plain cement concrete, it has a very low
load carrying capacity. So there is need to use reinforced concrete which have more tensile
strength than plain concrete. And plain concrete’s behaviour is brittle but reinforced concrete
is ductile in behaviour so its serviceability is good. So R.C.C is preferred for construction
work. In our project we also used reinforced concrete than plain concrete in construction of
beams, columns, and slabs.
5. MATERIAL TESTING
5.1 TESTS OF AGGREGATES:
Below are some of the important test which are perform on aggregates at every construction
site to check the quality of the aggregate for better construction and fulfil the requirement of
the client.
1. Crushing Test
2. Impact Test
3. LOS Angles Abrasion Test
4. Shape Test
5. Water Absorption Test.
5.1.1 CRUSHING STRENGTH TEST:
Standard: IS: 2386 (Part IV)-1963 Methods of test for aggregate for concrete Part IV
Mechanical Properties.
Equipment used:
Steel Cylinder
Sieves (12.5mm,10mm)
Cylindrical metal measure
Tamping Rod
Balance (0-10kg)
Oven (3000c)
Compression testing Machine (2000KN) .
Procedure:
1. The cylindrical steel cup is filled with 3 equal layers of aggregate and each layer is tamped
25 strokes by the rounded end of tamping rod and the surplus aggregate struck off, using the
tamping rod as a straight edge.
2 .The net weight of aggregate in the cylindrical steel cup is determined to the nearest gram
(WA) and this weight of aggregate is used for the duplicate test on the same material.
3. The cup is fixed firmly in position on the base of the machine and the whole of the test
sample is added in thirds, each third being subjected to 25stokes from tamping rod.
4. The surface is leveled and the plunger is inserted so that it rests horizontally on the surface.
The whole assembly is then placed between the platens of testing machine and loaded at a
uniform rate so as to reach a load of 40 tones in 10 minutes.
5. The load is then released and all aggregate is removed from the cup and sieved on 2.36
mm.
IS sieve until no further significant amount passes in one minute.
6. The fraction passing the sieve is weighed to an accuracy of 0.1 g (WB).
Aggregate Crushing Value: (WB/WA) *100
5.1.2 IMPACT TEST:
Standard: IS: 2386 (Part IV) – 1963
Equipment’s used:
The equipment’s as per IS: 2386 (Part IV) – 1963 consists of:
1. A testing machine weighing 45 to 60 kg and having a metal base with a painted lower
surface of not less than 30 cm in diameter. It is supported on level and plane concrete floor of
minimum 45 cm thickness. The machine should also have provisions for fixing its base.
2. A cylindrical steel cup of internal diameter 102 mm, depth 50 mm and minimum
Thickness 6.3 mm.
3. A metal hammer or top weighing 13.5 to 14.0 kg the lower end being cylindrical in shape,
50 mm long, 100.0 mm in diameter, with a 2 mm chamfer at the lower edge and case
hardened. The hammer should slide freely between vertical guides and be concentric with the
cup. Free fall of hammer should be within 380±5 mm.
4. A cylindrical metal measure having internal diameter 75 mm and depth 50 mm
5. For measuring aggregates.
6. Tamping rod 10 mm in diameter and 230 mm long, rounded at one end.
7. A balance of capacity not less than 500g, readable and accurate up to 0.1 g.
Procedure:
The test sample consists of aggregates sized 10.0 mm 12.5 mm. Aggregates may be dried by
heating at 100-110° C for a period of 4 hours and cooled.
(i) Sieve the material through 12.5 mm and 10.0mm IS sieves. The aggregates
Passing through 12.5mm sieve and retained on 10.0mm sieve comprises the test material.
(ii) Pour the aggregates to fill about just 1/3 rd depth of measuring cylinder.
(iii) Compact the material by giving 25 gentle blows with the rounded end of the tamping
rod.
(iv) Add two more layers in similar manner, so that cylinder is full.
(v) Strike off the surplus aggregates.
(vi) Determine the net weight of the aggregates to the nearest gram (W).
(vii) Bring the impact machine to rest without wedging or packing up on the level plate,
block or floor, so that it is rigid and the hammer guide columns are vertical.
(viii) Fix the cup firmly in position on the base of machine and place whole of the test sample
in it and compact by giving 25 gentle strokes with tamping rod.
(ix) Raise the hammer until its lower face is 380 mm above the surface of aggregate sample
in the cup and allow it to fall freely on the aggregate sample. Give 15 such blows at an
interval of not less than one second between successive falls.
(x) Remove the crushed aggregate from the cup and sieve it through 2.36 mm IS sieves until
no further significant amount passes in one minute. Weigh the fraction passing the sieve to an
accuracy of 1 gm. Also, weigh the fraction retained in the sieve.
Observations:
Description Sample1 Sample2
Total weight of dry sample ( W1 gm)
Weight of portion passing 2.36 mm sieve (W2 gm)
Aggregate Impact Value (percent) = W2 / W1X 100
5.1.3 LOS ANGLES ABRATION VALUE:
Standard: IS: 2386 (Part IV) – 1963
Equipment’s used:
The apparatus as per IS: 2386 (Part IV) – 1963 consists of:
(i) Los Angeles Machine: It consists of a hollow steel cylinder, closed at both the ends with
an internal diameter of 700 mm and length 500 mm and capable of rotating about its
horizontal axis. A removable steel shaft projecting radially 88 mm into cylinder and
extending full length (i.e.500 mm) is mounted firmly on the interior of cylinder. The shelf is
placed at a distance 1250 mm minimum from the opening in the direction of rotation.
(ii) Abrasive charge: Cast iron or steel balls, approximately 48mm in diameter and
Each weighing between 390 to 445g; six to twelve balls are required.
(iii) Sieve: 1.70, 2.36,4.75,6.3,10,12.5,20,25,40,50,63,80 mm IS Sieves.
(iv) Balance of capacity 5kg or 10kg
(v) Drying oven
(vi) Miscellaneous like tray
Procedure:
The test sample consists of clean aggregates dried in oven at 105° – 110°C. The sample
should conform to any of the grading shown in table 1.
(i) Select the grading to be used in the test such that it conforms to the grading to be used in
construction, to the maximum extent possible.
(ii) Take 5 kg of sample for grading A, B, C & D and 10 kg for grading E, F & G.
(iii) Choose the abrasive charge as per Table 2 depending on grading of aggregates.
(iv) Place the aggregates and abrasive charge on the cylinder and fix the cover.
(v) Rotate the machine at a speed of 30 – 33 revolutions per minute. The number of
revolutions is 500 for grading A, B, C & D and 1000 for grading E, F & G. The machine
should be balanced and driven such that there is uniform peripheral speed.
(vi) The machine is stopped after the desired number of revolutions and material is
discharged to a tray.
(vii) The entire stone dust is sieved on 1.70 mm IS sieve.
(viii) The material coarser than 1.7mm size is weighed correct to one gram.
Observations:
• Original weight of aggregate sample = W1 g
• Weight of aggregate sample retained = W2 g
• Weight passing 1.7mm IS sieve = W1 – W2 g
Abrasion Value = (W1 – W2 ) / W1 X 100
5.1.4 SHAPE TEST:
Equipment’s used:
Thickness/Flakiness Index Gauge
Length/Elongation Index Gauge
Aggregate sample to be tested
Shape of particle:
1. Rounded (river gravel)
2. Flaky (laminated rock)
3. Elongated
4. Angular( crushed rock)
Flaky:
A flaky particle is the one whose least dimension (thickness) is than 0.6 times the
mean size.
These are the materials of which the thickness is small as compared to the other two
dimensions.
Limit of flaky particles in the mixes is 30%. If the flaky particles are greater than 30%
then the aggregate is considered undesirable for the intended use.
Flakiness Index:
It is the percentage by weight of flaky particles in a sample.
Procedure for Flakiness Index:
Perform the sieve analysis on the given aggregate sample
The aggregates are then arranged in the into a number of closely limited particle size
groups -stored on the test sieves into a number of closely limited particle size groups
– 2 ½’’ – 2’’, 1 ½’’ – ¾’’ & ½’’ – 3/8’’
Each group (fraction) is weighed and tested for thickness on appropriate opening of
the thickness gauge by passing each particle through slot of specified thickness along
least dimension.
The weight of particles passing the thickness gauge is recorded for each fraction. This
is the weight of flaky particles.
The flakiness index is calculated by expressing the weight of flaky particles as a
percentage of total weight of the sample.
Elongation:
These are the particles having length considerably larger than the other two dimensions and it
is the particle whose greater dimension is 1.8 times its mean size.
Limit of elongated particles in the mixes is 45%. Thus, if the elongated particles are greater
than 45%, then the aggregate is considered undesirable for the intended use.
Elongation Index:
It is the percentage by weight of elongated particles in a sample. The Elongated index is
calculated by expressing the weight of Elongated particles as percentage of total weight of the
sample.
5.1.5 WATER ABSORPTION TEST:
Standard: IS: 2386 (Part 3) – 1963 – Method of test for aggregates for concrete (Part I)
Particle size and shape.
Equipment’s used:
Wire basket
Oven (3000c)
Container for filling water and suspending the basket
An air tight container
Balance[0-10 kg]
Shallow tray & absorbent clothes.
Procedure:
bout 2kg of the aggregate sample is washed thoroughly to remove fines, drained and
then
placed in the wire basket and immersed in distilled water at a temperature between 22
to
320C with a cover of at least 50 mm of water above the top of the basket
Immediately after the immersion the entrapped air is removed from the sample by
lifting
the basket containing it 25 mm above the base of the tank and allowing it to drop 25
times
at the rate of about one drop per second. The basket and the aggregate
should remain completely immersed in water for a period of 24±0.5 hours afterwards.
The basket and the sample are then weighed while suspended in water at a
temperature of
22 to 320C. The weight is noted while suspended in water (W1) g.
The basket and the aggregate are then removed from water and allowed to drain for a
few
minutes, after which the aggregates are transferred to one of the dry absorbent clothes.
The empty basket is then returned to the tank of water, jolted 25 times and weights in
water (W2) g.
The aggregates placed in the dry absorbent clothes are surface dried till no further
moisture could be removed by this clothe.
Then the aggregate is transferred to the second dry cloth spread in a single layer,
covered
and allowed to dry for at least 10 minutes until the aggregates are completely surface
dry.
10 to 60 minutes drying may be needed. The surface dried aggregate is then weighed
W3 g.
The aggregate is placed in a shallow tray and kept in an oven maintained at a
temperature
of 1100C for 24 hours. It is then removed from the oven, cooled in air tight container
and
weighed W4 g.
Weight of saturated aggregate suspended in water with basket = W1 g
Weight of basket suspended in water = W2 g
Weight of saturated aggregate in water = (W1-W2)g = Ws g
Weight of saturated surface dry aggregate in air = W4 g
Weight of water equal to the volume of the aggregate = (W3-Ws) g
Procedure:
1. The concrete shall be filled into the moulds in layers approximately 5 cm deep. It would
be distributed evenly and compacted either by vibration or by hand tamping. After the top
layer has been compacted, the surface of concrete shall be finished level with the top of
the mould using a trowel; and covered with a glass plate to prevent evaporation.
2. The specimen shall be stored at site for 24+ ½ h under damp matting or sack. After that,
the samples shall be stored in clean water at 27+20C; until the time of test. The ends of all
cylindrical specimens that are not plane within 0.05 mm shall be capped.
3. Just prior to testing, the cylindrical specimen shall be capped with Sulphur mixture
comprising 3 parts Sulphur to 1 part of inert filler such as fire clay.
4. Specimen shall be tested immediately on removal from water and while they are still in
wet condition.
5. The bearing surface of the testing specimen shall be wiped clean and any loose material
removed from the surface. In the case of cubes, the specimen shall be placed in the
machine in such a manner that the load cube as cast, that is, not to the top and bottom.
6. Align the axis of the specimen with the steel plates, do not use any packing.
7. The load shall be applied slowly without shock and increased continuously at a rate of
approximately 140 kg/sq.cm/min until the resistance of the specimen to the increased load
breaks down and no greater load can be sustained. The maximum load applied to the
specimen shall then be recorded and any unusual features noted at the time of failure
brought out in the report.
8. Compressive strength (kg/cm2) = Wf / A
5.2.2 PERMEABILITY TEST:
Equipment’s used:
A concrete permeameter apparatus consisting of the following basic components,
A permeameter cell which can maintain a seal over the circumference of a saturated
cylindrical concrete specimen and which is capable of operating effectively under
pressures of up to 1000kPa.
A means of supplying de-aired water to the top surface of the concrete specimen
contained within the permeameter cell at a constant pressure head of up to 1000kPa.
MAIN ROADS Western Australia Water Permeability of Hardened Concrete Page 1
of 7 T\wa625_1.rtf Test Method 71/10/625.1 Issue 1 10/98 Pavements & Structures
6.3 TRANSPORTATION:
The process of carrying the concrete mix from the place of it’s mixing to final position of
deposition is termed as transportation of concrete. There are many methods of transportation
as mentioned below-
Transport of concrete by pans
Transport of concrete by wheel barrows
Transport of concrete by tipping Lorries
Transport of concrete by pumps
Transport of concrete by belt conveyors
At this site belt conveyors were used.
6.4 COMPACTORS:
When the concrete has been placed, it shows a very loose structure. We used dense concrete
for construction work, because it have more strength than loose concrete so compaction after
placing of concrete is necessary. Hence, it must be compacted to remove the air bubbles and
voids so as to make it dense and solid concrete to obtain a high strength. There are two
method- of compaction.
1. Manual compaction
2. Mechanical compaction
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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING Page 41
There are four types of mechanical vibrators which are used in concrete compaction
Types of Concrete Vibrators
1. Immersion or needle vibrator
2. Extended or shutter vibrator
3. Surface Vibrator
4. Vibrating table
Generally in large projects mechanical compactors are used . There are various mechanical
compactors which uses according to requirement as needle and screed vibrators needed to
compact the column and floor respectively.
At our construction site mainly 2 vibrators are used for compaction which was
needle vibrator and surface vibrator.
7. BRICK MASONRY
MORTAR: -
It’s a plastic building material (such as a mixture of cement, lime, or gypsum plaster with
sand and water) that hardens and is used in masonry or plastering.
Types of Mortar as binding material:
Mortars are classified into the following five categories:
1. Cement Mortar
2. Lime Mortar
3. Surkhi Mortar
4. Gauged Mortar
5. Mud Mortar
At work site cement mortar is used and 1:6 ratios are used to prepare cement mortar.
CLASS OF BRICKS: -
On the basis of quality and performance of brick is classified in three parts-
CLASS A
CLASS B
CLASS C
Class A bricks were used at site for wall masonry work.
Types of bond in brick masonry: -
There are four types bond which are used in wall masonry work
1. Stretcher bond
2. Header bond
3. English bond
4. Flemish bond
In our project stretcher bond is used in single brick wall and Flemish bond is used in double
brick wall which are described below.
1. Stretcher bond
Longer narrow face of the brick is called as stretcher as shown in the elevation of figure
below. Stretcher bond, also called as running bond, is created when bricks are laid with only
their stretchers showing, overlapping midway with the courses of bricks below and above.
2. Flemish Bond
Flemish bond, also known as Dutch bond, is created by laying alternate headers and
stretchers in a single course. The next course of brick is laid such that header lies in the
middle of the stretcher in the course below, i.e. the alternate headers of each course are
centered on the stretcher of course below. Every alternate course of Flemish bond starts with
header at the corner.
8. TEMPORARY STRUCTURES
8.1 SCAFFOLDING
The scaffolding is a temporary structure which is used in building operations to support
platforms for workmen , structural material and appliances required during construction at
raised heights normally more than 1.5 meter .This temporary form work is useful in building
construction, demolition, maintenance and repair works. Scaffolding is erected either on one
or both sides of the wall. For ordinary work scaffolding may be erected on one side only but
for all superior quality works it must be provided on both sides of wall. The height of the
scaffolding can be adjusted with the progress of the work. Mostly timber scaffolding is used
due to economy.
Types of scaffolding or scaffold-
✓ Single scaffolding
✓ Double scaffolding
✓ Ladder scaffolding
✓ Cantilever scaffolding
✓ Steel scaffolding
✓ Suspended scaffolding
✓ Trestle scaffolding
✓ Wooden gantries
8.2. FORMWORK
Formwork is temporary or permanent moulds into which concrete or similar materials are
poured. In the context of concrete construction, the false work supports the shuttering
moulds.
Requirements of Good Formwork:
a) It should be carefully designed, so as to be strong enough to resist the pressure
of fresh concrete and the super-imposed loads due to men, materials and
Equipment etc.
b) It should be rigid enough to retain its original shape without undue deformation
which is normally restricted to 1/300 th of span in normal cases.
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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING Page 47
c) It should be tight enough so as not to allow cement and other materials to leak
through the joints.
d) The formwork should not warp, bulge, bend or sink and should remain true to
. the designed size.
e) The inner surface of the formwork should be smooth so as to give pleasing
appearance to the finished surface. The inner surface is also applied with
mould oil to facilitate its removal.
SHUTTERING:
Shuttering or form work is the term used for temporary timber, plywood, metal or other
material used to provide support to wet concrete mix till it gets strength for self support. It
provides supports to horizontal, vertical and inclined surfaces or also provides support to cast
concrete according to required shape and size. The form work also produces desired finish
concrete surface.
Shuttering or form work should be strong enough to support the weight of wet concrete mix
and the pressure for placing and compacting concrete inside or on the top of form
work/shuttering. It should be rigid to prevent any deflection in surface after laying cement
concrete and be also sufficient tight to prevent loss of water and mortar form cement
concrete. Shuttering should be easy in handling, erection at site and easy to remove when
cement concrete is sufficient hard.
Generally there are three types of shuttering.
1. Steel Shuttering
2. Wooden Planks Shuttering
3. Temporary Brick Masonry Shuttering
Steel shuttering
Steel shuttering plate is the best type of shuttering because this is water tight shuttering which
can bear the load of cement concrete placed on it. This shuttering can be used for horizontal,
vertical or any other shape required for the work. It gives levelled surface which has good
appearance. This shuttering gives good appearance and pattern work according to
architectural drawings. If the plaster is required, the thickness of plaster will be less. Being
water tight shuttering, the strength of concrete with steel shuttering is comparatively higher.
Wooden Plank Shuttering
Generally wooden planks shuttering is used by contractors because this shuttering is cheap
and easily available. But this type of shuttering effects the strength of concrete and have some
disadvantages which are given below.
Recommended Period for Removal of Shuttering
48 hours for sides of foundations, columns, beams and walls.
7 days for underside of slab up to 4.5 meter span
14 days for underside of slab, beams, arches above 4.5 meter up to 6 meter span.
21 days for underside of beams arches above 6 meter span and up to 9 meter span.
28 days for underside of beams arches above 9 meter span
CENTERING:
is a type of falsework the temporary structure upon which the stones of an arch or vault are
laid during construction. Until the keystone is inserted an arch has no strength and needs the
centring to keep the voussoirs in their correct relative positions. A simple centering without a
truss is called a common centering. The cross piece connecting centering frames are called a
lag .
The centring is normally made of wood timbers, which was a relatively straightforward
structure in a simple arch or vault, but with more complex shapes, involving double
curvature, such as a small dome or the bottle-shaped flues of the kitchens of some Normanperiod
houses; clay or sand bound by a weak lime mortar mix could be used.
STAGING:
Materials such as wooden ballies, pipes, props, jacks which support both shuttering &
centering are known as Staging.
Construction process-
STEP-1 grid lines are drawn to dimensions ( to determine the where the column would be
placed).
STEP-2 layout work is then carried out.
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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING Page 52
STEP-3 masonry or bars are introduced with mortar.
STEP-4 wooden planks are then placed as the form work
STEPS AND STAIRS
A step usually consists of a thread and riser supported by strings. A stair is a structure
consisting of number of steps and is provided to afford the means of ascent and descent
between the floors and landings, which is easiest and quickest service possible to building.
The palace in building where stair is located is called stair case and the space occupied by it
is called a stair way. Different kinds of stairs are used in buildings such as timber, bricks,
stones, steel, plain or reinforced cement concrete and combination of different materials.
Selection of material to be used for construction depend s upon funds available, availability
of materials and type of buildings. In detention center plain cement concrete stairs are used
with kota stone flooring with straight pattern.