NON- METALS

03/24/2024 1
 Plastics

• Plastics are commonly known as synthetic resins or polymers.

• In Greek terminology, the term polymer comprises ‘poly’ means
‘many’ and ‘mers’ means ‘parts’.
• Thus, the term, polymer represents a substance built up of
several repeating units, each unit being known as a monomer.
• Thousands of such units or monomers join together in a
polymerization reaction to form a ‘polymer’.
• Some natural polymers like starch, resins, shellac, cellulose,
proteins, etc are very common in today’s use.
03/24/2024 2
• Synthetic polymers possess a number of large applications in
engineering work.
• Therefore plastic materials are fairly hard and rigid and can be readily
molded into different shapes by heating or pressure or both.
• Various useful articles can be produced from them rapidly, accurately
and with very good surface quality.
• They can be easily produced in different colors or as transparent.
• They are recognized by their extreme lightness, good corrosion
resistance and high dielectric strength.
• Plastics are synthetic resins characterized as a group by plastic
deformation under stress.
03/24/2024 3
• These materials generally are organic high polymers (i.e. consisting of large

chain like molecules containing carbon) which are formed in a plastic state

either during or after their transition from a low molecular weight chemical

to a high molecular weight solid material.

• These materials are very attractive organic engineering materials and find

extensive applications in industrial and commercial work such as electrical

appliances, automotive parts, communication products bodies (Telephone,

Radio, TV), and those making household goods.

• They possess a combination of properties which make them preferable to

other materials existing in universe.

03/24/2024 4
 Properties of plastics

1. Plastics are light in weight and at the same time they possess good
toughness strength and rigidity.

2. They are less brittle than glass, yet they can be made equally transparent
and smooth.

3. Their high dielectric strength makes them suitable for electric insulation.

4. They resist corrosion and the action of chemicals.

5. The ease with which they can be mass-produced contributes greatly to their
popularity as wrappers and bags.

6. They possess the property of low moisture absorption

03/24/2024 5
 7. They can be easily molded to desired shapes.

8. They can easily be made colored.

9. They are bad conductance of heat.

10. They are hard, rigid and heat resistance.

11. They possesses good deformability, good resiatance against weather

conditions, good colorability, good damping characteristics and good
resistance to peeling.

03/24/2024 6
 Classification of plastics
• Plastics are broadly classified into ;

1. thermo plastics and

2. thermo-setting plastics

1. Thermo Plastics: Those plastics which can be easily softened again and again by
heating are called thermoplastic.

• They can be reprocessed safely. They retain their plasticity at high temperature,
i.e. they preserve an ability to be repeatedly formed by heat and pressure.
Therefore, they can be heated and reshaped by pressing many times.

• On cooling they become hard. They are sometimes also called as cold-setting
plastics. They can be very easily shaped into tubes, sheets, films, and many
other shapes as per the need.
03/24/2024 7
 Types of Thermo Plastics

(A) Amorphous;
1. Polystyrene
2. Acrylonitrite-butadiene-styrene
3 .Mrthacrylate
4 .P.V.C (Polyvinyl chloride)
5 .Polychloroacetal
6 .Auorinated polymers,
7 .Polycarbonate etc.

03/24/2024 8
(B) Crystalline:
1. Polyethylene
2 .Polyamides
3 .Polyacetal
4 .Polypropylene
• The reason for the re-softening of thermoplastic resins with heat is that
they are composed of linear or long chain molecules.
• Application of heat weakens the intermolecular bonds by increasing
thermal agitation of the molecules, and the material softens and thus
plastic can be easily molded and remolded without damage

03/24/2024 9
 2. Thermo-Setting Plastics

• Those plastics which are hardened by heat, effecting a non-reversible chemical

change, are called thermo-setting. Alternatively these plastics materials acquire a

permanent shape when heated and pressed and thus cannot be easily softened

by reheating. They are commonly known as heat-setting or thermosets.

Thermosetting resins;

(i) Phenol-formaldehyde resins (ii) Urea-formaldehyde resins

(iii) Melamine-formaldehyde resins (iv) Polyester resins

(v) Epoxy resins (vi) Silicone resins

• Other thermosetting compounds are phenol furfural, polysters, alkyds, and

polyurethanes. The most common thermosetting compound is phenol

formaldehyde
03/24/2024
which is discussed as under. 10
• Thermosetting resins, when subjected (once only) to the heat and
pressure required for forming, change into a hard and rigid
substance.
• Once done so, they cannot be softened again by the application of
heat.
• The reason for the above phenomenon is that the thermosetting
plastics consist of linear, relatively low molecular weight
thermosetting polymer chains with cross-links which bond the
chains together with primary valence bonds.

03/24/2024 11
 • In contrast the thermoplastic resins can be re-softened and
remolded by application of heat and pressure.
• They retain their plasticity at high temperature, i.e. they preserve
an ability to be repeatedly formed by heat and pressure.
• Such three-dimensional polymers, once cross-linked, will not
soften when heated (but may decompose disintegrate at higher
temperatures) because this process is an irreversible chemical
reaction and the entire structure becomes essentially a single
molecule.

03/24/2024 12
 Phenol formaldehyde
• Phenol formaldehyde is called as bakelite due to the name of its inventor
Bakelite.
• It is the most commonly and widely used plastic.
• It is made by the reaction of phenol with formaldehyde.
• It has high strength, hardness, stability, rigidity and can be easily casted or
laminated.
• It is highly resistant to heat, electricity and water.
• It is made in dark color shades.
• Its general uses are in making articles such as stereo cabinets, radio cabinets,
plugs, knobs, dials, bottle cap, pulleys, wheels, telephones, switches and
handles.
03/24/2024 13
 Comparison between Thermo Plastic and Thermosetting Plastic

• Thermoplastic are those which are obtained from the substituted

derivatives of ethylene which can be made to polymerize under
the influence of heat and catalyst.
• These materials are softened by heat and affected by certain
solvent.
• A notable feature of these resins is the ability of their scrap or
rejects to be reworked along with the new material.
• Cellulose nitrate (celluloid) and polythene are the example of
these materials.
03/24/2024 14
 • Whereas thermosetting are those which are formed into shape
under heat and pressure and
. results in a permanently hard

product.
• The heat first softens the material, but as additional heat and
pressure is applied, it becomes hard phenol formaldehyde
(bakelite).
• Phenol furfural (Durite) is the example of thermosetting plastics.

• The comparison between thermo plastic and thermosetting

plastic is given in Table

03/24/2024 15
S.No Thermo Plastic
Thermosetting Plastic
1 They can be repeatedly softened by heat and Once hardened and set, they do not soften
hardened by cooling. with the application of heat.

2 They are comparatively softer and less strong They are more stronger and harder than
thermoplastic resins

3 Objects made by thermoplastic resins cannot be Objects made by thermosetting resins can be
used at comparatively higher temperature as they used at comparatively higher temperature
will tend to soften under heat. without damage

4 They are usually supplied as granular material They are usually supplied in monomeric or
partially polymerized material form in which
they are either liquids or partially
thermoplastic solids.

5 Applications. Toys, combs, toilet goods, Telephone receivers, electric plugs, radio and
photographic films, insulating tapes, hoses, T.V. cabinets, camera bodies, automobile
electric insulation, etc. parts, tapes, hoses, circuit breaker switch
panels, etc.

03/24/2024 16
 Additions in Polymer

To make polymer more for further processing of products, plastics, and some
other material are added to the polymers before or during polymerization.

These materials are:

• Catalysts: They are also known accelerator or hardener.

They act as catalysts to accelerate the chemical reactions during polymerization

of plastics.
• Fillers: Fillers are added to synthetic resins for increasing strength, stiffness
and thermal resistance of the plastics. These are clay, talc, alumina, carbon
black, calcium carbonate, wood flour, mica, quartz, asbestos, glass fibres etc

03/24/2024 17
• Modifiers: Modifiers are added to plastics for improving mechanical properties

• Plasticizers: Plasticizers are fluids of high molecular weight.

They are added for softening the resins at forming temperature and to improve
their toughness at the finished stage and to impart flexibility to their finished
products.

• Stabilizers: The additions of stabilizers to plastics help in preventing

deterioration due to the action of heat and light.

• Initiators: Initiators help in starting the reaction i.e. polymerization.

• Dyes and pigments: Dyes and pigments are the coloring agents, added to
impart different colors and shades to plastic materials.

03/24/2024 18
 Ceramic materials
• Ceramic materials are non-metallic solids made of inorganic
compounds such as oxides, nitrides, borides and carbides.
• These materials are fabricated by first shaping the powder with
or without the application of pressure into a compact form and
after that it is subjected to high temperature.
• Ceramics possesses electrical, magnetic, chemical and thermal
properties which are exceptionally good.

03/24/2024 19
• Examples: MgO, CdS, SiC, Al2O3, glass, cement, garnets, ferrites,
concrete etc.
• Applications: Ceramic materials are utilized for making electronic
control devices, computers, structures, components of nuclear
engineering and aerospace field.

03/24/2024 20
 Glasses

• The glasses are a familiar group of ceramics; containers, windows,

lenses, and fiberglass represent typical applications.
• They are noncrystalline silicates containing other oxides, notably
CaO, Na2O, K2O, and Al2O3 , which influence the glass properties.

• A typical soda–lime glass consists of approximately 70 wt% SiO2 ,

the balance being mainly Na2O (soda) and CaO (lime).

• Possibly the two prime assets of these materials are their optical
transparency and the relative ease with which they may be
fabricated.
03/24/2024 21
• Glass–ceramics: Most inorganic glasses can be made to transform
from a noncrystalline state to one that is crystalline by the proper
high-temperature heat treatment. This process is called
devitrification, and the product is a fine-grained polycrystalline
material which is often called a glass–ceramic.
• A nucleating agent (frequently titanium dioxide) must be added to
induce the crystallization or devitrification process.
• Desirable characteristics of glass–ceramics include a low coefficient
of thermal expansion, such that the glass–ceramic ware will not
experience thermal shock; in addition, relatively high mechanical
strengths and thermal conductivities are achieved.

03/24/2024 22
• Some glass–ceramics may be made optically transparent; others are opaque.
Possibly the most attractive attribute of this class of materials is the ease
with which they may be fabricated; conventional glass-forming techniques
may be used conveniently in the mass production of nearly pore-free ware.

• Glass–ceramics are manufactured commercially under the trade names of

Pyroceram, Corning ware, Cercor, and Vision.

• The most common uses for these materials are as ovenware and tableware,
primarily because of their strength, excellent resistance to thermal shock,
and their high thermal conductivity.

• They also serve as electrical insulators and as substrates for printed circuit
boards, and are utilized for architectural cladding, and for heat exchangers
and regenerators.
03/24/2024 23
 Clay products
• One of the most widely used ceramic raw materials is clay.
• This inexpensive ingredient, found naturally in great
abundance, often is used as mined without any upgrading of
quality.
• Another reason for its popularity lies in the ease with which clay
products may be formed; when mixed in the proper
proportions, clay and water form a plastic mass that is very
amenable to shaping.
• The formed piece is dried to remove some of the moisture,
after which it is fired at an elevated temperature to improve its
mechanical strength.
03/24/2024 24
• Most of the clay-based products fall within two broad
classifications: the structural clay products and the white
wares.

1. Structural clay products include building bricks, tiles, and

sewer pipes—applications in which structural integrity is
important.

2. The white ware ceramics become white after the high-

temperature firing.
• Included in this group are porcelain, pottery, table ware,
china, and plumbing fixtures (sanitary ware).
03/24/2024 25
 Refractories

• Another important class of ceramics that are utilized in large tonnages is the refractory
ceramics.
• The salient properties of these materials include the capacity to withstand high
temperatures without melting or decomposing, and the capacity to remain unreactive
and inert when exposed to severe environments.
• In addition, the ability to provide thermal insulation is often an important consideration.
• Refractory materials are marketed in a variety of forms, but bricks are the most common.
• Typical applications include furnace linings for metal refining, glass manufacturing,
metallurgical heat treatment, and power generation.
• Of course, the performance of a refractory ceramic, to a large degree, depends on its
composition.
• On this basis, there are several classifications, namely, fireclay, silica, basic, and special
refractories.
03/24/2024 26
 Abrasive ceramics
• Abrasive ceramics are used to wear, grind, or cut away other material, which necessarily is
softer.

• Therefore, the prime requisite for this group of materials is hardness or wear resistance; in
addition, a high degree of toughness is essential to ensure that the abrasive particles do
not easily fracture.

• Furthermore, high temperatures may be produced from abrasive frictional forces, so some
refractoriness is also desirable. Diamonds, both natural and synthetic, are utilized as
abrasives; however, they are relatively expensive.

• The more common ceramic abrasives include silicon carbide, tungsten carbide (WC),
aluminum oxide (or corundum), and silica sand.

• Coated abrasives are those in which an abrasive powder is coated on some type of paper
or cloth material; sandpaper is probably the most familiar example. Grinding, lapping, and
polishing
03/24/2024
wheels often employ loose abrasive grains that are delivered in some type of27oil-
 Cements
• Several familiar ceramic materials are classified as inorganic
cements: cement, plaster of Paris, and lime, which, as a group,
are produced in extremely large quantities.
• The characteristic feature of these materials is that when mixed
with water, they form a paste that subsequently sets and hardens.
• This trait is especially useful in that solid and rigid structures
having just about any shape may be expeditiously formed.

03/24/2024 28
 Advanced Ceramics
• Materials presently under consideration for use in ceramic
heat engines include silicon nitride (Si3N4), silicon carbide
(SiC), and zirconia (ZrO2).
• Some of the new advanced ceramics are being used in armor
systems to protect military personnel and vehicles from
ballistic projectiles.
• Boron nitride (BN), silicon carbide (SiC), and aluminum
nitride (AlN) are used in electronic packaging.

03/24/2024 29
 Composites:

Introduction: The idea is that by combining two or more distinct materials one can
engineer a new material with the desired combination of properties (e.g., light,
strong, corrosion resistant).
• The idea that a better combination of properties can be achieved is called the
principle of combined action.
• New - High-tech materials, engineered to specific applications
• Old - brick-straw composites, paper, known for > 5000 years.
• Natural composites: wood (polymer-polymer), bones (polymer-ceramics).
• Usual composites have just two phases:

1. Matrix (continuous)

2. Dispersed phase (particulates, fibers)

03/24/2024 30
03/24/2024 31
03/24/2024 32
03/24/2024 33
03/24/2024 34
03/24/2024 35
03/24/2024 36
 • Properties of composites depend on: Properties of phases,
geometry of dispersed phase (particle size, distribution,
orientation) and amount of each phase.
• Classification of composites:

1.Particle-reinforced (large-particle and dispersion-strengthened)

2.Fiber-reinforced (continuous (aligned) and short fibers (aligned or

random)

3. Matrix Composites

03/24/2024 37
 1. Particle-reinforced composites
• These are the cheapest and most widely used. They fall in two
categories depending on the size of the particles:

• Large-particle composites, which act by restraining the movement of the

matrix, if well bonded.

• Examples are Concrete, Cermets(consisting of ceramics and metallic)

and Reinforced rubber.

• Dispersion-strengthened composites, contains 10-100 nm particles.

The matrix bears the major portion of the applied load and the small
particles hinder dislocation motion, limiting plastic deformation.

03/24/2024 38
 2. Fiber-reinforced composites
• In many applications, like in aircraft parts, there is a need for
high strength per unit weight (specific strength).
• This can be achieved by composites consisting of a low-density
(and soft) matrix reinforced with stiff fibers.
• The strength depends on the fiber length and its orientation
with respect to the stress direction.
• The efficiency of load transfer between matrix and fiber
depends on the interfacial bond.

03/24/2024 39
 3.Polymer Matrix Composites
• Largest and most diverse use of composites due to ease of
fabrication, low cost and good properties.
• Glass-fiber reinforced composites (GFRC) are strong, corrosion
resistant and lightweight, but not very stiff and cannot be used at
high temperatures.
• Applications include auto and boat bodies, aircraft components.
Carbon-fiber reinforced composites (CFRC) use carbon fibers, which
have the highest specific module (module divided by weight).
• CFRC are strong, inert, allow high temperature use.
• Applications include fishing rods, golf clubs, aircraft components.
03/24/2024 40
03/24/2024 41
03/24/2024 42
03/24/2024 43
 4. Metal–matrix composites
• As the name implies, for metal-matrix composites (MMCs), the
matrix is a ductile metal.
• These materials may be utilized at higher service temperatures than
their base metal counter parts; furthermore, the reinforcement may
improve specific stiffness, specific strength, abrasion resistance,
creep resistance, thermal conductivity, and dimensional stability.
• Some of the advantages of these materials over the polymer matrix
composites include higher operating temperatures, non
flammability, and greater resistance to degradation by organic fluids.

03/24/2024 44
03/24/2024 45
• Metal-matrix composites are much more expensive than PMCs,
and, therefore, their (MMC) use is somewhat restricted.
• The super alloys, as well as alloys of aluminum, magnesium,
titanium, and copper, are employed as matrix materials.
• The reinforcement may be in the form of particulates, both
continuous and discontinuous fibers.

03/24/2024 46
03/24/2024 47