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UPDATED TO 2024 SYLLABUS

CAIE IGCSE
GEOGRAPHY
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY

Overpopulation Under population

1. Theme 1: Population and Soil erosion,

deforestation.
Few people pay
taxes.
Settlement Resources are not
Lack of resources \n exploited fully,
In ation reducing the
1.1. Population Dynamics potential
More air and water, Lack of services due
The world population is increasing day by day.
noise pollution, and to low demand,
An area can be either:
shortage of housing. particularly in rural
1. Overpopulation occurs when more people live in an Tra c congestions. areas and innovation
area than there are resources available.
2. Underpopulation occurs when fewer people live in the There are two ways in which a population can change:
area than there are resources available.
Migration: the action of moving from one place to
3. Optimum population: This occurs when there is a
another.
balance between the number of people and the
Natural population change: deducting death rate from
resources available.
birth rate.
Keywords:
1.2. Migration
Birth rate: average number of live births in a year for
every 1000 people
Keywords:
Death rate: average number of deaths for every 1000
Migration: Movement of people from one place to
people
another
Natural increase of a country: Birth rate minus death rate
Immigrants: People who arrive in a country to live
there permanently
Overpopulation Under population
Emigrants: People who leave the country to live in
High birthrate and Low birthrate and
Causes/reasons. another country permanently
low death rate high death rate
Net migration: Number of immigrants minus the
High fertility rate Low fertility rate number of emigrants
Increased family Types of migration:
Lack of family
planning and access Internal migration: When people move from one place
planning
to contraception. to another within the country.
Low level of High level of International migration: When people move from one
education for education for women country to another; involving the crossing a country’s
women, hence to have careers and border.
married early. marry late. Temporary migration: When people stay in an area for
a limited time.
High infant mortality Low infant mortality
Permanent migration: When people move and never
Limited religious
return home.
Religious beliefs beliefs relating to a Involuntary (forced) migration: When people are
number of children forced to move.
Greater life Voluntary migration: When people choose to move.
Low life expectancy.
expectancy Refugees: A person who has been forced to leave their
More ageing home and their country due to a natural disaster, war,
Lack of water,
population, hence religious or political persecution
Impacts sanitization, housing,
more people in Asylum Seekers: Someone seeking refuge (residency)
and food.
retirement age. in a foreign country because their life is in danger in
High crime rate and their home country.
Low crime rate Reasons for population migration:
poverty.
Push factors: Reasons for people to move away from
Unemployment Shortage of workers
their home country.
There is no pressure Pull factors: Factors that attract migrants to their
Increased pressure
on health and destination.
on health, education,
education; hence,
water, and
costs increase as the Origin: Push factors Destination: Pull factors
sanitization.
population ages.

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Origin: Push factors Destination: Pull factors Positive Negative

Unemployment More job opportunities Culture shocks, racism and
More job opportunities
War Better salary discrimination.
good health and education Better salary & access to a Di culty in nding houses to
Pollution and congestion wider variety of good stay
services
Bad weather Peaceful and safe Better access to education &
Language barriers
Friends and family may healthcare
High crime rates Di erent cultures may be
already live there. Safer & peaceful
Poor education and di cult to integrate.
Citizenship Separated from friends and
healthcare Higher pay
Poor housing A higher standard of living family.

Famine Closer to relatives A higher standard of living Higher cost of living.

Drought Freedom of speech Send remittances to family Not used to weather

back home. conditions.
Inaccessibility Better lifestyle
Better quality of life Visa and weather conditions
Pollution Fewer hazards

Impacts of Migration on Country of Origin: 1.3. Population Structure

Advantages Disadvantages Keywords:
Less pressure on healthcare Labour force reduced. Ageing population: Old dependents (people above 60
years old)
Brain drains more
Dependent population: People who don’t work; are
skilful/educated labour leave
Decline in birth rate. retired and have young children.
the country - fewer
innovations. Population Pyramid: a type of graph that shows the age and
Migrants bring back new sex structure of the country; the distribution of age, sex, and
Division of families
skills. population of di erent countries is known as population
Money is sent back Left with elderly population - structure and is represented on a population pyramid.
(remittances) less income.
more job opportunities hence
the unemployment rate Tax increase
decrease
Decrease tra c congestion More ageing population
and pollution. (retirement age)
Increased quality of education Depopulation in rural areas
and healthcare a ects agriculture.

Country of Destination
Advantages
Overcomes labour shortage.
More pressure on healthcare,
Dirty unskilled jobs done.
education and public services
Brings expertise to the
country.
Skilled migrants bring
innovations.
Cultural diversity and
enrichment
Will work long hours for a low
salary.
Boosts local economy.
Disadvantages
Competition for jobs
Implication of Dependents:
Too few Too Many
Taxes for public
Tra c congestion
Closure of child- schools from the
Young
Less religious amenities for related services; fewer government and more
dependents:
immigrants jobs. child-related services
Discrimination and racial are needed.
problems Fewer consumers and
More people in the
taxpayers in the future
Increased pollution working population in
and fewer people to
future hence
take over the working
unemployment.
population.

Impacts on Migrants Themselves An increase in the age Increased dependency

of the population ratio

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Too few Too Many Sparse Population Dense Population

Pressure on
Less labour in future healthcare and
education
The strain on pension More pensions to be
Old
systems; decrease in paid, increased
dependents:
retirement age. retirement age.
Population structure More pressure on
changes. public transportation
Expensive medical and pressure on
health care. healthcare
Not enough labour
Loneliness
force
Di cult to evacuate
Increased residential
old dependents during
costs.
natural disasters.
Di erent Types of Population Pyramids
Locations with frequent No or few natural
natural disasters disasters.
Good water supply i.e.
No water supplies.
a river.
Economic No economic Many jobs
factors opportunities opportunities
No infrastructure Good infrastructures
Many transport routes
No transport routes.
to travel easily.
Bad communication Good communication
Social
High crime rates Low crime rates
factors
Cultural and religious
No Cultural and
beliefs of having big
religious beliefs.
family.
Political Government Reliable and stable
factors corruption government
Poor public services
such as healthcare and Good public services
education
Civil war No threats or wars.
Low birth rate and high High birth rate and low
death rate. death rate.

1.5. Settlements (Rural & Urban) and

Service Provision
Settlement Patterns

\n \n
1.4. Population Density & Distribution
Keywords:
Population density: number of people per unit of area
(typically per kilometre square)
Sparsely populated: an area with low population
density An isolated, Buildings are
Densely populated: an area with high population building or a group strung along a line Buildings are
density of two or three of communication, grouped, initially for
Factors in uencing: buildings, for example, a main defence or a
separated from the road, a river valley, common resource.
Sparse Population Dense Population next by 2 or 3 km. or a canal
Harsh areas;
Physical Site: describes the physical nature of where a settlement
mountainous or Flat relief
Factors is located – the actual piece of land
uneven relief
Extreme/harsh Situation: describes settlement about other settlements
Favourable climates and physical features around it – this determines whether
climates and bad
and good weather the situation will grow into a large city or remain a small
weather
town or village
Availability of natural
Factors in uencing settlements:
High risk of ooding resources for industry
Wet point site: this has a good water supply
and manufacturing.
Drypoint site: this has less risk of ooding
Infertile soil Fertile land for crops

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Building material: availability of stone, wood, clay, etc.
Defensive site: in a river meander or on a hill with
steep-sided and commanding views
Fuel supply: for heating and cooking
Food supplies: land suitable for farming
Nodal points: where routes converge
Bridging point: river shallow enough to build a bridge
Aspect: settlements often on the sunny side of a valley
Shelter: from cold prevailing winds and rain
Climate: A good climate attracts more people.
Fertile land: brings in more farmers.
Location: access to trades and raw materials.
Hierarchy of Settlements
A hierarchy is when settlements are ordered and classi ed
based on:
Population size.
Several services were provided.
Number of settlements. \n
Determining the order of importance:
The population size
The range and number of services
The sphere of in uence
Sphere of In uence: an area served by a settlement
Services: Facilities that are o ered to people, e.g.
supermarkets. Services have a threshold population,
which helps explain why bigger settlements have more
services.
Range: The distance that people are prepared to travel to
use a service.
Threshold Population: The minimum amount of people
required for a service to be o ered and remain open.
High-Order Goods (Comparison): Goods that people
buy less frequently. They tend to be more expensive,
and people will normally compare quality and price
before purchasing e.g. a car
Low-Order Goods (Convenience): Goods that people
buy every day. They don't usually cost much money,
and people would not normally travel far to buy them
e.g. bread and milk
Functions of settlements:
Rural Areas: have a lot fewer functions than urban
areas. The primary purpose of settlements in rural
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areas usually is agriculture & low-order services.
This is because rural areas have fewer people,
poorer transport, poorer communication, less
technology, & the land is better used for other
purposes.
Urban Areas: tend to have many more functions
ranging from shopping to educational, transport,
administrative, and residential functions; and more
middle and high-order services.
Urban Sprawl: The spread or growth of an urban
area into the rural-urban fringe; provides mainly
middle–order services
1.6. Urban Settlements
Urban Settlements tend to have several land uses
The Central Business District (CBD):
Centre point of the city and has the highest land prices
The most accessible point in the city
High-rise buildings and skyscrapers
Functions: retail, entertainment, nancial services, and
other professional services
Land uses:
Leisure and recreation - may include open land
Residential - High/multi-storey buildings.
Transport - road and rail networks, train stations and
airports
Business and commerce - o ces, shops, and banks
Industry - factories, warehouses, and small production
centres
The CBD is in the centre because it is:
A central location for roads/railways to converge
The most accessible location for workers
Accessible to most people for shops and businesses
Problems that CBD face: congestion, pollution, and lack of
space
Old inner-city area:
Typically found next to CBD
It has mainly terraced houses in a grid-like pattern
Suburbia:
Urban sprawl and owning cars led to the construction
of well-planned and spacious houses
Larger than inner city terraces & most have a garden
Typically, detached or semi-detached
Roads are arranged in cul-de-sacs and wide avenues
Land prices are cheaper than in CBD and inner city
Demand can make some areas expensive
Outer-city estate:
Located on the fringes of cities with varied housing
People relocated here when the inner city was being
redeveloped
Rural-urban fringe:
This is found at the edge of a town or city
A mixture of land uses, e.g. housing, golf courses,
allotments, businesses, parks and airports.
Industrial Areas
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Factories were built: Push factors from a rural area Pull factors from urban areas
As close as possible to the CBD but with enough space Poor transport/comms.
Next to canals and railways to transport materials
Next to rivers for cooling, power source or waste
Urban Wedges: urban growth is allowed to take place in
disposal
wedges, ensuring some green areas are protected
Next to land where lots of workers could live
throughout the city
Housing density: increasing housing density means less
Urban Growth in Urban Areas
land will be destroyed
Urban Growth/Sprawl: rapid urbanisation due to building
in the rural-urban fringe and land reclamation Squatter Settlement

Problems of urban growth in urban areas: A squatter settlement is a rural residential area which has
For People For Environment developed without legal claims or permission to build on
Overcrowded Loss of vegetation the land.
Unable to obtain jobs/low pay Loss of habitats It has:
Pressure on schools/hospitals Impacts on food chains
Increased crime rates Pollution of rivers Extremely high home density
Extremely high population density
Di culties of waste/litter Death of sh/other species
Houses built from mud for walls, iron for roofs
Tra c congestion Pollution of groundwater No electricity
Noise pollution Air/atmospheric pollution No running water or sewage
Lack of sanitation Rivers dry up Diseases spread easily
Poor quality of life The pungent smell of human waste
No infrastructure or privacy
Food shortage

1.7. Urbanisation 2. Theme 2: The Natural

Urban Growth in Rural Areas Environment
Many rural areas seek & experience rapid urban growth
for several reasons:
2.1. Earthquakes and Volcanoes
Better transport links, e.g. road, rail, river
Better trading prospects Volcanoes
Nearby natural resources, e.g. fuel
A volcano is formed when magma erupts onto the earth’s
Better job prospects
surface as lava through the vent in the earth's crust.
Better schools and hospitals
Better supply of electricity, gas and water
Varied entertainment
Features of a Volcano

Rural-Urban Migration

Movement of people from the countryside towards cities

Rural-urban migration is the main cause of urbanisation
It is caused by several push & pull factors:

Push factors from a rural area Pull factors from urban areas
No/poorly paid jobs More jobs
Mechanisation of farming Good schools/healthcare
Agricultural products have
Good transport/comms
low prices
Poor schools/healthcare Reliable supply of resources
Lack of entertainment Better entertainment Feature Characteristics

Better quality & quantity of Lava Magma that reaches the surface
Poor housing quality Clouds of mixed poisonous gases and
houses Pyroclastic ow
Drought/famine pace and excitement ash

Shortage of resources government support Ash Very ne-grained volcanic material

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Feature Characteristics
Snow and ice melt and combine with
Lahars
the ash, creating lahars.
Main vent Central tube through the volcano
Eruptions from other vents lead to the
Secondary cones formation of secondary cones on the
sides.
Bowl bowl-shaped basin at the top of
Crater
the volcano Low viscosity (runny lava) -
Viscous (thick) - andesitic lava
Magma chamber A large underground pool of magma basaltic lava
Low in height, gently sloping High in height, steep-sided
How do volcanoes form? sides with a broad base volcanic cones
Magma rises through cracks in the Earth’s crust
Low silica content (covers High silica content (covers
Pressure builds up (inside Earth)
long distances) short distance)
Pressure and tension are released → Plate movement
Frequent eruptions but low in Rare eruptions but in high
Magma explodes to the surface, causing an eruption
magnitude magnitude
Lava cools and forms a new crust
Over time, rock builds up, and new crusts form on top, High temperature Low temperature
forming a volcano. Low gas content High gas content
There is little build-up
Impacts of Volcanic Eruption: Enormous build-up pressure
pressure.
Environmental Human
Pyroclastic ow Loss of life and injury Causes of eruptions:
lava ow collapse and destruction of buildings At constructive margin, plates move away from each
volcanic bombs transport network damaged other; magma rises to ll the gap;
At the destructive margin, oceanic crust melts from
Laharas Loss of jobs and businesses
friction and heat from the mantle; newly formed
earthquakes Loss of crops
magma is lighter, so it rises to the surface
ashfall Power and water supply damaged
landslides Distribution of Volcanoes:
Tsunami
acid rain
ash fallout

Opportunities of Volcanos:
The cooled lava contains minerals,
Fertile soils
leading to a high yield of crops.
Many people want to visit the area and
Tourism
study it.
Minerals and They can be sold, providing more work
precious stones and income.
Geothermal the magma gives out heat, which can be
energy used to generate geothermal energy.
Creating new land once the lava and ash cool forms new
areas fertile land.
Earthquakes
Stages of Volcanoes:
Active: has erupted recently and is likely to erupt Earthquakes
An earthquake is a sudden violent shaking of ground followed
again.
by a series of vibrations or movements in the earth's crust.
Dormant: has not erupted recently but may in future
Extinct: no evidence to erupt again.
How earthquakes happen:
Types of Volcanoes:
Tectonic plates move; they strike.
Pressure and tension build up as the plates try to
move.

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Eventually, they jolt free and pressure and tension are Earthquake-proof buildings:
released inside the crust as energy.
The energy passes through the earth’s crust as waves,
an earthquake.
Features of earthquake:

Tectonic Plates
Features of earthquakes
Focus: point of earthquake
Epicentre: point directly above the focus, on the ground
Seismic waves
Shaking ground
Subduction zone: occurs at a destructive margin; one plate
goes under the other
Magnitude: the amount of energy released.

E ects of earthquakes
A large number of deaths Types of Plate Boundaries:
Fires breaking out Diagram Description
Water pipes burst
Water contamination, diseases
Collision: occurs when two
Corpses: human & animal
continental plates move
Accessibility di cult
towards each other.
Building damaged/destroyed
Tsunami can follow
Reconstruction costs Example: Indo-Australian and
the Eurasian Plate
Reduce impacts of earthquakes:

Prediction Preparation Constructive/divergent:

Measure earth tremors,
pressure, and release of gas
Use maps and facts to nd
Train emergency services
patterns in time/location
Unusual animal behaviour
Seismometer
Richter scale
Build earthquake-proof occurs when two plates move
buildings away from each other.
Example: North American and
Set up a warning system
Eurasian Plate
Create evacuation plan
Emergency food supply
Prepare earthquake kit

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Diagram Description The Hydrological Cycle

Conservative/transform:
occurs when two plates slide
past each other.
The hydraulic cycle is where water is constantly recycled
Example: North American through the system.
Plate and the Paci c Plate Drainage basin - the area of land drained by a river.

Destructive/subduction/conve
rgent: occurs when a
continental plate subducts an
oceanic plate.

Example: paci c plate and the

Eurasian plate

Plate boundary Volcanoes Earthquakes Fold mountains

Catchment area - the area within the drainage basin.
Constructive Gentle Gentle No Watershed - the edge of a highland surrounding a
Destructive Violent Violent Yes drainage basin. It marks the boundary between two
Collision None Violent Yes drainage basins.
Conservative None Violent No Source - The beginning or start of a river.
Con uence - the point at which two rivers or streams join.
Tributary - a stream or smaller river joins a larger stream
Structure of the Earth
or river.
The mouth is where the river ends, usually when entering
the sea.

Drainage basins act as a system with:

Inputs: precipitation
Transfers: in ltration, percolation, surface runo ,
through ow & groundwater ow
Stores: interception, surface storage, soil moisture
storage & groundwater storage

Outputs: evaporation & transpiration or evapotranspiration

Drainage Basin Features

Crust

There are two types of crust:

The oceanic crust is thinner (5-10km) but heavier and

denser
The continental crust is thicker (25-90km) but is older and
denser
The oceanic crust is continually being created and
destroyed due to plate movement, where it is denser and
subducts under the continental crust.

2.2. Rivers

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Attrition: large particles such as boulders collide and

break into smaller pieces.
Hydraulic action: owing water that hits against the
riverbanks and beds.
Abrasion: smaller particles rub against the riverbanks and
bed like sandpaper.
Solution: acid in rivers dissolves rocks; it occurs at any
part of the river

Types of Erosion

Vertical erosion: dominant in the upper course of rivers. It

increases the river's depth and valley as the river erodes
downwards.
Lateral erosion: dominant in the middle and lower course
of rivers. It increases the width of the river and valley as it
erodes sideways.

Transportation

Bed: The bottom of the river channel

Bank: The sides of the river channel
A river has two banks
Width: The distance between the two banks of a river
Depth: The distance from the water surface to the bed of
a river
Speed of ow: how fast the water in a river is moving;
di erent speeds arise at di erent parts of the river
Wetted perimeter: length of the bed and banks in contact
with the river
Channel: The route course (between bed and banks) that
a river ows. The ow of the river is often described as
channel ow.
Thalweg: The fastest part of the river, always near the
middle of the river channel, where there is least friction Traction: rolling stones along the bed
Saltation: small particles bounce along the bed in a
River Processes leapfrog motion
Suspension: silt and clay-sized are carried within the
1. Erosion water ow
2. Transportation Solution: minerals dissolve in the water
3. Deposition
Deposition
Erosion
When a river lacks the energy to carry its load, it deposits
Erosion is the wearing away of surfaces. the heaviest particles.
It happens when there is less water or where the current
slows down
Large boulders are deposited at the top, and very small
particles are deposited at the end, resulting in sorting

River Pro les

Long pro le:

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Interlocking Spurs

Cross Pro le

Meanders
River Landforms and their Formation

Water Fall and Gorges:

V-shaped valley:

Oxbow Lake

Floodplains and Levees

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2.3. Coasts
The sea forms coasts and winds working together in 3
Floods essential tasks: erosion, transportation and deposition
Components of a wave:
Causes of ooding: Swash: when a wave breaks & washes up the beach
No vegetation Backwash: when the water drains back into the sea
Deforestation
Urbanization Types of Waves
Poor drainage
Steep slopes Constructive Destructive
Rock type (impermeable rocks do not absorb water) Low wave height High wave height
Wet soil (over saturation)
The beach gradient is gentle The beach gradient is steep
Impacts Opportunities Spill forward gently Plunge forward
Water supply (drinking, Creates a strong swash Swash is weak
People can be killed.
washing) Water drains through beach Rotation of water causes a
Homes destroyed. Fishing industry material strong backwash
Spread of waterborne Backwash is weak Erodes beaches
Transportation for trading
diseases Deposits material
Shortage of clean water and Builds up beaches
Tourism
food
Infrastructure damaged Fertile soil Erosion:
Businesses destroyed. Powerplants (dams) Abrasion: larger rocks and sediments like boulders grind
Sports/recreation against the riverbed
Corrosion: salts and acids slowly dissolve a cli
Flood Management Techniques Attrition: smaller sediments collide with each other while
moving in the ow, making them rounder and smaller
Hydraulic action: the force of waves compresses air in
cli s

Transportation:

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Name Located at Advantages Disadvantages

Increases
distance
between waves Certain
In front of the and coasts → sections of the
Groynes area facing Waves lose coast may be
coastal erosion energy → more exposed
Reduces to erosion
impacts of
waves.
Reduces the
Longshore Drift: impact of
Not as e ective
waves on a
Waves approach the coast at an angle as other
Gabions Base of cli cli , prevents
Swash moves up the beach at an angle coastal
cli from being
Backwash drains straight back down the beach defences
undercut, and
Gradually moving material along the beach in a zig-zag
cheap
motion
Absorbs
energy of
waves,
prevents cli s
Slanted barrier from being
against waves eroded;
Revetments Expensive
at the base of Rippled
the cli surfaces help
dissipate wave
energy; No
need for much
maintenance

Coastal Opportunities Coastal Threats Rocks and Absorbs wave Visual pollution,
stones put energy, susceptible to
Sports/recreation Hurricanes Rip-raps
against the protects cli s being moved
Groundwater recharge Coastal storms base of the cli behind by the sea
Habitat for sh Tsunamis E ective, Visual pollution
Transport (shipping goods) Landslides Breakwaters Near coasts breaks easily
Tourism Flooding incoming water destroyed
Job opportunities Coastal erosion Prevents storm
Tidal
Side of coasts surges, very Expensive
barriers
Coastal Management e ective

Hard Engineering: Soft Engineering:

Name Located at Advantages Disadvantages Name Description Advantages Disadvantages
Reduce erosion Increases
Very expensive
and prevent distance
and big,
Coastlines/foot ooding; between
Sea wall requires Sand/shingle
of cli s Curved Beach waves and E ectiveness
constant added to the
structure nourishment cli s → Waves is uncertain
maintenance beach
breaks waves lose energy →
Less erosive
power.
Tourism is
Good barrier a ected as
Land Protect and against coastal dunes are
management rebuild dunes ooding and marked out of
erosion bounds to the
general public

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Name Description Advantages Disadvantages

Break up
waves and
reduce speed
and power of
waves → Limits E ectiveness
Marshland
area which is uncertain
waves can
reach →
Prevents
ooding
Widen beach
Beaches:
and reduces
Planting dead
Beach wave energy, E ectiveness In bays, the waves diverge outwards.
trees in sand
stabilization lowers the is uncertain The wave energy is dissipated, creating a low-energy
to stabilize
pro le of the environment. Hence, deposition to form beaches.
beach
Bays and Headland:
Landforms

Cli s and wave-cut platforms:

Wave erosion is concentrated at the foot of the cli

A wave-cut notch is formed
The cli is undercut & collapses
Repeated collapse causes retreat of the cli

Bays are formed due to softer rock getting eroded easily

Headlands are usually formed since they are made of
resistant rock and are eroded more di cultly.

Spits:

Caves, Arches, and Stack:

A band of weaker rock extends through a headland.

Erosion produces caves on both sides of the headland.
More erosion produces an arch through the headland.
Eventually, the roof is weak & collapses, forming a stack.

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Coral Reefs:

Coral reefs support a great diversity of life

Spits form when the coastline changes direction
Longshore drift carries material in the same direction
Sand & shingle is built up to form a spit
End of spit curves due to wave refraction or wind.
Sand Dunes:
Dunes form behind wide sandy beaches
Onshore winds pick up the dry sand from above the high-
water mark & carry it landward by saltation
If they encounter an obstacle, the wind loses energy &
deposits sand in the lee of the obstacle
Eventually, a dune is formed
Plants grow on it, which stabilizes it & traps more sand
Built from the limestone remains of coral skeletons &
coralline algae
Conditions required for the growth of coral reef:
Warm water/seas; temperatures 20 - 30C
Shallow water; not more than 60 meters deep
Water free from sediment/clear/availability of light
A plentiful supply of oxygen in water/unpolluted
A plentiful supply of plankton
Lack of strong current
Salt Marshes:

Mangrove Swamps:

Mangrove swamps are trees and shrubs that grow in

saline coastal habitats in the tropics and subtropics
Provide habitat and protection for many sh & other sea
animals, especially when young
They slow water ow, encouraging any sediment to be
deposited, keeping sea water clear
Protect the coast from erosion, storm surges, hurricanes,
and tsunamis
They are a source of food and material
Conditions required for the formation of mangrove
swamps:

2.4. Weather
Weather:
The mix of events that occur in our atmosphere,
including changes in temp., rainfall and humidity
It can vary from day to day and from place to place

Protip: essential to know the features of Stevenson’s screen

Stevenson’s Screen: contains the thermometers

Painted white to re ect the sun with a double lid for

insulation
Slatted sides to let the air circulate, but slanted
downwards to prevent light from getting in

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Legs 1m long to prevent heating from the ground

On short grass for the same amount of re ection

Three light rotating cups (mounted on a high pole) are

blown around by the wind the revolutions are counted &
Protip: important to know what weather instruments look like converted into m/s, km/h or knots
and have brief knowledge of how to use
Sunshine Recorder (Heliograph): records the amount of
Rain Gauge: has a xed diameter so that they collect the
sunshine at a given location
same amount of water & so comparisons can be made

Burns a timeline
Trace sunshine not the hours of daylight
The glass ball focuses the light
This burns a line onto the card

Max-min thermometer: Records max. & min. Temp. over 24hr

period
Made of a hollow cylinder (C) containing:
Funnel (A) to collect the water.
Container to collect water, which may be graduated
Emptied once every 24hrs
Rain is measured in millimetres.
Sunk into the ground, but not level, so splashes or
surface water can’t get in.

Anemometer: Measures wind speed

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Max thermometer contains mercury & min contains
alcohol
As temp. rises, mercury expands & pushes up a metal
index, and when it cools, mercury contracts, and the index
is left in place at highest temp
As temp. falls, alcohol contracts & pulls metal index with
it; but as alcohol expands, it ows past index, leaving it at
its lowest temp
Both indexes read from the bottom once every 24hrs
Wet & dry bulb thermometer (hygrometer): Used to calculate
the humidity of the air
A dry bulb is a normal mercury thermometer, and it
measures actual air temperature
The wet bulb is the same but is covered with a ne cloth
connected to a water reservoir.
Water evaporates from the cloth & cools temperature so
it reads a few degrees lower than air temp.
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Both wet & dry bulb temperatures read.
Barometer: Measures air pressure
Protip - Unit used: mb/millibars (was asked in 2021
Geography paper 4)
An aneroid barometer has a vacuum chamber
As air pressure rises & falls, the chamber contracts &
expands
Levers conduct this movement to a spindle, which moves
the pointer on the dial, which records the air pressure in
mmHg
Wind Vane: Records wind direction
The wind blows the etching so that the arrowhead points
into the wind.
Mounted on high places (rooftops)
Make sure no trees are blocking
2.5. Climate & Natural Vegetation
Weather
CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY

Describes the condition of the atmosphere, e.g. sunny,

hot, windy
Climate
This is the average condition over a longer period,
usually a few years.

Factors In uencing Climate Characteristics:

Latitude: closer to the equator = higher temperature

Distance from the sea: coastal area = warmer winters and
cooler summers
Prevailing winds: The seasonal di erence in heating
between land and the sea a ects the temperature of the
prevailing wind. Warm prevailing wind = rise in
temperature
Ocean currents: warm currents raise winter temperatures
in coastal areas; cold currents cool them down in summer
Altitude: higher altitude = lower temperature (1° per
100m)

Tropical Rainforest Climate:

Distribution: They are close to the equator, so they have very similar
climates all year around
Temp. is constant between 25-30°C
Rainfall all year around, monthly amounts vary slightly
Days start warm & then temp. and humidity build-up
Hot air rises, causing low pressure.

Adaptations:
Plants Animals
Drip tips - plants have leaves
The sloth uses camou age
with pointy tips. This allows
and moves very slowly,
water to run o the leaves
making it di cult for
quickly without damaging or
predators to spot.
Structure: breaking them.
Drip tips - plants have leaves
with pointy tips. This allows The spider monkey has long,
water to run o the leaves strong limbs to help it to climb
quickly without damaging or through the rainforest trees.
breaking them.

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Plants Animals The lack of cloud cover allows outgoing radiation to

escape
The ying frog has fully
Epiphytes are plants that live Causes night-time temps to be low
webbed hands and feet and a
on the branches of trees high The annual temperature range is very low
ap of loose skin that
up in the canopy. They get Daily temperature range is very high
stretches between its limbs,
their nutrients from the air
which allows it to glide from Deforestation of Tropical Rainforests
and water, not the soil.
plant to plant.
Lianas - vines which use the Causes:
tall Population growth
Economic growth
trees as support to reach the
Mining
The toucan has a long, large
Road building
bill to allow it to reach and cut
sunlight Agriculture
fruit from branches too weak
Urbanisation
to support its weight. Exploitation of land by TNCs
E ects:
Hot Deserts
Local environment Global environment People
Distribution: Death of local
Loss of vegetation Melting ice
tribes people
Global
More carbon
Causes oods warming/increase
dioxide
temperatures
Threatens species
Rising sea levels Less oxygen
with extinction
Changes in climate Reduction of
Loss of habitat patterns e.g. materials available
drought to build buildings
Vegetation & Animal Adaptations: Reduction of food Loss of species
Vegetation Animal supply such as polar bears

Camel have humps to store Soil erosion

Seeds remain dormant
water Food chain
Waxy leaves to reduce Foxes have big ears to reduce disrupted
transpiration heat
Thorns to protect from
predators
Shelter in underground to
avoid heat
3. Theme 3: Economic
Long roots to search for water
Only comes out at night to Development
hunt
Thick stem to store water
3.1. Development
Light colours to re ect
sunlight Development is the process of a country where it
improves its quality of life for its people, making its place
Climate: more independent.
Stages of development:
Deserts are extremely dry (arid) places
Least developed countries → developing countries →
Have less than 250mm of rainfall per year
newly developed countries → Developed countries.
Air is dry because:
Quality of life is the person’s well-being in terms of
Most of the moisture has precipitated over the
environment, security, health and happiness.
equator
Air travelling to the desert travels over land, not the
Indicators of Development
sea
No moisture leads to very few clouds, exposing them to
Gross National Product (GNP) per capita: wealth of a
high levels of incoming radiation from the sun
country averaged per person.
Causes day-time temps. to be very high
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capital: the total value
of goods and services produced within a country in a year

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divided by the country's population.

Birth Rate: number of births in a year per 1000 of the total
population
Death Rate: number of deaths in a year per 1000 of the
total population
Literacy rate: the percentage of people who can read and
write.
Life expectancy: the amount of time one is expected to
live
Infant Mortality: average number of deaths of infants
under 1 per 1000 live births per year.
Composite indices like the Human Development Index
(HDI): measure the disparities between countries. An LEDC,
e.g. Ghana
Economic Sectors The majority are in the primary sector.
Few in the secondary sector.
Economic activity involves making, providing, purchasing,
Tertiary may be larger than secondary.
or selling goods or services.
Economic activity can be divided into 4 categories:
Primary.
Secondary.
Tertiary.
Quaternary.

A NIC, e.g. Brazil

Majority tertiary.
Few in the secondary sector primary.
Primary is larger than secondary.
Sectors of the Industry:

An MEDC, e.g.
Comparing Nations:
UK

Low proportion in the primary sector.

Numbers are falling in the secondary sector.
The tertiary sector is the primary growth area.

Globalisation

Process in which the world is becoming increasingly

interconnected through economic, cultural, political and
tourism processes.
Causes of globalisation:

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Improvements in transportation
Freedom of trade
Improvements of communications
Labour availability and skills

Impacts of globalisation:
Positive Negative
Economic growth Economic Inequality
Job Displacement and Labor
Job Creation and Employment
Exploitation
Access to Goods and Services Environmental Degradation
Cultural Exchange and
Cultural Homogenization
Diversity
Exploitation of Developing
Technological Advancements
Countries
Access to Information and Social Disruption and
Communication Inequality
Environmental Awareness
Public Health Risks
and Sustainability

TNCs (Transnational Corporations

Companies that operate in more than 1 country, usually in

foreign countries or overseas.

Advantages
Job opportunities
Improvement in skills and
communication.
Good education, healthcare
and good quality of life.
Invest in infrastructure.
Cheaper products
Greater choice of goods
High level of income from
tourism, exports, imports
Access to vast levels of skills
and resources.
Disadvantages
Labour drain.
Damage to the environment -
factories create air pollution.
Cultural dilution or loss of
cultural identity.
Social mobility is limited to
urban areas.
Pro ts going overseas.
Natural resources are being
over-exploited.
Movement of people,
transport ownership and loss Food Shortages & Famine
of biodiversity increases
globally. When demand for food exceeds the supply of food,
leading to undernourishment
Daily living costs increased. Prolonged undernourishment can damage people's
health and eventually lead to starvation

3.2. Food Production Human Causes Physical Causes

Increasing population- supply Too hot or cool temperatures
Agriculture cannot keep up with demand. can kill crops and animals.
Overgrazing reduces the
Farming types: integrity of the soil and can Shortage of rainfall kills most
cause topsoil erosion and soil crops or requires irrigation.
Commercial and subsistence
degradation.
Arable, Pastoral and mixed
Intensive and extensive Over cultivating causes soil Too much rain can ood & kill
degradation, using up and not crops or wash away topsoil,
Factors in uencing the type of agriculture: giving nutrients recovery reducing soil fertility and
time. leading to low yield.

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Human Causes Physical Causes

Deforestation of woodland
Natural disasters can destroy
damages the integrity of the
large areas of agricultural
soil and its source of
land and kill or injure farmers.
nutrients.
If soil is infertile because the
Farming and industrial
bedrock contains few
pollution can both degrade
minerals, cultivating land can
land and reduce crop yields.
be hard, leading to low yields.
Diseases: these reduce yields
Corruption of government,
and can result in livestock
war and con ict.
deaths/

E ects:
Hunger and rising food prices.
Susceptible to infectious diseases.
Impair physical and mental development.
Reduce labour productivity,
Undernutrition and malnutrition.
Wasting.
Soil erosion and deserti cation.
Migration.
Solutions:

3.3. Industry
Industrial systems have inputs, processes and outputs.

Input: resources that need to start the process can be

physical.
Processes: turning raw materials into usable things.
Outputs: product + pro t or loss + waste materials
Types of Industry:
Manufacturing: produces goods that are physically
used by consumers, e.g. toys
Processing: turns raw materials into other materials
used in manufacturing, e.g. metal production

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Assembly: using materials and a design scheme to put Advantages Disadvantages

together a nished product, e.g. electronics
Increased in skills Loss of land
Hi-Tech: specialized industries that mostly do
Increased diversity of culture Illegal behaviour of tourists
research but often have small sections dedicated to
each of the 3 standard types of industry Creates job opportunities Often low-paid seasonal work.
Congestion and pollution is
New infrastructure is built
Industry Input Processes Output Impact caused
Electric Money is brought to the Money often goes to big
Steel, Noise, dust,
Alloy: furnace, country’s economy businesses
Steel sheets, smell and
chromium oxygen, Tax revenues are provided Economic leakage
production waste, slag, water
and cobalt rolling,
gases. pollution. Foreign language skills are Local language and traditional
cutting.
promoted values can erode
Iron ore, Noise, air,
Blast Iron, slag, Nature conservation areas Nature can be destroyed for
Iron coke, smell,
furnace, gases, heat awareness can be increased land use
production limestone, water and
ore, coke. and water. Money from tourism can be
water, iron. waste. Tourism leads to more
used to protect the
pollution
environment
Factors in uencing location of an Industry
Improves sustainable Increased greenhouse gas
practices emissions from travelling
The activity of tourists
Preserve area or species disturbs and damages the
habitat and wildlife
Electricity and water supply
Racism and discrimination
improves
Improved roads, healthcare
Shortage of supplies
and education

Managing Tourism

Ecotourism: holidays that involve eco-related activities &

are sustainable, e.g. hiking, bird-watching, horse riding
Sustainable Tourism: tourist activities that are socially,
3.4. Tourism environmentally & economically sustainable
How?
Tourism: when a person travels to another destination for Built National Parks with entrance fees → Money
more than 24 hours but less than one year. It is a leisure raised can be spent on conservation/improvement of
activity done for enjoyment in free time. parks
Reasons for Growth of Tourism Ban hunting/ shing
Fence-prohibited or protected areas
Increased income of money and leave allowance. Put up signs such as “no littering”
Easier travel. Impose nes for littering or breaking any rules
Faster and easier transport. Vehicles prohibited in certain areas
Improved communication. Create paths for people to walk on
Increased natural attractions.
Increased manmade human attractions.
More advertisement of places.
3.5. Energy

Factors that Change Tourist Patterns The demand for energy across the globe is rising.
Population growth and development are the two leading
Transport & accessibility. causes of the increase in energy demand.
Scenery: landscape & visual appearance of places
Weather: Climate is important, e.g. cold place for a ski trip
Accommodation: quality/price of hotels, camps, resorts
Amenities: various recreational, historical, and leisure
facilities & sites o ered.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Tourism

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Energy
Advantages Disadvantages
source
- Not reliable only
works when the wind is
strong enough but not
too strong. \n - Visual
- No greenhouse gas pollution. \n - Noise
emissions. \n - No air pollution \n - Many
pollution. \n - Can be turbines are needed to
Wind
small or large scale. \n produce the same
- Cheap to run. \n - Can energy as an average
be on land or o shore. coal- red power
station. \n - May a ect
bird migration patterns
Renewable Energy is energy which comes from natural
or kill birds who y into
resources:
the moving blades.
Solar energy: energy derived from the sun through
solar radiation. - No greenhouse gas
Wind energy: conversion of wind energy into a useful emissions \n - No air
form of energy. pollution \n - Can be - Expensive to install \n
Hydro energy: the power derived from the force or small or large-scale \n - Not reliable; only
energy of moving water. - Can be used in most works when it is sunny
Geothermal energy: energy obtained by tapping the Solar locations \n - Can be \n - Large numbers
heat of the earth itself. incorporated into needed to produce
Biomass: is a renewable energy source, biological building design \n - energy \n - Uses large
material from living. Technology is areas of land
improving and
Energy reducing cost
Advantages Disadvantages
source - No CO gases. \n - Lots - Expensive. \n - Emits
- Large areas of land of potential sites. \n - sulfuric gases. \n -
are ooded behind the Geothermal Reliable. \n - Can High temperatures
dam. \n - Dam traps produce large cause maintenance
sediment, which can amounts of energy. issues.
- No greenhouse gas a ect ecosystems - Uses waste or
emissions. \n - Control - Air pollution. \n -
downstream. \n - biofuels which regrow.
ooding downstream. Visual pollution. \n - Biomass Produces greenhouse
Hydroelectric \n - Available in most
\n - Provide water Can prevent sh gases. \n - Expensive.
locations.
storage for irrigation movement upstream.
and domestic use \n - People and
Non-Renewable energy: Fossil fuels are formed from
settlements may have
living organisms' remains (plants/animals). These are
to be relocated. \n - non-renewable as they cannot be replaced at a speed
Expensive to build and which keeps up with consumption.
maintain. Coal
- No greenhouse gas Oil
- Expensive to build
emissions. \n - No air Gas
and maintain. \n - Can
pollution. \n - Has the
Wave/ Tidal a ect marine
potential to produce Advantages Disadvantages
ecosystems. \n - Few
large amounts of The cost of production
suitable sites.
energy. \n - Reliable. is high, produces a lot of
It lasts 300yrs, now
GH gases, is dangerous,
Coal become more e cient,
open cast = visual
needed to make coke
pollution, costly to
transport, acid rain

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Advantages Disadvantages LEDC - Bangladesh MEDC - UK

It lasts only 50-70yrs; oil
More e cient than spills release
coal, more accessible to greenhouse gases,
Oil
transport, diversity of prices uctuate,
uses, petro-chemicals re neries use a lot of
space, acid rain
It releases methane,
Cleanest of fossil fuels,
explosives, prices
Gas cheaper than oil, easy
uctuate, acid rain, and
to distribute
greenhouse gases.
- Plenty of radioactive
- Risk of nuclear
supply as fuel \n - Very Methods of Water Supply
accidents \n - Risk of
low amounts of
nuclear plants as Dams: barrier placed across a river made from concrete
greenhouse gases
terrorist targets \n - Reservoirs: the arti cial lake that develops behind a dam
made \n - Reduces
Nuclear technology can Wells: a shaft sunk into the ground to obtain water
Nuclear dependency on fossil
be used to make WMDs Desalination:
power fuel countries \n -
\n - Remains radioactive Thermal: evaporation of water to remove salt
Nuclear waste stored
for a long time & Reverse Osmosis: forces water through semi-
safely underground \n -
expensive \n - Uranium permeable membrane to remove salt
Electric supply altered
mining is dangerous Sewage Treatment:
quickly based on
and polluting Removal of contaminants from wastewater &
demand
household sewage
Requires physical, chemical & biological processes to
3.6. Water remove all the contaminants and make safe

Water is a scarce and limited resource. There are many uses, Causes of Water Shortages
such as:
Uses of Water Population Growth: increased pressure on water sources
as world's population grows
Agriculture: to water plants Pollution: water sources are being polluted by industries
Industrial: Demand: as development increases globally, so does the
Heated to make steam to turn turbines amount of water needed
Cooling down reactors Sewage: lack of proper sewage treatment means that
Domestic: waste is often pumped directly into water sources
Household e.g. cooking, cleaning, drinking Climate Change: global warming may be releasing
Recreational, e.g. swimming, sports freshwater from glaciers & ice shelves, but much of it is
Environmental: preserving water in a dam running directly into oceans; inaccessible
Political: water sources are often shared; some people
Evolution of Global Water Use control large percentages of the shared resource, leading
to shortages for others
Mismanagement: water is used inappropriately, causing
water shortages

Impact of Water Shortages

Drought: below-average supply of water over a prolonged

Water Use in Di erent Economies
LEDC - Bangladesh
period
MEDC - UK Famine: crops fail/livestock die due to water shortage
Con ict arises when sharing a limited supply of water
People may be forced to relocate due to famine/drought
Stagnant dirty water = increased risk of diseases
Eutrophication due to run-o
Dirty water/eutrophication causes loss of biodiversity
Eutrophication:
Run-o from farms containing fertiliser causes excess
growth of algae in water

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Water does not oxygenate properly/receive light
Causes plants & animals to su ocate & die
Solutions to Water Shortages
Desalination: governments should invest more in
desalination plants
Sewage Treatment: governments should enforce better
policies regarding disposal and reuse of wastewater
Conservation:
Half- ush toilets & showering instead of bathing
Watering the garden at dusk to prevent evaporation
Collecting rainwater to use in the garden
Using appropriate plants for the climate
Using drip irrigation rather than sprinklers
Water Charities:
Building wells to access groundwater
Building toilets to reduce sewage & pollution
Teaching appropriate farming techniques
Low-cost schemes to lter and clean water
Irrigation Projects: use irrigation systems to redistribute
water & water the land
3.7. Environmental Risks of Economic
Development
Soil Erosion:
Occurs in farms, where rainforest is cleared – soil is
washed away by rain because there are no tree roots
to retain it
In the Amazon rainforest, eroded soil goes into rivers
& pollutes drinking water
Global Warming:
Occurs due to too much greenhouse gases
Greenhouse E ect:
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When infrared radiation passes through the
atmosphere, & some is absorbed and re-emitted in all
directions by greenhouse gas molecules
This warms the surface & lower atmosphere
E ects:
Melting poles = rising sea levels = increase in storms
Change in the distribution of precipitation
Plants and wildlife might not have time to adjust
Lower crop yields in Africa, Asia & Latin America
More people at risk from insect/water-borne diseases
Greenhouse gases are:
CO2 from burning fossil fuels or wood
Methane from decomposing organic matter & waste
CFCs from aerosols, air conditioners, & refrigerators
Nitrogen Oxides from car exhausts & power stations
Air pollution:
Carbon monoxide: incomplete combustion of carbon-
containing substances causes oxygen starvation
Sulphur dioxide: combustion of fossil fuels causes
respiratory problems and acid rain
Nitrogen oxides: N2 & O2 from air combine due to
heat (furnace/engine); same e ect as sulphur dioxide
Lead oxide: burning leaded petrol damages nervous
system
Water Pollution:
Chemicals in fertilizers cause eutrophication
Oil spilling into the sea
Acid rain destroys lakes and kills animals/plants
Health hazards for humans
Damages limestone buildings and sculptures
Fewer crops can be grown on an acidic eld
Noise Pollution:
Vehicles
Machinery in industries and farms
Noisy humans
Visual Pollution:
All man-made things are ugly compared to unspoiled
nature
Deserti cation:
Overgrazing
Soil erosion
Global climate getting warmer - gets drier due to less
rain
Deforestation - fewer roots of trees to hold the soil
together
Sustainable Development: Economic development without
destroying natural resources
Management:
Population policies
Sustainable tourism
Use of renewable energy
A orestation
Resource Conservation: Meeting needs of the present
without a ecting needs for the future
Ways of Conservation:
3 Rs: reduce, reuse, recycle
Renewable energy
Use energy-e cient products
CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY

Restrict the use of resource The government can raise tax on petrol prices
Use more public transport

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CAIE IGCSE
Geography

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