by

Engr. Alexis T. Belonio, MS

Agricultural and Biosystems Engineer
ASEAN Engineer

AGRICULTURAL POWER AND ENERGY SOURCES

Disclaimer

Photos , illustrations and schematic diagrams of equipment or machine parts are shown in
the presentation solely for educational purposes to facilitate comprehension of the topics
by the students. Showing them does not endorse a product nor imply criticism of similar
products not mentioned.

1
 DEFINITION OF ICE & OTHER TERMS

• Internal combustion engine (ICE) - is an engine that burns fuel and

air inside a combustion chamber located within the engine proper.
This includes piston or reciprocating engine, rotary engine, gas
turbine, jet engine, and rocket engine.
– It is a machine used to power tractors, combine harvesters, and other
self-propelled field equipment.
– In farmstead equipment, it is used to drive generator set to provide
electricity for lighting, driving motors, and providing power for heating
and cooling in various processes.

• Bore – refers to the size of the opening of the cylinder which is

almost equal to the diameter of the piston plus the rings.
• Stroke – refers to the distance traveled by a piston from the TDC to
the BDC.
• Top Dead Center (TDC) – is the uppermost position of the piston
during the compression and exhaust stroke.
• Bottom Dead Center (BDC) – is the lowest most position of the
piston during the intake and power stroke.
• Engine/Piston Displacement (PD) – is the volume displaced by a
piston in one stroke.
• Clearance Volume (CV) – is the volume in the combustion cylinder
when the piston is at the TDC position.
• Compression Ratio (CR) – is the ratio of the total volume to the
clearance volume.

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• Mean Effective Pressure (MEP) – is the amount of pressure
generated during the power stroke of the engine.
• Revolution – is equivalent to one complete rotation of the
crankshaft.
• Cycle – refers to the series of events occurring one after the other in
a definite order and repeating the event after the last one has
occurred.
• Indicated Horsepower – is the power generated at the combustion
chamber.
• Brake Horsepower – is the power available at the drive shaft or the
crankshaft of an engine.
• Friction Horsepower – is the power loss due to friction of piston and
other components of the engine.
• Rated Horsepower – is the power of the engine as specified by the
manufacturer.

• Mechanical Efficiency – is the ratio of the brake horsepower

and the indicated horsepower.
• Thermal Efficiency – is the ratio of the brake horsepower to the
power available at the fuel.
• Specific Fuel Consumption – is the rate of fuel consumed of an
engine per unit brake horsepower.
• Idle Speed – is the minimum speed of the engine at no load.
Usually it runs at around 900 rpm.
• Optimum Throttle Opening - is the opening adjustment of the
engine throttle at the best operating condition, which is usually
75% of the total opening.

3
 APPLICATIONS OF ICE

Power Source for Tractors Driving Power Tillers

Power Source for Harvesters Power Source for Engines Used

to Drive Generator

CLASSIFICATIONS OF ICE

According to Ignition
• Spark-Ignition Engine of Fuel
– Uses spark to ignite the fuel
– Uses gasoline as fuel
– Has a carburetor to mix fuel and air
Spark-Ignition
• Compression-Ignition Engine
– Uses high compression to raise the
temperature of the air in a chamber and
ignites the injected fuel without a spark
– Uses diesel as fuel
– Uses an automizer to spray the fuel inside the
Compression-Ignition
engine

4
 According to Number of Stroke

• Two-Stroke Cycle Engine

– Produces power in one revolution of the
crankshaft
– Fuel and oil is mixed in the combustion
chamber
Two-Stroke
– Usually high speed and light in weight
• Four-Stroke Cycle Engine
– Produces power in two revolutions of the
crankshaft
– Fuel is burned inside the combustion
chamber.
– Relatively low speed and heavy in weight

Four-Stroke

According to Number of Cylinders

• Single-Cylinder
– One piston
– Appropriate for small engines
commonly used in the farm Single-Cylinder
• Multiple-Cylinder
– More than one piston (3, 4, 6, 8, 12)
– Appropriate for high-powered engines
for driving tractors and self-propelled
equipment

Multiple-Cylinder

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 According to Drive Shaft Position

• Horizontal-Drive Shaft – Drive

shaft is in horizontal position
while the piston is in upward
position
• Vertical shaft – The drive shaft is
in vertical position while the Horizontal Drive
piston is in sideward position Shaft

Vertical Drive Shaft

BASIC COMPONENTS OF ICE

Main Engine System

• Cylinder Head – houses the valves, spark
plug or fuel injector, and serves as cover of the
Cylinder Head
cylinder block.
• Cylinder Block – encloses the piston and
confines the expanding gases.
• Valves – allow the flow of fuel, air, or exhaust
gases.
• Piston - It is a hollow cylinder with closed top
upon which the expanding gases act and Cylinder Block
transmit force to the crankshaft.
• Camshaft – actuates the valves through a
rocker arm to open and close during engine
operation. Valves

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• Crankshaft – receives power from the
piston and transmits it to the other parts
of the engine to do useful work.
• Piston Rings (compression and oil
rings) – retain compression, reduce Crank Shaft
cylinder wall contact thereby reduce
friction losses and wear.
• Piston pin – joins the connecting rod and
the piston.
• Connecting Rod – connects the piston
and the crankshaft. Transmits power Connecting Rod
from the piston to the crankshaft.
• Piston Pin – Fixes the piston to the
connecting rod. It is removable to
facilitate replacement of piston.

Pistons, Rings, Pins & Sleeves

• Flywheel – is an energy storage device of the

engine to keep it at uniform speed when the
crankshaft is not receiving power from the
piston.
• Crankcase – encloses and supports the
crankshaft and serves as a reservoir for the
lubricating oil.
• Governor - is the principal control device on
any engine. It governs or controls the engine
speed at some fixed value while power output
changes to meet demand.
• Oil Pan – is where engine oil is contained to
lubricate the engine.
• Dip Stick – is used in measuring the level of
lubricating oil at the engine.

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 Turbo Charger

Valves
Fan

Piston Cylinder
Head

Crankshaft

Alternator

Crankcase

Oil Pan

Engine Parts

Engine Parts

8
 Engine Subsystems

• Ignition System – responsible for supplying heat for combustion of

fuel.
• Fuel System – responsible for supplying fuel in the combustion
chamber.
• Starting System – responsible for starting-on the engine.
• Cooling System – responsible for keeping the temperature of the
engine lower.
• Exhaust System – responsible for discharging combustible gases
from the combustion chamber.
• Transmission System – responsible for transferring the power
generated from the combustion chamber to the drive shaft.

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

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 Cycle of Events
• Intake Stroke – Fuel and air or air alone is
sucked into the combustion chamber as
the piston moves in a downward direction.
• Compression Stroke – Fuel and air or air
alone is compressed by the piston as it
moves in upward direction.
• Power Stroke – Fuel and air is ignited to
produce power at the downward movement
of the piston and transmits the power to the
crankshaft of the engine.
• Exhaust Stroke – Fuel is burned and gas
is discharged from the combustion
chamber.

1 – Intake
2 – Compression
3 – Power
4 – Exhaust
Engine Essential Parts

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 Downward Stroke – fuel and air mixture enters
Upward Stroke – fuel and air compressed
Downward Stroke – spark plug ignite and produced power
Upward Stroke – burned gases is discharged

Note: There are two rotations of the crank shaft to produce power.

Downward Stroke – air enters the combustion chamber

Upward Stroke – air is compressed by the piston to raise its
temperature enough to burn fuel
Downward Stroke – fuel is injected to produced power
Upward Stroke – burned gases is discharged

Note: There are two rotations of the crank shaft to produce power.

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 Indirect Fuel Injection
The fuel is not directly injected to the
combustion chamber.
Direct Fuel Injection
Allows fuel to be precisely metered into
the combustion chamber under high
pressure which can lead to greater power
and fuel efficiency

Upward Stroke – Compression

Downward Stroke – Power, Exhaust, and Intake

Note: Only one rotation of the crank shaft to produce power.

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 Comparison Between Spark- and Compression-
Ignition Engines
Feature Compression Ignition Spark Ignition

Type of Cycle Used ● Diesel cycle where combustion occurs at a ● Otto cycle where combustion occurs at a
constant pressure. constant volume.

Introduction of fuel to the engine ● Fuel is injected into the combustion chamber
towards the end of the compression stroke.
● The fuel starts burning instantly due to the high
pressure.
● A fuel pump and injector are required.
● During the piston's suction stroke, a mixture of
air and fuel is injected from cylinder head
portion of the cylinder.
● The air-fuel mixture is injected via the
carburetor that controls the quantity and the
quality of the injected mixture.

Ignition of fuel ● The ignition of fuel occurs due to compression of ● The spark plug is placed in the cylinder head of
the air-fuel mixture, spark plug not needed. an engine which create spark to burn the fuel.

Compression ratio for the fuel ● The compression ratio for air is 16 to 20. The ● The compression ratio of the fuel ranges from 6
high to 10, depending on the size of the engine and
compression ratio of air creates high temperature of the power to be produced.
which ensures diesel fuel to self-ignite.

Weight of the engines ● The engines are heavier than SI engines. ● Engine weight is lighter than diesel engine.

Speed achieved by the engine ● CI engines are heavier and the fuel is ● Petrol or SI engines are lightweight and the fuel
heterogeneously burned, hence producing lower is homogeneously burned, hence achieving very
speeds. high speeds.

Thermal efficiency of the engine ● The value of compression ratio is higher; hence ● The lower compression ratio of SI engines
these engines have the potential to achieve reduces their potential to achieve higher
higher thermal efficiency. thermal efficiency.

Feature Compression Ignition Spark Ignition

Compression Ratio 15 to 21 6 to 9.5 (petrol)
6 to 12 (alcohol)
Pressure after compression 35 to 60 bar 15 to 20 bar
without ignition
Temperature after 600 to 900°C 400 to 600°C
compression without ignition
Excess air ratio 1.3 to 4.0 0.7 to 1.2
Efficiency 0.30 to 0.40 0.20 to 0.35
Specific fuel consumption 230 to 350 g/kW-hr 300 to 400 g/kW-hr
Volumetric efficiency 0.7 to 0.9 0.3 to 0.9
Exhaust gas temperature 400 to 600°C 500 to 900°C
Speed ratio (stationary) 1,300 to 2,500 1,300 to 2,500
Ignition type Self-ignition by injection of fuel into hot Spark ignition of spark plugs
compressed air shortly before piston
reaches the top dead center

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 Firing Order
• It is the sequence of movement of the piston as it produces power.
• It is an order in which the engine cylinders deliver the power
strokes at best engine performance. It is also related to engine
balancing.
No. of Cylinder Order of Firing

O D
2 No. 1 – No. 2
O O D
3 No. 1 – No. 2 – No. 3
O O D D
4 No. 1 – No. 2 – No. 4 – No. 3
O O O D D D
6 No. 1 – No. 5 – No. 3 – No. 6 – No. 2 – No. 4

The first piston can be found near the flywheel while the last is
located near the cooling fan or radiator.

Running Mates
● Running mates are pistons that go up and down together in exactly
the same position but of different function. One of them is performing
compression or power stroke, and the other is on the intake or exhaust
stroke.
● To find the running mate, simply take the firing order and split it in
half. If firing order is 153624, for example, split it into half (153-624)
then put the second number under the first to get the running mates.
Hence, 1/6, 5/2, and 3/4.

Vertical Engine Horizontal Engine V-Engine

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 Fuel Injection

• It is a fuel feeding method for most diesel and newer models of

gasoline engines where high-pressure electric pump mixes precisely
measured amount of filtered fuel and air. The mixture of fuel and air
is then sprayed into the cylinders by fuel injectors.

Turbo Chargers

• A turbo charger is designed to improve the power output of an engine

beyond its normal operating capacity. A normally aspirated engine uses a
mixture of air and fuel that is pulled into it from vacuum created by the
cylinders.
• It increases the amount of air injected into the engine, which also allows
more fuel to be injected and increases higher power output by 30%.

15
 Super Charger
• Its function is the same with turbo charger except that they are
engine driven rather than exhaust-gas driven.
• Super charger is used in spark ignition (gasoline engines) since the
power from exhaust gases is low as a result of low compression
ratio.

Inter Cooler
• When the inlet gases get compressed by the engine compressor, the
temperature of the gases increases which results in its expansion at
the inlet manifold of the engine and reduce the volumetric efficiency
of the engine.
• To avoid this, an inter cooler is used to cool the gases coming out of
the compressor which then reduces the volume of the inlet gases
and increases the volumetric efficiency of the engine.

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 FORMULA AND SAMPLE PROBLEM
CALCULATIONS

Piston Displacement Compression Ratio

π D2 PD + CV
PD = ----------- L n CR = -----------------
4 CV

where: where:

PD – piston displacement, CR – compression ratio

cm3 PD – piston displacement,
Dp – piston diameter, cm cm3
L – length of stroke, cm CV – clearance volume,
n – number of cylinders cm3

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 Brake Horsepower
P L A NHorsepower
Indicated n BHP = IHP x ξm or
IHP = -------------- = IHP - FHP
33000 c

where: where:
IHP – indicated horsepower,
hp BHP – brake horsepower, hp
P – mean effective IHP – indicated horsepower,
pressure, psi hp
L – length of stroke, ft ξm – engine mechanical
A – area of bore, in 2 efficiency, decimal
N – crankshaft speed, rpm FHP – friction horsepower,
n – number of cylinder hp
c - 2 for four-stroke
engine and 1 for two-
stroke engine

No. of Explosion per Min No. of Intake Valve to Open

N
N No. IV to open = ---------------
No. Exp/min = ------------ c
c
where:
where:
N – crankshaft speed,
N – crankshaft speed, rpm
rpm c - 2 for four-stroke
c - 2 for four-stroke engine and 0 for
engine and 1 for two-stroke engine
two-stroke engine

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 Engine Displacement per
Piston Displacement per
Min Min
PD x N x ξv ED x N x ξv
PD/min = ---------------- ED/min = ---------------
100 c 100 c
where: where:

PD - Piston displacement, li ED - engine displacement, li

N - crankshaft speed,
rpm
ξv - vol efficiency, %
c - 2 for four-stroke
engine and 1 for
two-stroke engine
N - crankshaft speed, rpm
ξv - vol efficiency, %
C - 2 for four-stroke
engine and 0 for
two-stroke engine

Sample Problem 1

Suppose a 4-cylinder engine has a bore of 3.5 in.

and a stroke of 4.0 in., what is the piston
displacement of the engine?

Given:
No. of cylinders - 4
Piston diameter- 3.5 in.
Stroke - 4.0 in.
Required:
Piston displacement
Solution:
PD = π (3.5 in.)2/4 x 4.0 in. x 4
cylinders
= 153.9 in.3

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Sample Problem 2

Calculate the indicated horsepower of a six-

cylinder engine, 4" bore and 4" stroke, 1500
rpm, 80 psi mean effective pressure.
Given:
No. of cylinders - 6
Bore, D - 4 in.
Stroke, L - 4 in.
RPM, N - 1500 rpm
Pressure, P - 80 psi
Required:
Indicated horsepower
Solution:
L = 4 in. x 1 ft/12 in. = 0.34 ft
A = π/4 x D2 = π/4 (4)2 = 12.57 in 2
IHP = PLANn / (33, 000 x 2)
= (80 x 0.34 x 12.57 x 1500 x 6) / 33, 000 x 2
= 46.61 hp

Sample Problem 3

Suppose an engine has a piston displacement

of 38.4 in 3. If the clearance volume of the
cylinder is 2.5 in 3, what is its compression
ratio?

Given:
PD - 38.4 in 3
CV - 2.5 in 3
Required:
Compression ratio
Solution:
CR = (38.4 in 3 + 2.5 in 3 ) / 2.5 in 3
= 16.4

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Sample Problem 4

The indicated power of an engine is 69

horsepower. The brake horsepower is 54.
What is the mechanical or engine efficiency?

Given:
IHP - 69 Hp
BHP - 54 Hp
Required:
Mechanical Efficiency
Solution:
Mech Eff = BHP / IHP
= 54 Hp / 69 Hp
= 78.26%

ENGINE SPECIFICATIONS

• It gives the physical features and

performance characteristics of
the engine in terms of power,
fuel consumption, and efficiency.
• An engine specification sheet
provides specific information
such as engine model,
performance, engine photo,
specification data, dimension,
and performance curve.

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 ENGINE PERFORMANCE CURVE
• It is a graphical representation showing the abilities of rotating
equipment, like engine, at various operating conditions.
• It gives the characteristics of an engine in terms of power, fuel
consumption, and torque for a given operating speed .

PRODUCER GAS FOR ICE

• All three types of engine (gas, gasoline,

and diesel) can be fueled with gasifier.
• All diesel engine cannot operate on gasifier
alone but must be mixed with diesel oil.
• Due to the part behavior of a diesel engine,
only 50 to 70% of the diesel oil can only
be replaced by gasifier.
• The efficiency of ICE will not be changed
much when fueled with gas.
• The power output of the engine fueled with
gasifier at an arbitrary rpm will decrease by
10 to20% for dual fed diesel engine, and
30 to 50% for gasoline engine.

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 • High speed engines are not as suitable with low
speed engines.
• In some cases such as charcoal gasifier engine
system, it is advisable to advance the ignition of
the engine to 15 to 30 deg before top dead
center.
• The choice of the proper engine oil is important
but no close opinion exist which oil is most
suitable. One can expect to have engine oil
changed as twice as often for an engine fueled
with gasifer.
• In case of gasifier, it is advantageous to use
slow speed engines with a high internal inertia.
• Engine with cast iron sleeves are more suitable
since the sleeve when scratched ca be replaced
easily.

BIOGAS AS FUEL FOR ICE

• Biogas is a mixture of approximately 60

per cent methane (CH4), 40 per cent
carbon dioxide (CO2), and traces of
hydrogen sulphide (H2S). High
CO2 content reduces the power output,
making it uneconomical as fuel for ICE.
H2S is acidic and if not removed can
cause corrosion of engine parts within a
shorter period. High residual moisture
from biogas which can cause engine
starting problems. Biogas can vary in
quality and pressure.

23
• Biogas can be used in both spark ignition and compression ignition
engines. The exact amount needed depends upon the methane
content of the biogas. Approximate substitution is: (a) 1.3 -
1.9m3 biogas per liter of petrol/gasoline, or (b) 1.5 - 2.1m3 biogas per
liter of diesel.
• ICE will run hotter in biogas than with a liquid fuel which requires an
efficient cooling system minimize engine wear problems.
• Biogas will not self-ignite in a diesel engine. Therefore, it is
necessary to use a little diesel (approximately 20 per cent) to ignite
the fuel.
• In compression ignition engine, biogas enters the engine via the air
inlet system, after the air filter. This needs therefore a small
modification to the air intake system of the engine. Around 0.6-
0.7m3 of biogas/kWh.
•

• In spark ignition engine, 100 per cent

biogas with air mixture can be used.
Modifications of the air intake system
similar to compression ignition engine
are required.
• Problems may be encountered with
engines that uses biogas such as the
valves sticking and cylinder wear
which eventually leads to loss of
power.
• The acid from which is formed from
H2S corrodes engine parts in the
combustion chamber, exhaust system
and in various bearings.

24
 This is enhanced by frequent starts, short running times and the
relatively low temperatures when starting up and after cutting off the
engine. The water cooling system also provides the means (water
needed to form sulphuric acid) for corrosion. Running engines with
gas containing H2S can reduce the service time to the first general
overhaul by about 10 - 15%. The sulphur content of biogas used in
gas engines shortens the time between oil changes and overhauls.
SO2 from combustion and water vapor both dissolve in the
lubricating oil. The oil becomes acidic, and its properties change,
losing its ability to lubricate and sometimes corroding metal
components. Under continuous operating conditions, the interval
between oil changes is reduced to 200 - 250 hours.

Engine-Generator Specification
Sample Specification Genset Fuel Biogas Biogas Biogas
Genset Model 80GF-ZC- 120GF-ZC- 160GF-ZC-
AMD AMD AMD
Prime KW 80 120 160
Power KVA 100 150 200
Standby KW 88 132 186
Power KVA 110 165 220
Gas consumption 0.50Nm 3 0.49Nm 3 0.48Nm 3
/kw. h /kw. h /kw. h
Engine Engine Model EQD110N WT615.93 WT615.94
BorexStroke(mm) 6-105× 120 6-155× 126 6-155× 126

Total displacement(L) 6.234 9.726 9.726

Starting Method 24VDC Electric Start
Intake Method Turbocharged& intercooled
Product Description
Fuel Gontrol Oxygen sensor closed loop control
Biogas is the cleanest energy on the earth.
Ignition Control Electronically controlled
Biogas Generating could reduce the environmental
independent cylinder high-energy
pollution good for the environment protection; As well, ignition
it could ease the contradictions between power supply Speed Control Electronic Speed governing
and demand. Biogas generating reduced the cost of Rated Speed rpm 1500 or 1800
production and it enhances the competitiveness of Cooling Method Closed-Loop water cooling
enterprises. Alternater Rated Voltage(V) 230/400 230/400 230/400
Rated Current(A) 144.3 216.5 288.6
Biogas is made by Methanogen in the closed Rated Frequency (HZ) 50 or 60 50 or 60 50 or 60
environment with the definite air temperature, humidity
and etc. 1 M3 biogas could generate 2kw. At this Supply Connection 3 Phase 4 Lines
present, plenty of biogas is made from rural areas and Power Factor 0.8(Delay)
farming industries per year. As well, it produced from Spec Net weight(KG) 1200 1450 1750
urban organic industrial effluents, garbage and such Size(L× W× H)mm 2240× 2700× 2900×
industrial plants like distillery, citric acid plants, etc. 1000× 1120× 1150×
1400 1600 1680

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 BIOETHANOL AS FUEL FOR ICE

• Ethanol is a high octane, water free

alcohol produced from the fermentation of
sugar or converted starch. It is a high-
quality octane booster fuel with high
oxygen content that can reduce emission
of exhaust gas. The high oxygen content
of ethanol burns the fuel more completely
and produces less pollution.
• E85 blend having 85% bioethanol and
15% unleaded gasoline can enhance the
starting of an engine in extremely cold
weather.

• Benefits of blending ethanol in fuel are: (a) reduce knocking and pinging,
(b) improve gas mileage, (c) better acceleration, and (d) Improve starting
qualities.
• So far E10 (10% bioethanol and 90% gasoline) is given with warranty by
all domestic car users worldwide.
• Ethanol is a good cleaning agent. It helps keep newer engine clean. For
old engines, it sometimes loosen contaminants and residues which blocks
fuel delivery systems. Alcohol is a strong cleaning agent and has the
ability to degrade certain engine parts such as rubber, plastics, and even
metals over time.
• Ethanol also has the ability absorbs water which eliminate the need for a
gas-line antifreeze.
• Valve burning is decrease when using ethanol since it burns cooler than
ordinary unleaded gasoline. That is why many racing engines uses
ethanol as fuel.
• E5 and below do not require engine modification when use as fuel.

26
• Engine using alcohol blended fuel can lose mileage since alcohol
have less heating value with regular unleaded gasoline fuel. For E85,
a lost in mileage of around a 2 to 30% is expected for conventional
engine while 2 to 10% in flex fuel engine.
• Converting regular spark-ignition internal combustion engine requires
correct air-fuel mixture. Ethanol requires roughly 30% less BTU than
regular fuel and requires more fuel to be injected into the engine to get
a right combustion condition. For unleaded gasoline a stoichiometric
air of 14.7:1 while for E85 a stoichiometric air of 9.7:1 is required.
• The octane rating of ethanol is much higher than gasoline which is
around 100 to 105. To minimize detonation, a compression ratio of
the range of 12:5to 14:1 is required to minimize this problem. This
can be done by (a) milling the head of cylinder cover, or (b) turbo
charging. Most regular engine uses a compression ratio of 8:1 up to
10:1.

• Advantages of alcohol as fuel for the engine:

(1) It has high octane rating which prevents
engine detonation (knock) under load, (2) it
burns clean with reduction in noxious
emission with no build up on carbon and
gum deposit, (3) it runs cooler than gasoline
which extend the life of an engine and
reducing the change of overheating.
• For alcohol, an advance ignition timing of
around 22 deg BTDC or slightly less is
required as compared to the regular
gasoline engine of 8 deg. This can be done
by turning the distributor housing opposite to
the direction which the rotor spin.

27
 REFERENCES
• Engine. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engine
• Firing Order. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firing_order
• Miller, R. and R. Miller. 1984. Small Gasoline Engines. Theodore
Audel and Company. Boston. 632pp.
• Schulz, E. J. 1977. Diesel Mechanics. McGRaw-Hill Inc. U.S.A.
420pp.
• Stephenson, G.E. 1984. Small Gasoline Engines. 4 th Ed. Delmar
Publishers Inc. Canada. 279pp.
• http://www.kenrockwell.com/190d/index.htm

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