Polymers are

produced by
combining a large
Polymeric number of small
molecular units
Materials
(monomers) by the
chemical process
known as
polymerization to
form long-chain
Molecules.
 A plastic material is
a polymer, typically
Polymeric modified with
Materials additives, which can
be molded or shaped
under reasonable
conditions of
pressure and
temperature.
Characteristics of
Polymer

* Polymers are very resistant to

chemicals.
* They act equally as electrical and
thermal insulators.
* Very light in mass with
appropriate degrees of power.
* Can be prepared in different ways.
* Polymers are substances with
seemingly endless range of
features and colors.
 Many common
classes of polymers
are composed of
hydrocarbons,
compounds of
Structure carbon and
of hydrogen. These
Polymers polymers are
specifically made of
carbon atoms
bonded together, one
to the next, into long
chains that are
called the backbone
of the polymer.
 Two main
types of
Polymers

Thermoplastics- The
principal thermosetting
polymers that are used
in construction are
polyesters, vinylesters
and epoxies.
A thermoplastic, or thermo-
softening plastic, is a plastic
polymer material that
becomes pliable or moldable
at a certain elevated
temperature and solidifies
upon cooling.
Most thermoplastics have a
high molecular weight.

Polymers that become liquid

when heated and return to
the solid state when cooled.

The most popular methods of

processing thermoplastics
are injection molding,
extrusion, and
thermoforming.
*Thermoplastics may take on
amorphous or crystalline structures.
*In thermoplastics the long chain
molecules exist in the form of linear
bonding but are also bonded to each
other by secondary Van Der Waals
forces (secondary bonds).
 Processing of Thermoplastic
Polymers

*Thermoplastic polymers may readily be

processed into sheets or rods or
complex shapes in one operation, which
is often automated.

*Changing the die allows a wide range of

products to be made.
Types of Thermoplastics

1. Acrylic [Poly(methyl methacrylate)]

* Trade names: Lucite, Perspex and
Plexiglas.
* Serves as sturdy substitute for glass.
* Extensively used to make signs,
including lettering and logos.
* In medicine, it is used in bone cement
and to replace eye lenses.
2. Nylon

*Belonging to a class of polymers

called polyamides has served as a
substitute for silk. Nylon fibers are
useful in making fabrics, rope, carpets
and strings for musical instruments.
*In bulk form, nylon is used for
mechanical parts, including machine
screws, gear wheels and power tool
casings.
*In addition, nylon is used in the
manufacture of heat-resistant
composite materials.
3. Polyethylene (polyethene, polythene)
*is a family of materials categorized
according to their density and
molecular structure.
*High-density polyethylene (HDPE) is
used to make milk jugs, margarine tubs
and water pipes.
*Medium-density polyethylene (MDPE) is
used for packaging film, sacks and gas
pipes and fittings.
*Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) is soft
and flexible and is used in the
manufacture of squeeze bottles, sacks
and sheets.
4. Polystyrene
*Extruded polystyrene (PS) used in
manufacturing of disposable cutlery,
plastic models of cars & smoke detector
housings.
*Expanded polystyrene foam (EPS) is
used in making insulation and packaging
materials.
*Extruded polystyrene foam (XPS), also
known as Styrofoam, used to make
architectural models.
*Polystyrene copolymers are used in the
manufacture of toys and product
casings.
 ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
• Energy efficient • tend to fracture
• highly recyclable rather than deform
• low cost under high-stress
levels
• can be made in • suffer from creep
very high volume
with high precision

• High-impact • thermoplastics can

resistance melt
• can be remolded & • more expensive
recycled without than thermoset
affecting the
material’s physical
properties
Two main
types of
Polymers

Thermosetting -
consist of a series of
long-chain
polymerized
molecules, in which all
the chains are
separate and can
slide over one
another.
A thermosetting polymer which
is also known as a thermoset or
thermosetting plastic is a
polymer consisting of cross-
linked structure or heavily
branched molecules.
These polymers which are in
the soft solid or viscous state
on heating undergo extensive
cross-linking in moulds and
become irreversibly hard as
well as insoluble products
 Properties of Thermosetting
Polymers
*They harden during the moulding process
and after solidifying they cannot be
softened.
*Typically, when the polymers are moulded
and shaped they acquire a three-
dimensional cross-linked structure along
with strong covalent bonds.
*However, thermoset plastics are brittle
and tend to burn if heat is applied for a
prolonged state.
Thermosetting Process

*The first stage:

*resole where during this stage the
resin is an insoluble and fusible
condition or state.
*In the second stage:
*the thermosets are only partly
soluble and they tend to display the
characteristics of a thermoplastic
where the changes are reversible.
*The final stage:
* is where the cross-linking reaction
occurs and the final structure of
thermosets is constructed.
*The final product will have a three-
dimensional internal network
structure consisting of highly cross-
linked polymer chains. At this point,
the product cannot be thermally
deformed.
Common methods of moulding
thermosets include:

*Extrusion moulding which is used

for making insulation for electrical
cables, threads of fabric and pipes.
*Compression moulding is used to
give shape to BMC and SMC
thermosetting plastics.
*Spin casting which is a process
mainly used for the production of
figurines, fishing lures and jigs,
emblems etc.
Examples of Thermosetting
Polymers

1. Bakelite
*which is relatively a bad
conductor of electricity and heat.
*It is a thermosetting phenol
formaldehyde resin, formed from
a condensation reaction of
phenol with formaldehyde.
*It is mainly used for making
electrical switches, handles of
various utensils, etc.
2. Melamine
*which has a capacity to resist fire
and heat much efficiently than
other plastics.
*It is used in kitchenware and
fabrics as well as floor tiles.
*Melamine resin or melamine
formaldehyde (also shortened to
melamine) is a resin with
melamine rings terminated with
multiple hydroxyl groups derived
from formaldehyde.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
• more resistant to • the products can
high temperatures not be recycled or
reused

• high levels of • the products

dimensional cannot be
stability remoulded or
reshaped
• cost-effective
• allow highly flexible
design
 Thermosetting
polymers can be used
for two different
functions

Combined with a Combined with

Fibrous Material an Adhesive
Difference between Thermoplastic &
Thermosetting:

*Differentiation between these classes

is best defined by their behaviour
under applied heat.
*Thermoplastic polymers can be
either amorphous or crystalline.
They behave in a relatively ductile
manner but often have low strength.
*Thermosetting polymers are
always amorphous and are
generally strong and rigid but often
brittle
 • A rigid foam is a
two-phase system
of gas dispersed in
Foamed solid polymer, and
Polymers is produced by
adding a blowing
agent to molten
resin.
 • With different
extrusion dies, many
profiles can be
Profile manufactured, such as
Products edging strips, pipes,
window frames, etc.
 Film Brown Plastic
Sheet

Biaxial orientation of
the molecules of the
Molten plastic from polymer can be
the extruder passes achieved by varying
through an annular die the air pressure in
to form a thin tube. the polymer tube,
which in turn controls
the circumferential
orientation.
 • Longitudinal
Film orientation can be
achieved by varying the
Brown relative speeds of the
Plastic nip roll and the linear
Sheet velocity of the bubble.
 A molten polymer
tube, the Parison, is
Blow- extruded through an
moulded annular die. A mould
Hollow closes round the
Plastic Parison and internal
Articles pressure forces the
polymer against the
sides of the mould.
 A multilayered
plastic composite is
Co-Extruded
sometimes needed to
Items withstand the end use
requirements.
 Polymer grids are used
in civil engineering as
the reinforcement for
soil in reinforced earth.
Highly Continuous sheets of
thermoplastic
Orientated polymers, generally
Grid Sheets polypropylene or
polyethylene, are
extruded to very fine
tolerances and with a
controlled structure.
 A pattern of holes is
Highly stamped out in the
Orientated sheet and the
Grid Sheets stampings are saved
for re-use.
 The perforated sheet is
stretched in the
longitudinal and then in
Highly the transverse
direction to give a
Orientated highly orientated
Grid Sheets polymer in the two
directions, with a
tensile strength similar
to that of mild steel.
 • Themoplastics
polymers, which are
not cross-linked,
Mechanical derive their strength
and stiffness from
Properties the properties of the
monomer units and
their high molecular
weight.
 • The thermosetting
polymers used in
construction are
Mechanical reinforced with glass,
aramid or carbon
Properties fibres to form the
fibre/matrix
composite for
civil/structural
utilisation
The most satisfactory way to
cure polymers (and hence
composites) is by the
application of heat, thus
achieving optimum cross-
linking and hence enabling the
substance to realise its
potential.
Time-dependent
characteristics
The deformation of a polymer
material over time under the
application of a load is referred
to as the creep of that
material; this deformation will
continue as long as the load is
applied.
Hookean Material - where
stress is proportional to strain.

Newtonian Material - where

stress is proportional to rate
of strain.

Thus they are classified as a

viscoelastic material and their
stress (s) is a function of
strain (ε) and time (t), as
described by the equation: s =
f(e,t)
This linear viscoelastic
response indicates that, under
sustained tensile stress, after
a particular time interval the
stress is directly proportional
to strain. Figure 38.3
illustrates schematically the
various types of response
discussed above.
 When applied to the generation of a
creep master curve the following
steps are required:

* A master specimen is subjected to a

constant load at a certain temperature
as in conventional creep tests.

* Similar experiments are performed for

identical specimens at different
temperature levels and the relevant
creep curves drawn.
* An arbitrary reference temperature is
selected.

* All the individual creep curves

corresponding to different
temperature levels are shifted along
the log(time) co-ordinate to obtain the
superimposed master curve.
 • As chain length and
cross-linking
increases the tensile
Physical strength of the
polymer increases.
Properties
• Polymers do not
melt, they change
state from crystalline
to semi-crystalline.
 • Compared to
conventional
molecules with
different side
molecules, the
polymer is enabled
Chemical with hydrogen
bonding and ionic
Properties bonding resulting in
better cross-linking
strength.

• Dipole-dipole
bonding side chains
enable the polymer
for high flexibility.
The following describes
the most important
properties of a polymer:

Heat Capacity/ Heat Conductivity

The extent to which the plastic or

polymer acts as an effective
insulator against the flow of heat
Thermal Expansion

*The extent to which the

polymer expands or contracts
when heated or cooled.
*They contain strong covalent
bond. Therefore, polymer can
expand by different amounts.
Crystallinity

*The extent to which the polymer

chains are arranged in a regular
structure instead of a random fashion.

Play Dough Silly Putty

Permeability

*The tendency of a polymer to pass

extraneous materials.
*Polyethylene is used to wrap foods
because it is 4000 times less
permeable to oxygen.
Elastic Modulus
*The force it takes to stretch
the plastic in one direction.
*The elastic modulus of an
object is defined as the slope
of its stress–strain curve in
the elastic deformation region.
Tensile Strength
*The strength of the plastic .
*The force must be applied in one
direction to stretch the plastic until
it breaks.
Resilience
*The ability of the plastic to resist
abrasion and wear.
*Polyurethane components
possess the outstanding
engineering properties for
industrial application.
Refractive Index

*The extent to which the plastic

affects the light as it passes
through the polymer.
Resistance to electric current
*Is the material an insulator, like most
polymers, or does it conduct electric
current?

*Plastic is called as an insulator

because it has very high resistance for
electricity conduction. But it does not
mean that it does not conduct. Let us
say resistance of plastic is 500000
ohm which can be a practical value.
◼Elastomers
◼Sealants
◼Adhesives
◼Geosynthetics.
*Elastomers
◼ Elastomers are polymers that
are having viscosity as well as
elasticity and therefore are
known as viscoelasticity.
◼ The term “elastomer” is
derived from “elastic
polymer,” frequently
interchanged with the term
“rubber.”
 Uses of Elastomers
◼ Motor vehicles: Some elastomers
like thermoset doesn’t melt easily
making it efficient in building seals,
tyres various components throughout
the automobile design.
◼ Constructions: Adhesives and
sealants materials enfolded under
elastomers, which are an unavoidable
part of any constructions. Especially
for filling the gaps.
◼ Industrial products:
Elastomers are hugely used in
making industrial tools,
appliances, belts, molds,
lubricants, etc.
◼ Wire and cable: Material
needed to build wires should
have high resistance to heat,
easily reshaped(elongated) and
provide insulation. The
elastomers like neoprene are
perfect for this.
*Sealants
◼ Sealants are elastomeric
materials that can be used for
sealing joints against wind and
water in construction.
Types of Sealants Used in
Construction

◼ Water based Latex -Popular for

residential use because of the ease
of application and ability to adhere
to most substrates.
◼ Acrylic-These are UV stable
making them suitable for exterior
applications, and are not prone to
shrinkage
◼ Butyl-Adheres well to a broad variety
of substrates but can be hard to apply
due to their stringier consistency.
◼ Polysulfide-Excellent flexibility even at
low temperatures with little shrinkage
or UV degradation, and can be used for
underwater applications.
◼ Silicone-Has excellent thermal
resistance, good dynamic movement
capability and good adhesion. They can
be easily vandalised and tend to collect
dirt
◼ Polyisobutylenes-Have similar
properties to natural rubber but
with improved durability, good
resistance to chemical attack, and
have very low permeability.
◼ Polyurethane-Adhere well to the
majority of different surfaces with
little substrate preparation, and
are generally the go-to choice for
contractors.
*Adhesives
◼ Adhesives are bonding agents
used to join materials by glueing
Uses of Adhesives

◼ Carpet laying
◼ Ceramic tiles
◼ Countertop lamination
◼ Drywall lamination
◼ Flooring underlay
◼ Glulam(Glue laminated timber)
Types of Adhesives

◼ PVA (polyvinyl acetate): A

general purpose woodwork glue,
with some water resistant
properties.
◼ Synthetic resin: A strong water-
resistant woodwork glue.
◼ Epoxy resin: Used for metals
and plastics.
◼ Acrylic cement: Used for acrylic
and some types of plastic. The
adhesive ‘melts’ the surface of
the plastic and fuses it together.
◼ Casein: Made from sour milk. A
cold setting adhesive in the form
of a powder which is mixed with
water.
◼ Phenol formaldehyde: A warm
setting adhesive that requires a
temperature of above around
86°C to set.
◼ Urea formaldehyde: A cold setting
resin glue. Although moisture resistant,
it is usually restricted to timber
members used in dry, unexposed
conditions as it loses strength after
prolonged exposure to water or heat.
◼ Resorcinol formaldehyde: A cold
setting glue that is suitable for timber
members used in external situations.
Will set at temperatures down to 15°C
and does not lose strength at high
temperatures.
*Geosynthetics
◼ In Geotechnical Engineering
industry, the most common
material is the geotextile, a
simple definition of which is that
it is a textile material used in a
soil environment.
◼ Geosynthetics, which are all
thermoplastic polymers, can be
divided into five broadly based
categories.
Categories of Geosynthetics
◼ Geotextiles: polymeric textile
materials used in geotechnical
engineering applications. These
materials are essentially
permeable to the passage of
water.
◼ Geogrids: open, mesh like
polymeric structures
◼ Geomembranes: polymeric
materials in sheet form that are
essentially impermeable to the
passage of water.
◼ Geolinear elements: long,
slender, polymeric materials
normally used as reinforcing
tendons in soils and rocks.
◼ Geocomposites: covers all
polymeric materials used in a
soil environment not covered by
the above four categories.
 Advantages of
Polymer Components
over Metallic
Materials

* Machined polymer and composite

components are the most cost-
effective solution when compared to
metal.
* Plastics are more resistant to
chemicals than their metal
counterparts.
* Plastic parts do not require post-
treatment finishing efforts, unlike
metal.