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1 6 T H E DITIO N
THE AMERICAN SYSTEM OF

CRIMINAL JUSTICE
G E O RG E F. CO LE
University of Connecticut
C H RIS TO PHER E. SM ITH

Michigan State University
C H RIS TIN A D EJ O N G
Michigan State University
Australia ● Brazil ● Mexico ● Singapore ● United Kingdom ● United States
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The American System of Criminal Justice, © 2019, 2017 Cengage Learning, Inc.
Sixteenth Edition
George F. Cole, Christopher E. Smith, and Unless otherwise noted, all content is © Cengage.
Christina DeJong
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Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2017
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
The late George F. Cole, Ph.D., was Professor Emeritus of

Political Science at the University of Connecticut. A specialist in
the administration of criminal justice, he published extensively
on such topics as prosecution, courts, and corrections. George
Cole was also coauthor with Christopher Smith and Christina
DeJong of Criminal Justice in America, coauthor with Todd
Clear, Michael Reisig, and Carolyn Petrosino of American
Corrections, and coauthor with Marc Gertz and Amy Bunger
of The Criminal Justice System: Politics and Policies. He
developed and directed the graduate corrections program at
the University of Connecticut and was a Fellow at the National
Institute of Justice (1988). Among his other accomplishments,
he was granted two awards under the Fulbright-Hays Program to conduct criminal justice
research in England and the former Yugoslavia. In 1995, he was named a Fellow of the
Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences for distinguished teaching and research.
Trained as a lawyer and social scientist, Christopher

E. Smith , J.D., Ph.D., is Professor of Criminal Justice at
Michigan State University, where he teaches courses on criminal
justice policy, courts, corrections, and law. He holds degrees
from several universities, including Harvard University and the
University of Connecticut. In addition to writing more than
110 scholarly articles, he is the author of 25 books, including
several other titles with Cengage Learning: Criminal Procedure;
Law and Contemporary Corrections; Courts, Politics, and the
Judicial Process; The Changing Supreme Court: Constitutional
Rights and Liberties with Thomas R. Hensley and Joyce A.
Baugh; Courts and Public Policy; Politics in Constitutional
Law; and Courts and the Poor.
Christina DeJong, Ph.D., is Associate Professor of Criminal

Justice at Michigan State University. She earned her degrees
at the University of Texas and the University of Maryland. At
Michigan State, she is a noted researcher and award-winning
teacher for a variety of criminology topics, including recidivism,
violence against women, police–community relations, and
genocide. She is the coauthor of The Supreme Court, Crime,
and the Ideal of Equal Justice and numerous articles in such
journals as Justice Quarterly, Criminology, Women and
Criminal Justice, and Violence and Victims.
iii
BRIEF CONTENTS
PART 1 CRIME AND THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM 1

1 Crime and Justice in America 2
2 Victimization and Criminal Behavior 52
3 The Criminal Justice System 94
4 Criminal Justice and the Rule of Law 146
PART 2 POLICE 195

5 Police 196
6 Police Officers and Law Enforcement Operations 244
7 Policing: Contemporary Issues and Challenges 292
8 Police and Constitutional Law 344
PART 3 COURTS 385

9 Courts and Pretrial Processes 386
10 Prosecution and Defense 424
11 Determination of Guilt: Plea Bargaining and Trials 468
12 Punishment and Sentencing 510
PART 4 CORRECTIONS 555

13 Corrections 556
14 Community Corrections: Probation and Intermediate Sanctions 614
15 Incarceration and Prison Society 648
16 Reentry into the Community 702
PART 5 THE JUVENILE JUSTICE SYSTEM 739

17 Juvenile Justice 740
iv
CONTENTS
PA RT 1 CRIME AND THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM 1

The Crime Problem Today 36
1 CRIME AND JUSTICE IN AMERICA 2 The Worst of Times? 36
The Most Crime-Ridden Nation? 38
The Main Themes of This Book 5
Keeping Track of Crime 40
Crime and Justice as Public Policy Issues 8
Trends in Crime 45
Evidence-Based Practices 9
A QUESTION OF ETHICS 49
EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICE AND POLICY:
The Challenges of Evidence-Based Practice: Summary 49
Quality of Information and Implementation 10
The Role of Public Opinion 10
Contemporary Policies 11
2 VICTIMIZATION
BEHAVIOR 52
AND CRIMINAL
Crime and Justice in a Democracy 12
Crime Control versus Due Process 12 Crime Victimization 55
The Politics of Crime and Justice 14 Who Is Victimized? 55
CLOSE UP: New Directions for Crime Policy in the Trump CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND THE RISK OF
Administration 16 MISINFORMATION: Social Media, Perceptions of Crime,
Citizens and Criminal Justice Policy 18 and Responsibility for Sharing Information 60
CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND THE RISK OF Acquaintances and Strangers 62
MISINFORMATION: The Challenge of Identifying Facts Recurring Victimization 64
Amid a Flood of Information 18 INSIDE TODAY’S CONTROVERSIES: Debates about the
Defining Crime 21 Federal Violence Against Women Act 64
CIVIC ENGAGEMENT: Your Role in the System 21 The Impact of Crime 66
INSIDE TODAY’S CONTROVERSIES: Criticism of Justice TECHNOLOGY AND CRIMINAL JUSTICE: Hacking of
System Officials: Improper or Useful? 22 Customer Data 66
CLOSE UP: Victimization of the Elderly 68
Types of Crime 24
The Experience of Victims in the Criminal Justice System 71
Visible Crime 24
CIVIC ENGAGEMENT: Your Role in the System 72
Victimless Crimes 25
EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICE AND POLICY: Victim
Political Crime 26
Services 74
Occupational Crime 27
The Role of Victims in Crime 75
Organized Crime 28
Transnational Crime 29
Causes of Crime 76
Classical and Positivist Theories 77
Cybercrime 31
Biological Explanations 78
TECHNOLOGY AND CRIMINAL JUSTICE: Transnational
Cybercrime 32 Psychological Explanations 80
CIVIC ENGAGEMENT: Your Role in the System 35 Sociological Explanations 82
vi Contents

Life Course Explanations 85
Women and Crime 87
4 CRIMINAL JUSTICE
AND THE RULE OF LAW 146
Assessing Theories of Criminality 90
Foundations of Criminal Law 149
Substantive Law and Procedural Law 149
Summary 91 CIVIC ENGAGEMENT: Your Role in the System 150
Sources of Criminal Law 150
3 THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM 94 Felony and Misdemeanor 153
Criminal versus Civil Law 155
The Goals of Criminal Justice 99
Doing Justice 99
Controlling Crime 100 Substantive Criminal Law 157
EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICE AND POLICY: Evidence-
Seven Principles of Criminal Law 157
Based Practice and Public Surveillance 100 Elements of a Crime 159
Preventing Crime 101 TECHNOLOGY AND CRIMINAL JUSTICE: Posting
on Social Media: Distinguishing Threats from Free
Expression 160
Criminal Justice in a Federal System 102 Statutory Definitions of Crimes 160
Two Justice Systems 102
Responsibility for Criminal Acts 164
Expansion of Federal Involvement 103
Justification Defenses 165
Criminal Justice as a System 107 Excuse Defenses 167
The System Perspective 107 CLOSE UP: Criminal Intent and the Appropriateness of
Characteristics of the Criminal Justice System 107 Punishment 174
Operations of Criminal Justice Agencies 111 Procedural Criminal Law 174
TECHNOLOGY AND CRIMINAL JUSTICE: Anticipating The Bill of Rights 176
The Future of Technology and Criminal Justice 112 The Fourteenth Amendment and Due Process 176
Police 112 The Due Process Revolution 177
Courts 113 CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND THE RISK OF
Corrections 114 MISINFORMATION: Myths and Reality about the Second
The Flow of Decision Making in the Criminal Justice Amendment 178
System 114 The Fourth Amendment: Protection against Unreasonable
Searches and Seizures 180
Steps in the Decision-Making Process 116
INSIDE TODAY’S CONTROVERSIES: Florida v. Jardines
The Criminal Justice Wedding Cake 119
and The Prospect for Change 180
THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE PROCESS: The State of
The Fifth Amendment: Protection against Self-Incrimination
Michigan versus Christopher Jones 120
and Double Jeopardy 182
Crime and Justice in a Multicultural Society 127 The Sixth Amendment: The Right to Counsel and a Fair
Disparity and Discrimination 127 Trial 183
INSIDE TODAY’S CONTROVERSIES: What I Learned The Eighth Amendment: Protection against Excessive
about Stop-and-Frisk from Watching My Black Son 130 Bail, Excessive Fines, and Cruel and Unusual
Explanations for Disparities 132 Punishments 186
CLOSE UP: Racial Profiling 136 The Supreme Court Today 188
CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND THE RISK OF EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICE AND POLICY: Debates
MISINFORMATION: Beliefs about Undocumented about Judges’ Capabilities as Policy Makers 190
Immigrants and Crime 140 A QUESTION OF ETHICS 191
Summary 192
Summary 143
Contents vii
PA RT 2 POLICE 195
5 POLICE 196 6 POLICE OFFICERS

AND LAW ENFORCEMENT
The Development of Police in the United
States 199
OPERATIONS 244
The English Roots of the American Police 200 Who Are the Police? 246
Policing in the United States 201 Recruitment 247
CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND THE RISK OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND THE RISK OF
MISINFORMATION: Avoiding the Politics of Fear 208 MISINFORMATION: The Importance of Accuracy in
Law Enforcement Agencies 212 Criminal Justice Records and Communications 248
Federal Agencies 213 The Changing Profile of the Police 250
State Agencies 216 Training 254
INSIDE TODAY’S CONTROVERSIES: Training in an Era
County Agencies 216
of Controversy: De-escalation and Use of Force 254
Native American Tribal Police 217
Municipal Agencies 217 The Police Subculture 257
Special Jurisdiction Agencies 217 The Working Personality 257
Police Isolation 259
Police Functions 218
Job Stress 260
Order Maintenance 219
TECHNOLOGY AND CRIMINAL JUSTICE: Chicago’s Police Response and Action 261
Technology-Based Effort to Enhance Law Organizational Response 262
Enforcement 220 Productivity 264
Law Enforcement 221 Delivery of Police Services 266
Service 222 Patrol Functions 266
Implementing the Mandate 222 CIVIC ENGAGEMENT: Your Role in the System 268
Organization of the Police 223 Investigation 268
Bureaucratic Elements 223 Special Operations 272
Operational Units 225 Issues in Patrolling 275
CIVIC ENGAGEMENT: Your Role in the System 225 Assignment of Patrol Personnel 275
The Police Bureaucracy and the Criminal Justice EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICE AND POLICY:
System 225 Evidence-Based Policing and Patrol 276
Police Policy 226 TECHNOLOGY AND CRIMINAL JUSTICE: Specialized
Everyday Action of Police 228 Software, Information Analysis, and Crime Control 278
CLOSE UP: Should Police Officers Wear Individual Body
Encounters between Police and Citizens 228
Cameras? 282
Police Discretion 229
Community Policing 284
Domestic Violence 229
Police and the Community 231 Crime and the Impact of Patrol 286
The Future of Patrol 287
Based Practices and Issues with Mental Illness 232
Special Populations 232
Policing in a Multicultural Society 233 Summary 288
CLOSE UP: Living Under Suspicion 236
INSIDE TODAY’S CONTROVERSIES: The President’s Task
Force on 21st-Century Policing 238
7 POLICING: CONTEMPORARY ISSUES
AND CHALLENGES 292
Community Crime Prevention 238
CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND THE RISK OF
MISINFORMATION: Erroneous Retweets 296
Policing and New Technology 296
Summary 240
The Challenge of New Crimes 297
viii Contents
TECHNOLOGY AND CRIMINAL JUSTICE: Ransomware: Plain View Doctrine 351

A Threat to Police Departments and Other Organizations 300 TECHNOLOGY AND CRIMINAL JUSTICE: The Public
Investigative Tools 300 Backlash against Police Surveillance Technology 352
Weapons Technology 308 Open Fields Doctrine 352
Homeland Security 311 Plain Feel and Other Senses 353
Preparing for Threats 312 Warrantless Searches 354
CIVIC ENGAGEMENT: Your Role in the System 315 Special Needs beyond the Normal Purposes
Security Management and Private Policing 317 of Law Enforcement 354
Functions of Security Management and Private Policing 318 Stop-and-Frisk on the Streets 357
Private Police and Homeland Security 320 Search Incident to a Lawful Arrest 359
Private Employment of Public Police 321 CLOSE UP: The U.S. Supreme Court and Searches That
Begin with Improper Stops by Police 360
The Public–Private Interface 323
Exigent Circumstances 360
Recruitment and Training 324
Police Abuse of Power 326
Consent 362
Use of Force 326
Automobile Searches 363
INSIDE TODAY’S CONTROVERSIES: Military Equipment
and Local Police 330 Questioning Suspects 366
CLOSE UP: The Police Executive Research Forum’s 2016 Miranda Rules 367
Proposed Principles on Use of Force 332 INSIDE TODAY’S CONTROVERSIES: Miranda Rights for
Corruption 334 Terrorism Suspects 368
The Consequences of Miranda 370
Civic Accountability 336
Internal Affairs Units 337
Based Practices in Identification Procedures 372
Civilian Review Boards 337
Standards and Accreditation 338
The Exclusionary Rule 374
Application of the Exclusionary Rule to the States 374
EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICE AND POLICY: Police
Officers and Implicit Bias 338 Exceptions to the Exclusionary Rule 375
Civil Liability Lawsuits 340 CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND THE RISK OF
MISINFORMATION: Good Faith, Errors, and the Shrinking
of Protection for Constitutional Rights 378
Summary 341 A QUESTION OF ETHICS 380
Summary 381
8 POLICE AND CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 344
Legal Limitations on Police Investigations 347
Search and Seizure 348
Arrest 349
Warrants and Probable Cause 350
PA RT 3 COURTS 385
EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICE AND POLICY: Problem-
9 COURTS AND PRETRIAL
PROCESSES 386
Solving Courts 396
How to Become a Judge 397
CLOSE UP: The Image of Justice 398
The Structure of American Courts 389 CIVIC ENGAGEMENT: Your Role in the System 402
Effective Management of the State Courts 391 From Arrest to Trial or Plea 402
To Be a Judge 392 Bail: Pretrial Release 406
Who Becomes a Judge? 393 CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND THE RISK OF
Functions of the Judge 394 MISINFORMATION: Rumors and Vigilante Action 407
Contents ix
The Reality of the Bail System 408 The Impact of Courtroom Workgroups 477
Bail Agents 409 Plea Bargaining 478
CIVIC ENGAGEMENT: Your Role in the System 411 Exchange Relationships in Plea Bargaining 480
Setting Bail 411 Tactics of Prosecutor and Defense 481
Reforming the Bail System 412 Pleas without Bargaining 482
TECHNOLOGY AND CRIMINAL JUSTICE: Technology Legal Issues in Plea Bargaining 483
and Pretrial Release 414 Criticisms of Plea Bargaining 484
Pretrial Detention 416 CIVIC ENGAGEMENT: Your Role in the System 485
INSIDE TODAY’S CONTROVERSIES: The Kalief Browder Trial: The Exceptional Case 485
Tragedy: Poor, Young, and in Solitary Confinement 418
Going to Trial 486
The Trial Process 488
Summary 420 CIVIC ENGAGEMENT: Your Role in the System 489
INSIDE TODAY’S CONTROVERSIES: Race and The
10 PROSECUTION AND DEFENSE 424 Jury 490

The Prosecutorial System 428 MISINFORMATION: Jurors and Electronic
Politics and Prosecution 429 Communications 492
The Prosecutor’s Influence 430 CLOSE UP: Should We Abolish the Peremptory
Challenge? 494
The Prosecutor’s Roles 431
TECHNOLOGY AND CRIMINAL JUSTICE: Forensic
TECHNOLOGY AND CRIMINAL JUSTICE: Mandatory
Evidence and the Risk of Error 498
DNA Samples 432
Evaluating the Jury System 501
Discretion of the Prosecutor 435
EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICE AND POLICY: Improving
Key Relationships of the Prosecutor 437
The Effectiveness of Jury Instructions 502
INSIDE TODAY’S CONTROVERSIES: Prosecutors, Police,
and The Ferguson, Missouri, Grand Jury in 2014 440 Appeals 502
CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND THE RISK OF Habeas Corpus 503
MISINFORMATION: Conspiracy Theories and Crime Evaluating the Appellate Process 504
Victims 442 A QUESTION OF ETHICS 505
CIVIC ENGAGEMENT: Your Role in the System 445 Summary 506
Decision-Making Policies 445
12 PUNISHMENT AND SENTENCING

The Defense Attorney: Image and Reality 449
The Role of the Defense Attorney 450
510
Realities of the Defense Attorney’s Job 451 The Goals of Punishment 513
The Environment of Criminal Practice 452 Retribution: Deserved Punishment 513
Counsel for Indigents 454 Deterrence 514
EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICE AND POLICY: Criminal Incapacitation 515
Defense, Evidence-Based Practices, and The Best
Rehabilitation 517
Interests of the Client 456
CLOSE UP: Pressure to Fulfill The Promise of Indigent
MISINFORMATION: Evaluating the Claim that Laws and
Defense 462
Policies “Don’t Work” 518
Private versus Public Defense 462
New Approach to Punishment: Restorative Justice 519
Attorney Competence 463
Forms of the Criminal Sanction 521
Incarceration 522
Summary 466 Intermediate Sanctions 527
Probation 529
11 DETERMINATION OF GUILT: PLEA

BARGAINING AND TRIALS 468
Death 529
TECHNOLOGY AND CRIMINAL JUSTICE: Chemical
Scarcity and Lethal Injection 534
The Courtroom: How It Functions 473 CIVIC ENGAGEMENT: Your Role in the System 537
The Courtroom Workgroup 474 CLOSE UP: The Death Penalty Debate 538
x Contents
The Sentencing Process 541 Attitudes and Values of Judges 547

EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICE AND POLICY: Evidence- Presentence Report 547
Based Sentencing 542 Sentencing Guidelines 547
The Administrative Context of the Courts 543 Who Gets the Harshest Punishment? 549
INSIDE TODAY’S CONTROVERSIES: The U.S. A QUESTION OF ETHICS 553
Department of Justice’s Investigation of the Ferguson,
Summary 553
Missouri, Municipal Court 544
PA RT 4 CORRECTIONS 555
TECHNOLOGY AND CRIMINAL JUSTICE: Technology
13 CORRECTIONS 556 and a Drastic Reduction in the Use of Prisons 604
Development of Corrections 560
Summary 611
Invention of the Penitentiary 561
14 COMMUNITY
MISINFORMATION: The Use and Abuse of the Phrase CORRECTIONS: PROBATION
“Anecdotal Information” 562 AND INTERMEDIATE SANCTIONS 614
Reform in the United States 564
Reformatory Movement 569 Community Corrections: Assumptions 616
Improving Prison Conditions for Women 570 Probation: Corrections without Incarceration 617
Rehabilitation Model 571 Origins and Evolution of Probation 618
Community Model 572 Organization of Probation 619
Crime Control Model 573 INSIDE TODAY’S CONTROVERSIES: Private
Probation 620
Organization of Corrections in the United States 574
Probation Services 621
Federal Correctional System 574
TECHNOLOGY AND CRIMINAL JUSTICE: Technology
State Correctional Systems 575
and Probation 622
Private Prisons 578
Reliance on Volunteers 623
INSIDE TODAY’S CONTROVERSIES: Privatization of
Revocation and Termination of Probation 625
Services in Public Prisons and the Risk of Misconduct 580
Assessing Probation 628
Incarcerated Immigrants 582
EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICE AND POLICY: Reducing
Jails: Detention and Short-Term Incarceration 584 the Risk of Recidivism for Probationers 628
Origins and Evolution 584
Intermediate Sanctions in the Community 630
The Contemporary Jail 585
Intermediate Sanctions Administered Primarily
Who Is in Jail? 585 by the Judiciary 631
Managing Jails 586 CLOSE UP: Controversies Over Forfeiture of Cash
EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICE AND POLICY: Evidence- and Property 634
Based Practices, Jails, and Mental Illness 588 Intermediate Sanctions Administered in the Community 634
The Law of Corrections 589 CIVIC ENGAGEMENT: Your Role in the System 637
CIVIC ENGAGEMENT: Your Role in the System 589 Intermediate Sanctions Administered in Institutions
Constitutional Rights of Prisoners 590 and the Community 640
CLOSE UP: The Supreme Court’s Decision in Holt v. Hobbs Implementing Intermediate Sanctions 642
(2015) 592 CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND THE RISK OF
Law and Community Corrections 598 MISINFORMATION: Jailed Over Record-Keeping Flaws in
Law and Correctional Personnel 600 Community Corrections 644
Correctional Policy Trends 601 The Future of Community Corrections 644
Community Corrections 602 A QUESTION OF ETHICS 645
Incarceration 603 Summary 646
Contents xi
Assaultive Behavior and Inmate Characteristics 689

15 INCARCERATION AND PRISON
SOCIETY 648
Prisoner–Officer Violence 694
Officer–Prisoner Violence 694
Decreasing Prison Violence 695
The Modern Prison: Legacy of the Past 650
INSIDE TODAY’S CONTROVERSIES: Arming Corrections
Goals of Incarceration 651 Officers: Risks and Benefits 696
CLOSE UP: One Man’s Walk Through Atlanta’s Jungle: A QUESTION OF ETHICS 697
Michael G. Santos 652
Summary 698
Prison Organization 654
Governing a Society of Captives 656
The Defects of Total Power 656 16 REENTRY INTO THE COMMUNITY 702
Rewards and Punishments 656 Prisoner Reentry 705
Gaining Cooperation: Exchange Relationships 657 EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICE AND POLICY: The Timing
Inmate Leadership 658 of Successful Programs for Reentry 706
The Challenge of Governing Prisons 658 Contemporary Budget Cuts and Prisoner Release 707
Correctional Officers: At the Forefront of Facing Institutional Reentry Preparation Programs 709
Complex Challenges 660 Release and Supervision 710
The Officer’s Role 660 The Origins of Parole 711
Recruitment of Officers 660 The Development of Parole in the United States 712
Use of Force 662 Release Mechanisms 712
Who Is in Prison? 663 Discretionary Release 713
Elderly Prisoners 664 Mandatory Release 713
Prisoners with HIV/AIDS 665 Probation Release 714
Prisoners with Mental Illness 665 Other Conditional Release 714
CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND THE RISK OF Expiration Release 715
MISINFORMATION: Judges’ Decisions and the The Parole Board Process 715
Announcement of Inaccurate Predictions 666 CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND THE RISK OF
Long-Term Prisoners 668 MISINFORMATION: Inaccurate Information and the Risk of
The Convict World 668 Too-Early Release 716
CLOSE UP: Survival Tips For Beginners: Tj Granack 669 CLOSE UP: A Personal Encounter With the Parole Process
in Michigan 718
Adaptive Roles 671
The Prison Economy 672
Impact of Release Mechanisms 719
TECHNOLOGY AND CRIMINAL JUSTICE: Contraband
Delivered by Drones 672 Parole Supervision in the Community 721
Women in Prison 674 Community Programs following Release 723
CIVIC ENGAGEMENT: Your Role in the System 674 Work and Educational Release 723
The Subculture of Women’s Prisons 676 CIVIC ENGAGEMENT: Your Role in the System 725
Male versus Female Subcultures 676 Parole Officer: Cop or Social Worker? 725
Issues in the Incarceration of Women 677 The Parole Bureaucracy 727
Adjustments to Life Outside Prison 727
Prison Programs 681
TECHNOLOGY AND CRIMINAL JUSTICE: Using GPS to
Classification of Prisoners 682
Track Sex Offenders on Parole 728
Educational Programs 682
INSIDE TODAY’S CONTROVERSIES: The Movement to
CIVIC ENGAGEMENT: Your Role in the System 683 Ban the Box 730
Vocational Education 683 Revocation of Parole 730
Prison Industries 684
The Future of Prisoner Reentry 732
Rehabilitative Programs 686
Civil Disabilities of Ex-Felons 733
Based Prison Practices to Reduce Recidivism 686 A QUESTION OF ETHICS: Neighborhood Resistance
to Placement of Community Corrections Programs and
Medical Services 687
Facilities 736
Violence in Prison 689 Summary 736
xii Contents
PA RT 5 THE JUVENILE JUSTICE SYSTEM 739

EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICE AND POLICY: Juvenile
17 JUVENILE JUSTICE 740 Waiver to Adult Court 764
Adjudication 765
Youth Crime in the United States 743 Disposition 768
INSIDE TODAY’S CONTROVERSIES: Teens and the
Corrections 768
Opioid Crisis 746
The Development of Juvenile Justice 746
Problems and Perspectives 773
The Puritan Period (1646–1824) 747
TECHNOLOGY AND CRIMINAL JUSTICE: Cyberbullying
The Refuge Period (1824–1899) 747
and “Sexting” 774
The Juvenile Court Period (1899–1960) 749
The Juvenile Rights Period (1960–1980) 750
Summary 776
The Crime Control Period (1980–2005) 752
The “Kids Are Different” Period (2005–Present) 753
MISINFORMATION: The Worst-Case Scenario for
APPENDIX A: Constitution of the United States:
Reacting to Misinformation 754 Criminal Justice Amendments 779
CLOSE UP: Youth Violence Reduction Programs 755 APPENDIX B: Understanding and Using Criminal
The Juvenile Justice System 756 Justice Data 780
Age of Clients 756 GLOSSARY G-1
Categories of Cases under Juvenile Court Jurisdiction 756
REFERENCES R-1
The Juvenile Justice Process 759
Police Interface 759 NAME INDEX I-1
Intake Screening at the Court 762 SUBJECT INDEX I-7
Pretrial Procedures 763
Transfer (Waiver) to Adult Court 764
PREFACE
Most students come to the introductory course in criminal The American public is accustomed to seeing offi-
justice intrigued by the prospect of learning about crime cials in the criminal justice system—legislators, pros-
and the operation of the criminal justice system. Many of ecutors, judges, defense attorneys, and corrections
them look forward to the roles they may one day fill in officials—as constituting the decision makers who
allocating justice, either as citizens or in careers with the shape criminal justice policies and processes. Students
police, courts, or corrections. All have been exposed to who aspire to careers in these positions undoubtedly
a great deal of information—and misinformation—about recognize their potential importance to the system. Less
criminal justice through the news and entertainment well recognized, however, are the influence and impor-
media. Whatever their views, few are indifferent to the tance of all citizens in their roles as voters, members of
subject they are about to explore. neighborhood associations and community organiza-
Like all newcomers to a field, however, introduc- tions, and even as renters and homeowners. In these
tory students in criminal justice need, first, content roles, all Americans influence criminal justice through
mastery—a solid foundation of valid information about a variety of activities, ranging from formal decisions
the subject—and second, critical understanding—a about voting or buying security systems for businesses
way to think about this information. They need concep- and churches to less formal actions in personal crime-
tual tools that enable them not only to absorb a large prevention decisions (e.g., locking cars, reporting suspi-
body of factual content but also to process that infor- cious activity) that guide the nature and extent of crime
mation critically, reflect on it, and extend their learning problems as well as the allocation of law enforcement
beyond the classroom. This text aims at providing both resources. The influence of all Americans on criminal
the essential content and the critical tools involved in justice will be highlighted throughout the book, espe-
understanding criminal justice. cially in the feature Civic Engagement: Your Role in the
This edition continues the book’s recent unifying System, which gives students concrete opportunities to
emphasis on citizens’ varied and important roles in in- analyze and make decisions about real-life examples.
fluencing criminal justice policies and processes. Social Three other features in the book reinforce this theme.
commentators and political scientists have long noted In addition, a critical-thinking element, Stop and
that young Americans seem insufficiently interested Analyze, which follows each subsection within every
and engaged in public affairs. Participation rates for chapter, poses questions to students about issues con-
youthful voters lag behind those of older demographic cerning the material that they have just read. Many of
groups. Surveys indicate that many young people lack these Stop and Analyze questions challenge students to
knowledge about both current events and the operation develop arguments and conclusions about their own
of their country’s governing system. Such trends raise positions on contemporary controversies. A similar fea-
questions about the vibrancy of the American democ- ture, Debate the Issue, included in the Close Up boxes
racy and the range of values and opinions that inform within each chapter, also leads students to engage in
decisions about public policies. analytical thinking about concrete problems and is-
Young Americans are certainly entitled to make sues in criminal justice. These exercises help students
their own choices about whether and how they become to become intellectually engaged in relevant issues and
involved in public affairs. If, however, their lack of par- problems as a means to move away from citizens’ pas-
ticipation is due to insufficient knowledge about their sive acceptance of other people’s exclusive control over
important potential roles in democratic processes, then decision making and policy formulation.
the study of criminal justice—a high-interest subject This unifying emphasis on civic engagement draws
for college students—presents an opportunity to make from all three of the book’s major themes because ac-
clearer to them all citizens’ inevitable and unavoidable tive and informed citizens must use knowledge of the
roles in affecting criminal justice. system’s characteristics and American values in order
xiii
xiv Preface
to understand and improve their own actions that influ- dynamic as criminal justice. The social scene changes,
ence public policy. research multiplies, theories are modified, and new
policies are proposed and implemented while old ones
become unpopular and fade away. Students and their
The Approach of This Text: needs change as well. Accordingly, we have made this
Sixteenth Edition even more current, vital, cohesive,
Three Key Themes and appealing to students and instructors alike.
Criminal justice is a complex subject encompassing

an array of topics that cannot be evaluated through a Highlights of the Sixteenth Edition
limited or narrow focus. To understand what happens
to people who are drawn into the American system This edition encompasses important revisions in content
of criminal justice, one must analyze such varied sub- and presentation. Users of the Fifteenth Edition will find
jects as societal problems, determinants of individuals’ many significant additions and changes. We have also
behavior, government processes, and conceptions of strengthened the focus on the various important roles
morality and justice. This text tackles the challenge of of citizens in affecting criminal justice in their states,
this complexity by drawing from an interdisciplinary communities, and neighborhoods. This focus draws to-
foundation of research, with contributions from crimi- gether the book’s themes concerning American values,
nology, law, history, sociology, psychology, and politi- public policy, and system conception of criminal justice.
cal science. The interdisciplinary approach supplies the The remainder of this section considers the major con-
analytical tools and information needed to evaluate the tent changes and expanded discussions in the book and
varied institutions, processes, and social phenomena then examines the new elements in each chapter.
of criminal justice. Although breadth of perspective is
necessary for understanding criminal justice, it does not Evidence-Based Practice and Policy
automatically provide an appropriate basis for explain-
ing the American system of justice to students. Infor- A new feature in every chapter highlights the major
mation and analysis must be organized and presented trend within criminal justice toward developing and
in ways that highlight the key elements that shape and implementing research-based practices and policies. Fu-
drive criminal justice in the United States. We use three ture criminal justice professionals, as well as engaged
organizing themes to bring the complexity of criminal citizens, need awareness of the value of connecting re-
justice into focus and to highlight continuing issues and search to policy development. By testing practices and
controversies that affect this dynamic subject: policies through the methods of social science, criminal
justice organizations are better positioned to devote re-
1. Criminal justice involves public policies that are sources, training, and personnel to approaches that can
developed within the political framework of the advance policy goals, such as reducing crime rates and
democratic process. offender recidivism. Practices and policies examined in
2. The concept of social system is an essential tool for individual chapters include reentry programs, identifi-
explaining and analyzing the way criminal justice is cation procedures in police investigations, police patrol
administered and practiced. strategies, and addressing the needs of people with men-
tal illnesses.
3. American values provide the foundation on which
criminal justice is based. With concerns about
terrorism and civil liberties at the forefront of the Highly Publicized, Contemporary
national agenda, an awareness of basic American Controversies
values—individual liberty, equality, fairness, and the
Among the most significant developments affecting the
rule of law—is as vital today as it has ever been in
justice system are contemporary controversies that have
our history.
captured the public’s attention through heavy news me-
Over the years, the approach of The American Sys- dia coverage. In particular, key events since 2014 in-
tem of Criminal Justice has enjoyed broad acceptance cluded videoed incidents of police officers’ use of force,
as it addresses new challenges. Instructors at hundreds especially white officers’ actions leading to the deaths of
of colleges and universities throughout the nation have African American suspects. Incidents such as those in
chosen this book, and during its more than 30 years of Ferguson, Missouri; New York City; Cleveland, Ohio;
use in their classrooms, more than a half million of their North Charleston, South Carolina; and Baltimore led
students have used it. Yet, textbook authors cannot af- to large-scale public protests, including civil disorder
ford to rest on their laurels, particularly in a field as in Ferguson and Baltimore that produced extensive
Preface xv
property damage and arrests. These incidents brought practices in criminal justice. There is greater recogni-
into sharp focus debates about use of force, police– tion among policy makers about the high financial costs
community relations, and discrimination in the justice of incarceration and the significant societal costs of fail-
system. In order to highlight and examine these and ing to prepare offenders for reintegration into society.
other issues, we have expanded the feature entitled In- In addition, social media and the proliferation of shared
side Today’s Controversies so that there is one example photos and videos have highlighted questions about po-
in each chapter. The focus on current controversies is lice practices and fairness in the justice system in ways
used to illuminate aspects of each segment of the sys- that have heightened public awareness and concern.
tem, from policing to courts to corrections to juvenile Throughout the Sixteenth Edition, there are examples
justice. Several of these features concern police use of of reform initiatives and proposals intended to increase
force and police–community relations. For example, fairness, enhance effectiveness, and limit budgetary ex-
one Inside Today’s Controversies box examines the hu- penditures in criminal justice. Issues affecting policing,
man consequences of aggressive, racially skewed stop- courts, and corrections are highlighted in various fea-
and-frisk practices. Others focus on issues elsewhere in tures, including the Close Up and the Evidence-Based
the justice system, such as questions about the fairness Practice and Policy boxes.
of grand jury proceedings and problems stemming from
privatization in corrections and probation. Real Ethical Problems and Dilemmas
Facing Officials in Each Segment
Improving the Accuracy of Information
of the Criminal Justice System
and Reliability of Communications As in previous editions, each chapter ends with A Ques-
Contemporary students live in a technological age tion of Ethics, but many of these features have new, up-
and are inundated with information from a variety of dated content. These contemplative exercises provide
sources, including social media outlets that either inten- real situations drawn from recent news reports. Students
tionally or unwittingly spread inaccurate information. are asked to consider genuine cases concerning police
The label “fake news” is bandied about by politicians honesty in reporting crime statistics, sentencing dispari-
seeking to direct the public’s attention in a certain direc- ties, departmental quotas imposed on officers for writ-
tion, although not necessarily in the direction of truth. ing tickets or frisking pedestrians, corrections officers’
Americans are challenged to develop an awareness of use of violence to punish prisoners, and problems with
how to detect false information and seek the facts about privatization of prison services. Students are then chal-
specific topics. This issue has special consequences for lenged to place themselves in the position of administra-
criminal justice as the dissemination of inaccurate in- tors who must think about how to organize or reform
formation can distort understanding of social problems training, supervision, and other elements that are es-
and lead to policies and practices that are misdirected. sential for addressing ethical lapses by justice system
An additional aspect of information problems occurs officials.
through recordkeeping and communication errors in the
criminal justice system. Students need a keen awareness
of such problems in order to be able to recognize issues
Expanded Focus on Technology
and seek useful, correct information. A new feature in and Criminal Justice
each chapter, Criminal Justice and the Risk of Misin- The rapid pace of technological development and
formation, highlights a variety of problems related to change has profound effects on criminal justice. Tech-
information and communications. Examples within the nology creates new opportunities for lawbreakers to
chapters include the widespread dissemination of erro- steal money, corporate assets, and trade secrets. The
neous crime rates, harmful actions undertaken in reli- public is familiar with some aspects of these problems
ance on inaccurate social media postings, and arrests through publicity about identity theft and hackers’ suc-
of innocent people due to inaccurate recordkeeping by cess in stealing credit card numbers. Technology poses
police departments and courts. other problems for criminal justice, such as the sophis-
ticated weapons that police officers encounter in the
Proposals for Reform of the Justice hands of organized crime groups, gangs, and individual
criminals. Technology also presents opportunities for
System criminal justice officials to prevent crime, investigate
In recent decades, the primary focus of the justice sys- crime, maintain order, and control incarcerated popula-
tem has been on crime control and punishment. The tions. In addition, technology can raise questions about
past few years, however, have seen a shift toward con- collisions between citizens’ constitutional rights and of-
cerns about the effectiveness and costs of policies and ficials’ efforts to catch criminal offenders. Each year,
xvi Preface
new aspects of technology develop that impact crimi- bullets. A new Close Up feature illustrates differences
nal justice. Thus the Technology and Criminal Justice in political parties’ assumptions and conclusions about
features throughout the book focus on current issues of crime by comparing the policy initiatives of the Obama
critical importance to students, including transnational administration with the statements and promises of
cybercrime; ransomware attacks on police departments’ President Donald Trump and his eventual U.S. attor-
computers; the use of drones to deliver contraband over ney general Jefferson Sessions. The Inside Today’s Con-
prison walls; military equipment used by local police troversies feature focuses on police misconduct during
agencies; surveillance technology; and controversies December 2016 and January 2017 as well the January
about lethal injection protocols and drugs. 2017 Justice Department report on the Chicago Police
Department. The examples illustrate the necessity of
New and Expanded Topics critically analyzing criminal justice organizations and
processes in order to understand their actual flaws that
in the 16th Edition need corrective action. The new Criminal Justice and the
The use of local justice systems to generate revenue; Risk of Misinformation feature highlights the issue of in-
privatization of local probation; bail reform; drug policy accurate information available on the Internet and social
(sentencing, opioid epidemic, legalization of marijuana, media; the problem of people filtering out information
designer drugs); social media and criminal justice; police that challenges their preexisting beliefs; and the example
ethics; police strategies for handling public demonstra- of Missouri’s continued relaxation of gun laws despite
tions; violent attacks on the police; police use of force; evidence that this direction of policy is associated in that
training of police on de-escalation and implicit bias; state with a marked increase in gun homicides.
police–community relations; police acquisition of mili- There are also new examples of political crimes and
tary equipment/tactics; homeland security—“lone wolf” various kinds of occupational and cybercrimes drawn
attacks; vulnerabilities in airport security and other new from 2016 and 2017, including the Oregon wildlife ref-
kinds of emergency-response situations requiring coor- uge standoff (politically motivated crime) and Russian
dination; evidence-based practices; police body cameras; hacking to influence the U.S. elections.
police use of drones; guns—carrying/concealed weapons;
new California and other jurisdictions’ laws with restric- Chapter 2, Victimization and Criminal Behavior
tions on guns; prison/jail health and mental health; men- The new chapter opener uses an Uber driver’s shoot-
tal health and policing; technology in corrections; solitary ing of eight strangers in Kalamazoo, Michigan, in 2016
confinement; prison education programs; reentry; sen- and a Houston doctor’s conviction for defrauding the
tence reform; reductions in prison populations; recent Medicare program in 2016 as examples of the questions
spikes in certain crimes in specific cities; prison priva- raised about the causes of crime and how we define the
tization amid changes in presidential administrations; victims of various crimes. The new Criminal Justice and
expanded use of pardon power under President Obama. the Risk of Misinformation feature focuses on presiden-
tial candidate Donald Trump’s tweet of starkly inac-
Key Chapter-by-Chapter Changes curate crime statistics that could reinforce stereotypes
about African Americans as being primarily responsible
Chapter 1, Crime and Justice in America for violent crime. The feature calls attention to the need
A new chapter opener focuses on the mass shooting in to double-check information before sharing through so-
January 2017 at the Ft. Lauderdale airport, killing five cial media. The new Inside Today’s Controversies fea-
people and wounding six others. The incident raises ture discusses debates about the focus of the Violence
questions about the nature of crime and the public’s per- Against Women Act, including the federal government’s
ceptions about crime. A new What Americans Think role in trying to shape state and local domestic vio-
presents public opinion poll results from 2016 for young lence policy as well as the prospect of the new Trump
adults (ages 18–29) showing strong doubt among a sig- administration cutting grants that had been distributed
nificant number of people concerning the justice sys- through this program. There is new data on the intra
tem’s capacity to make unbiased, fair decisions. The new racial nature of homicide and a comparison with gender
Evidence-Based Practice and Policy feature provides an and aspects of criminal victimization. New informa-
overview of the development of evidence-based practices tion about Gallup Polls from 2015 and 2016 illuminate
and policy, including issues in research and implemen- Americans’ fear of crime and the factors that differen-
tation. There are examples of new gun laws effective in tiate people’s perceptions about fear. Additional new
2017 that contrast Republican success in eliminating information updates shifting budgetary priorities and
most requirements for carrying concealed firearms with attendant impacts on victim assistance programs. The
Democrats’ new laws in California imposing restrictions new Evidence-Based Practice and Policy feature focuses
on firearms and background checks for the purchase of on the effectiveness of victim services.
Preface xvii
Chapter 3, The Criminal Justice System a University of Washington student was acquitted after
The new chapter opener provides the details of the stabbing another student in an altercation that began
arrest, prosecution, and trial of minor television celeb- from an argument over a parking space. The insanity
rity Dustin Diamond after an altercation at a bar in defense material is updated to include John Hinckley’s
Wisconsin. The example illustrates the specific steps in release from a mental hospital after 35 years of confine-
the criminal justice process from event to punishment. ment and treatment following his assassination attempt
The Evidence-Based Practice and Policy feature exam- on President Ronald Reagan. The new Criminal Justice
ines public surveillance and research evidence concern- and the Risk of Misinformation feature concerns the
ing crime prevention efforts through the use of CCTV narrowness of the Supreme Court’s interpretation of the
systems in public places. There is new material on racial right to own handguns under the Second Amendment
profiling that includes descriptions by prominent African and the claims by many people that the Second Amend-
Americans—U.S. Senator Tim Scott of South Carolina, ment means much more than what the Supreme Court
and Ron Sims, the retired County Executive from the has actually said. A new Inside Today’s Controversies
Washington State county that includes Seattle—about feature presents a 5-to- 4 Supreme Court decision
being stopped by police multiple times for no apparent (Florida v. Jardines) concerning the use of drug-sniffing
reason other than their skin color. The new Criminal dogs that could change with the replacement of the late
Justice and the Risk of Misinformation feature discusses Justice Scalia by President Trump’s conservative Supreme
President Trump’s executive order for the Department Court appointee, Justice Neil Gorsuch. The new
of Homeland Security to issue weekly reports on crimes Evidence-Based Practice and Policy feature discusses de-
committed by undocumented immigrants. The feature bates concerning judges’ capability to use social science
raises issues about how this provision may be inter- research as part of their policy-shaping decisions.
preted, the difficulties involved in gathering nationwide
information on a weekly basis, and the risk of distorting Chapter 5, Police
an accurate analysis of crime statistics by focusing on The new chapter opener concerns February 2017 pro-
a specific demographic group in isolation and not with tests on the Berkeley campus of the University of
comparative reference to the overall picture of crime that California, and the police department’s controversial de-
includes considerations of other demographic groups. A cision to monitor rather than actively intervene to reduce
new Technology and Criminal Justice feature focuses the risk of injuries to bystanders and officers. The new
on the challenge of anticipating new technological Criminal Justice and the Risk of Misinformation feature
developments and attendant problems—using the exam- concerns the need for educated citizens to do research
ple of self-driving vehicles—which will ultimately raise on factual statements and policy proposals by political
new policy issues for policing. For example, should po- candidates and politicians. The need for this ability is
lice have the ability to use technologies that could over- greater than ever because there are sometimes efforts to
ride a vehicle’s software in order to take control of a fully use false statements to generate overblown public fears
automated vehicle? If so, could such police capability be that enable politicians to shape policies in criminal
misused to improperly stop vehicles? justice and homeland security in misguided ways. The
new Technology and Criminal Justice feature discusses
Chapter 4, Criminal Justice and the Rule of Law Chicago’s announcement in 2017 that the city will en-
The new chapter opener focuses on the entrapment de- hance its use of technology for more-effective law en-
fense by comparing cases in Texas (2016) and Florida forcement and crime prevention, and raises questions
(2013) in which men were charged with online solici- about the potential effectiveness of this approach. The
tation of teenage girls without knowing that they were Inside Today’s Controversies feature looks at controver-
actually communicating online with police officers, sial lethal uses of force by police and the initiation of the
not young girls. In one case, the jury acquitted the man President Obama’s Task Force on 21st Century Policing.
based on the entrapment defense but in the other case
they convicted. The cases illustrate defenses to crimi- Chapter 6, Police Officers and Law
nal charges and the uncertainty about how juries will Enforcement Operations
be persuaded in criminal trials. There is new civil for- The new chapter opener highlights dangers faced
feiture information, including the example from 2016 by police officers through the example of 2016 fatal
of a Christian music group raising money for a religious shooting of an Arkansas officer by a man barricaded
college and an orphanage, only to have the money from in a mobile home after a domestic dispute. The new
their concerts seized during a traffic stop when police de- Criminal Justice and the Risk of Misinformation
clared the case to be proceeds from illegal drug deals— box illuminates the importance of good communica-
despite finding no drugs in the vehicle. There is a new tion and information systems within justice system
illustration of self-defense based on a 2016 case in which agencies. The tragic example of miscommunication
xviii Preface
concerns the police shooting of a 12-year-old boy testimony about microscopic hair evidence for many
in Cleveland. The boy was carrying a toy gun but years. In addition, a chemist in Massachusetts was
the dispatcher had not informed officers that the sentenced to prison for false, pro-prosecution testi-
911 caller had stated that the person could be a juve- mony concerning her analysis of drug evidence. There
nile with a toy and not necessarily an adult carrying a is new information on rapid DNA testing devices
real firearm. There are also examples of people “lost” that permit police officers to do quick DNA tests—
in corrections institutions through poor record keep- although the test results are expensive and are not yet
ing. The new Inside Today’s Controversies focuses on integrated into national databases. A new figure shows
the debate over de-escalation training for police use of 2016 state laws requiring training for armed security
force. The new What Americans Think shows results guards, including 14 states with no training require-
from a 2016 public opinion poll indicating stark dif- ments and other states that require no shooting test for
ferences between whites and African Americans views private security officers. The Inside Today’s Contro-
of African Americans’ fatal encounter with police as versies feature discusses critics’ concerns that the use
isolated incidents or signs of broader problems with of military equipment and tactics by police can lead
policing. There is new information on the number of to unnecessary aggressiveness and alienation from the
volunteer officers and 2016 examples on dangers of communities that police are supposed to serve. The
using volunteer officers—including sentencing of a new Evidence-Based Practice and Policy feature con-
Tulsa, Oklahoma, volunteer who killed an unarmed cerns research and training to issues of implicit bias
suspect when he mistakenly pulled out and shot his that may affect police officers in ways that they do not
firearm and not his stun gun. even recognize in themselves. A new Question of Eth-
There is new information and examples noting the ics includes links to videos of California officers beat-
changing police role with respect to drug enforcement ing unarmed suspects who surrendered after forcing
in light of spreading marijuana legalization and the em- officers to chase them.
phasis on treatment rather than enforcement for heroin
and opioid abuse in some places. There is new coverage Chapter 8, Police and Constitutional Law
of concerns about the use of crime-prediction software, There is new material in the chapter opener and the
including issues of inaccurate data and risks for police– Technology and Criminal Justice feature on contro-
community relations by sending officers to less-affluent versies police access to citizens’ cell phones, including
neighborhoods with a heightened state of suspicion af- police use of “stingray” cell-phone tracking technol-
fecting officers’ interactions with people who live there. ogy and the 2017 law proposed in Congress to require
a warrant for such surveillance. Additional material
Chapter 7, Policing: Contemporary Issues concerns the dramatic increase in the number of war-
and Challenges rantless searches of laptops and smartphones by U.S.
The chapter opening discusses the shooting deaths of Customs and Border Protection officers at border entry
Alton Sterling in Baton Rouge and Philando Castile in points and international airports, with half of the nearly
Minnesota at the hands of police, as well as the re- 24,000 searches directed at devices owned by Ameri-
sulting protests and the tragic shootings of police of- can citizens. The new Close Up examines the Supreme
ficers in Dallas and Baton Rouge that followed from Court’s decision in Utah v. Strieff (2016) that expanded
these events. The new Criminal Justice and the Risk police authority to stop and question pedestrians. New
of Misinformation feature concerns a CNN report on material presents concerns about the impact of electro-
erroneous statistics regarding outsiders’ participation shock from police stun guns causing temporary cogni-
in a protest in Charlotte, North Carolina, based on a tive impairment that would impede truly knowing and
speculative comment by a police officer. What respon- voluntary waiver of Miranda rights.
sibility does the news media bear for checking facts The new Inside Today’s Controversies feature fo-
before reporting what others have said? The Technol- cuses on the suspect in the 2016 New Jersey and New
ogy and Criminal Justice feature presents new content York bombings and how his arrest renewed debates
on ransomware attacks, especially those directed at about whether terrorism suspects should be given
police departments. A Texas police department lost Miranda rights. The new Criminal Justice and the Risk
eight years’ worth of digital evidence in 2017 after re- of Misinformation feature concerns cases in which po-
fusing to pay $4,000 to hackers—presumably based in lice relied on erroneous information in justice system
eastern Europe—in order to regain access to the police databases or from inadequate training and communica-
computer system. tion, resulting in rights violations and arrests—with the
There are new examples of misconduct by crime lab majority of justices on the Supreme Court declining
scientists, including the FBI’s admission in 2015 that to make the protection of rights a higher priority than
its examiners had provided overstated, pro-prosecution the acquisition of evidence. A new Question of Ethics
Preface xix
feature concerns five police officers caught lying under Chapter 10, Prosecution and Defense
oath about a search they undertook at a traffic stop—as The new chapter opening describes prosecution and de-
they did not know that the dashboard camera in one pa- fense strategies in the trial of Michael Slager, the po-
trol car was recording their actual actions in conducting lice officer in North Charleston, South Carolina, whose
an illegal search of the driver’s vehicle. actions in shooting a motorist fleeing on foot—Walter
Scott—were captured on cell-phone video by an unseen
Chapter 9, Courts and Pretrial Processes bystander. There is new information on controversy sur-
The new chapter opener focuses on the pretrial bail rounding the appointment of Jefferson Sessions as U.S.
and plea bargaining processes leading to the March attorney general in 2017. There is also new informa-
2017 sentencing of John Gotti—namesake grandson tion from 2017 reports about local police departments
of the famous New York City crime boss—for selling keeping their own DNA databases contained in the
drugs. In the new Close Up, there is an examination Technology and Criminal Justice feature. A new What
of judges’ behavior in the courtroom; new examples Americans Think feature presents a 2016 poll showing
from 2016 include a judge jailing domestic violence New Jersey citizens’ strong disagreement with federal
victims for contempt of court, handcuffing a defense prosecutors’ decision declining to criminally charge
attorney, and the example of the Stanford athlete sen- Governor Chris Christie in the “Bridgegate” scandal.
tenced to only three months in jail for sexual assault. A new Criminal Justice and the Risk of Misinforma-
There is a new example of nine African American tion feature concerns conspiracy theorists’ claims that
women elected as judges in one county in Alabama the mass shooting at Sandy Hook Elementary School
in 2016 in order to pose the question whether judges in Newtown, Connecticut, never occurred in Decem-
should be elected by the voters to represent the com- ber 2012. Because prosecutors often have responsibil-
munity and the risk that merit selection will lead to ity for victim services, do prosecutors have any special
only the selection of elite attorneys from the gover- duty to refute these hoaxes, especially when it leads
nor’s political party. The new Criminal Justice and people who believe such misinformation to harass and
the Risk of Misinformation feature discusses risks threaten crime victims’ families? There are also exam-
from the spread of false information on Facebook and ples of cases in which prosecutors opposed permitting
other social media outlets, including the beating of a newly developed DNA tests for preserved evidence even
homeless man in California based on a false Facebook though such tests may demonstrate that an individual
post that said he assaulted women. Another example was wrongly convicted. The Evidence-Based Practice
is the death threats against a businessman in Mon- and Policy feature discusses the challenges of identify-
tana after a false Facebook post led people to believe ing and adopting best practices for criminal defense
that he was constructing apartment buildings to house attorneys in light of disagreements about the goal of
refugee immigrants. There are new examples of risks defense practices (e.g., Help client with rehabilitation?
and abuses from bail agents, including a bail agent Protect rights? Seek lightest punishment?) and the rela-
pressuring female jail inmates for sex when they could tive lack of research on defense attorneys and prosecu-
not afford to pay bail fee, and bail agents working tors compared to other aspects of the justice system.
secretly with court clerks to alter records in order to The Close Up considers the role of appellate courts
avoid forfeiting money when clients failed to appear in indigent defense reform including new information
for hearings. In the Technology and Criminal Justice on the Michigan Supreme Court which for the first time
feature on electronic monitoring of people released on in 2016 set standards for performance for criminal de-
bail, there is new information on the controversy over fense attorneys. A new Question of Ethics from 2016
disadvantages experienced by poor defendants who concerns a misconduct violation found to have been
cannot afford the monitoring fees. New information committed by a North Carolina attorney for picking up
on bail reform uses 2016 changes in New Mexico and a water bottle to seek DNA testing of the object after
Indiana as examples. The new Inside Today’s Con- the person drinking from the bottle had refused to pro-
troversies feature discusses the tragic case of Kalief vide a DNA sample. The attorney took the action to as-
Browder, the teenager who was held in a New York sist her client—a man who was ultimately found to have
City jail for three years—including prolonged time served nearly 40 years in prison for a double murder
in solitary confinement—before prosecutors dropped that he did not commit.
the robbery charge against him. His family had been
unable to come up with the $3,000 bail to secure his Chapter 11, Determination of Guilt:
release. Eventually he committed suicide. His story Plea Bargaining and Trials
provided the basis for a highly publicized documen- The new chapter opener examines the trial of Brandon
tary film series in 2017 raising several important Vandenburg, a Vanderbilt University football player
issues about bail and jail. convicted of sexual assault and sentenced to prison in
xx Preface
2016. The new Inside Today’s Controversies feature feature focuses on claims that certain laws, policies, or
concerns Supreme Court decisions in 2016 (Foster v. programs “don’t work”—using one example about gun
Chatman) and 2017 (Pena-Rodriguez v. Colorado) control and another example about after-school pro-
about aspects of racism affecting jury selection and grams for children. The feature asks the student to be
jury decision making. The feature also includes the wary of broad generalizations that may be politically
controversy over after-trial revelations that several ju- or ideologically motivated, and to investigate before
rors in the case of Ray Tensing, the white University of accepting such generalized claims. The new Technol-
Cincinnati police officer charged with murdering Sam ogy and Criminal Justice feature presents examples
DuBose, an unarmed African American motorist, had from 2016 and 2017 illuminating states’ difficulty in
indicated either racial biases or pro-police biases on obtaining lethal injection drugs and questions that this
their jury questionnaires. Thus critics were concerned problem raises about the future of the death penalty.
that the mistrial resulting from the jury deadlock had There is new information about Justice Stephen Brey-
been affected by bias. The new Criminal Justice and er’s December 2016 argument that the Supreme Court
Risk of Misinformation concerns the problems of ju- should consider whether decades’ long delays between
rors seeking information from the Internet and social sentencing and execution constitute cruel and unusual
media when they are supposed to limit information punishment. A new Gallup Poll indicates that Ameri-
about a criminal case to the evidence, arguments, and cans’ 60 percent level of support for capital punish-
instructions in the courtroom. One example is from a ment in 2016 is the lowest level of support in the past
2014 manslaughter case in Florida in which more than 45 years and reflects a widening gap of disagreement
one juror was caught improperly using the Internet between Democrats and Republicans. The Evidence-
against the instructions of the judge. Drawing from the Based Practice and Policy feature presents evidence-
Supreme Court decision about racial discrimination in based sentencing including critics’ concerns about the
jury selection in Foster v. Chatman (2016), the Close unproven reliability and accuracy of needs assessments
Up feature focuses on the debate over whether peremp- by judges that might therefore contribute to discrimi-
tory challenges should be abolished. nation in sentencing.
Using the example of the FBI’s 2015 admission that
its scientists had provided inaccurate pro-prosecution Chapter 13, Corrections
testimony in cases stretching back 20 years, especially The new chapter opener focuses on 2016 controver-
concerning hair-match evidence, the Technology and sies over excessive use of force by corrections officers
Criminal Justice feature examines forensic science is- in New York state prisons and their lack of account-
sues, including the question of relying on testimony ability for improper conduct. The Criminal Justice and
about DNA evidence. The new Evidence-Based Practice the Risk of Misinformation feature concerns new U.S.
and Policy feature discusses efforts to improve jury in- Attorney General Jefferson Sessions dismissing the
structions and jurors’ ability to understand what they Obama administration’s report on Ferguson, Missouri,
heard in a trial. The new Question of Ethics feature ex- as “anecdotal”—but then also admitting that he had
amines a Texas judge in 2016 who announced that he not actually read the report. Is anecdotal information
would not approve plea bargains in certain cases. useful? The example raises the issue of the need to be
wary about the use of phrases for political purposes
Chapter 12, Punishment and Sentencing that seek to reject available information. There is new
The chapter opener shows the wide range of sentences information on the Obama administration’s decision to
for teachers convicted of sex crimes with student vic- phase out federal government’s use of private prisons
tims. The examples from 2017 include a female teacher and the Trump administration’s action in reversing that
in Louisiana who received only a sentence of proba- order. The new Inside Today’s Controversies feature
tion for victimizing a male student—a stark contrast concerns the problem of privatizing services in prisons
from the 20-year sentence imposed on a male teacher with a focus on Michigan’s issues with food quality
in Texas with an underage female victim. New mate- leading to prisoner protests as well as sexual miscon-
rial discusses developments with good time and earned duct and contraband smuggling by employees of pri-
time as, in 2017, Louisiana’s governor proposed ex- vate food vendors. A new Close Up provides details of
panding good time to permit release after serving the Supreme Court’s opinion in Holt v. Hobbs (2015)
65 percent of a prisoner’s sentence. In Washington, protecting a Muslim prisoner’s right to grow a short
there was a controversy over miscalculations of earned beard to fulfill the requirements of his faith. A new
time leading to the premature release of a large num- Question of Ethics feature discusses the hundreds of
ber of prisoners, including some who committed new thousands of dollars in campaign contributions made
crimes when they should have still been in prison. The by private prison companies to political candidates in
new Criminal Justice and the Risk of Misinformation the 2016 election.
Preface xxi
Chapter 14, Community Corrections: Probation weapons—being dropped into prison yards by drones
and Intermediate Sanctions being guided by prisoners’ accomplices in the outside
The new chapter opener presents the sentencing of for- world. There is a new example of prison industries
mer basketball star Dennis Rodman for driving the focusing on the Prison Blues factory producing jeans
wrong way on a California highway, fleeing the scene, inside an Oregon prison. In addition, there is a spe-
and not holding a valid driver’s license. He was sen- cific example of the federal Bureau of Prisons requir-
tenced to three years of probation, restitution, commu- ing work within its prisons in various maintenance and
nity service, and a $500 donation to the victim services other functions while paying prisoners just 12 cents to
fund. Is a sentence in the community a fair outcome for 40 cents per hour. There is new material on initiatives
a serious case? Or does celebrity status affect punish- in New York to provide college classes for people in
ment? The new Inside Today’s Controversies feature ex- prison, including the Bard College program whose pris-
amines private probation companies that extract profits oners’ debate team defeated a team from Harvard, as
from poor probationers by charging extra fees and hav- well as New York Governor Cuomo’s 2016 proposal to
ing them jailed—with additional fees—when they are finance college courses for prisoners. The Evidence-
unable to pay the fees. There is new material on smart- Based Practice and Policy feature contains new examples
phone apps that help probation and parole officers of specific rehabilitation programs verified by research
maintain supervision of clients in the Technology and and described in 2017 on the website of the National
Criminal Justice feature. The new feature on Evidence- Institute of Justice. These include substance treatment
Based Practice and Policy looks at the use of risk factors and cognitive-behavioral therapy. There is also new
to determine likelihood of recidivism for probationers. material on corrections officials registering low-income
Probation officers can use tools to assess risks, then prisoners for Medicaid under the Affordable Care Act/
devote their time and effort differentially to give great Obamacare Medicaid expansion—providing coverage
help to probationers at higher risk. Research has indi- when they need hospitalization outside of the prison
cated that the instruments that measure risk are effec- and continuing assistance with mental health and sub-
tive, and that probation officers who allocate their time stance abuse treatment after release. There are also new
in such ways can decrease the risk of recidivism. There examples of publicized cases of corrections officers im-
is expanded discussion of the Fifth Amendment Integ- properly using force to punish prisoners, thereby caus-
rity Restoration (FAIR) Act introduced to Congress in ing injuries and lawsuits. The new Question of Ethics
2017. This Act reforms forfeiture laws to provide in- feature discusses corrections officers accepting money
digent defense in forfeiture cases, shifts the burden of from prisoners to smuggle cell phones into prisons.
proof to the state, and requires a higher standard of
evidence than currently used in forfeiture cases. There Chapter 16, Reentry into the Community
is new information on the use of youth boot camps for The new chapter opener concerns Jeffrey Abramowitz,
high school dropouts to get them back on track in life a lawyer sentenced to prison for stealing funds from his
rather than just for youths in trouble with the criminal law firm and clients. After leaving prison, he dedicated
justice system. The new Criminal Justice and the Risk his efforts to assisting inmates leaving prison, finding
of Misinformation feature discusses the example of employment, and returning to the community. The new
problems with record keeping in community corrections Evidence-Based Practice and Policy feature discusses the
leading a Chicago woman to be jailed for 49 days in Serious and Violent Offender Reentry Initiative and its
2016 based on erroneous records concerning her release impact on recidivism across the United States. The new
from a community service requirement after a minor Criminal Justice and the Risk of Misinformation feature
1993 marijuana conviction. examines the computer software and record-keeping er-
rors that led to the mistaken early release of offenders
Chapter 15, Incarceration and Prison Society from prison and from community supervision. There is
A new What Americans Think shows a public opinion updated information about efforts to end disenfranchise-
poll from 2016 that demonstrates strong support across ment of ex-offenders in Kentucky, Iowa, and Florida. In
demographic groups for rehabilitation as a priority addition, there is new information on Michigan’s 2017
in the criminal justice system. The new Criminal Jus- laws seeking to enhance the state’s efforts to facilitate
tice and the Risk of Misinformation feature examines effective reentry as a means to reduce the expense of a
Justice Alito’s inaccurate prediction in Brown v. Plata large prison population. In Technology and Criminal
(2011) that the court-ordered reduction in California’s Justice, this chapter provides an overview of GPS tech-
prison population would lead to a brutal crime wave nology to monitor sex offenders, and a recent Supreme
that would victimize thousands of Californians. The Court decision that ruled such monitoring constitutes
new Technology and Criminal Justice concerns prisons a search. The new Inside Today’s Controversies feature
facing the problem of contraband—especially drugs and discusses the “Ban the Box” movement to the box on job
xxii Preface
application forms that notifies potential employers of the To help students identify and master core concepts,
applicant’s criminal conviction history. Banning the Box the text provides several study and review aids.
helps ex-offenders avoid being excluded from job oppor-
tunities based on a written job application alone prior
to the interview stage in the selection process. There is
updated information on presidential pardons and com-
Study Aids
mutations, particularly the record number of clemency
actions taken by President Barack Obama in his final ●● Chapter Outlines preview the structure of each
days prior to leaving the White House. chapter.
●● Chapter-Opening Vignettes introduce the chapter
Chapter 17, Juvenile Justice topic with a high-interest, real-life episode. These
The new chapter opener discusses a Massachusetts vignettes include such recent examples as the shoot-
case in which a 17-year-old girl faced the prospect of ings at the Ft. Lauderdale airport by the Kalamazoo,
being charged as an adult for a homicide offense af- Michigan, Uber driver; the prominent murder trial
ter she encouraged her boyfriend to commit suicide. of the South Carolina police officer secretly filmed
The new Criminal Justice and the Risk of Misinfor- shooting an unarmed motorist fleeing on foot;
mation feature concerns the man who fired a gun protests against a police shooting in Baton Rouge,
in a Washington D.C. pizza restaurant in December Louisiana; and former basketball star Dennis Rod-
2016 because he thought he was rescuing trafficked man being sentenced to probation and community
children based on false stories on the Internet. The service.
new Inside Today’s Controversies feature focuses on ●● Chapter Learning Objectives highlight the chapter’s
the opioid crisis, the increase in overdose deaths, and key topics and themes. The numbered learning ob-
both the criminal justice and public-health aspects of jectives have been carefully matched to individual
the problem. A new Close Up focuses on promising bullet points in the end-of-chapter Summary for
methods for reducing youth violence in New Orleans, maximum learning reinforcement.
Louisiana, and Pueblo, Colorado. Both programs
●● Checkpoints throughout each chapter allow stu-
have been evaluated by criminal justice researchers
and found to have value in reducing violent crime. dents to test themselves on content as they proceed
There is updated information on the change of the through the chapter.
age in majority in Connecticut, where the juvenile ●● Chapter Summaries and Questions for Review
court can hear all cases for 16-year-old offenders, reinforce key concepts and provide further checks
and most cases for 17-year-old offenders. Analysis of on learning.
the change indicates that there has been no apprecia- ●● Key Terms and Cases are defined throughout the
ble increase in juvenile delinquency after the change. text in the margins of each chapter and can also be
There is also new information about attempts to di- located in the Glossary.
vert juvenile offenders from pretrial detention in San
Francisco, California. The Detention Diversion Ad-
vocacy Program works to identify the needs of each
offender and target appropriate social services. The
Promoting Critical Understanding
new feature on Evidence-Based Practice and Policy Aided by the features just described, diligent students
summarizes recent results of research focused on the can master the essential content of the introductory
waiver of juveniles to adult court. Most studies have course. Although such mastery is no small achieve-
found that waiver does not deter future offending, ment, most instructors aim higher. They want students
and in fact may increase crime among waived juve- to complete this course with the ability to take a more
niles. Researchers acknowledge that using waiver is thoughtful and critical approach to issues of crime and
an overly broad solution for juveniles that may have justice. The American System of Criminal Justice, Six-
specific issues that need addressing, and recommend teenth Edition, provides several features that help stu-
closer examination of blended sentencing options. In dents learn how to think about the field.
Technology and Criminal Justice, this chapter dis-
cusses sexting incidents among middle school and ●● Inside Today’s Controversies This new feature ex-
high school students occurring in 2016 and 2017. amines contemporary controversies as a means
School officials and police reaction to these incidents to gain new insights and challenge assumptions
are discussed, as well as the implication for juveniles about criminal justice. This feature also high-
who engage in such behavior. lights a variety of proposals to reform the criminal
Preface xxiii
justice system. These new boxes give attention to can cause harmful policy mistakes, mistreatment of
specific highly publicized examples that illuminate individuals by their fellow citizens, and mistaken ar-
police use of force, police–community relations, rests of innocent citizens. Thus this is an especially
President Obama’s commission to develop reform important topic for criminal justice.
proposals, the use of military equipment by police, ●● Debate the Issue and Implementing New Practices
the application of solitary confinement to juveniles Within the Close Up, Evidence-Based Practice and
in pretrial detention, and other current issues. Each Policy, and Technology and Criminal Justice fea-
of these features includes questions for students to tures, the book poses questions to students and asks
consider under the Critical Thinking and Analysis them to articulate arguments and analytical conclu-
segments that conclude each presentation. sions about controversies concerning criminal justice
●● Civic Engagement: Your Role in the System In order policies.
to gain a clear understanding of the inevitable, im- ●● A Question of Ethics Criminal justice requires that
portant, and varied ways that citizens influence decisions be made within the framework of law but
criminal justice policy and process, two Civic En- also be consistent with the ethical norms of Ameri-
gagement features in each chapter pose scenarios can society. At the end of each chapter, the A Ques-
and questions drawn from real-life examples. Stu- tion of Ethics activity places the student in the role
dents are asked to place themselves in roles as vot- of decision maker for actual situations presented in
ers, members of neighborhood organizations, jurors, newspaper reports. These examples promote criti-
members of citizen advisory committees, and a host cal thinking and analysis and offer students a more
of other real-life contexts where Americans make well-rounded view of what is asked of criminal jus-
decisions that impact criminal justice. For each situ- tice professionals every day.
ation they are asked to use their analytical skills to ●● What Americans Think Public opinion plays an
present reasons for a decision or other suggestions
important role in the policy-making process in a
related to policy problems.
democracy. As such, we present the opinions of
●● Stop and Analyze features after each Checkpoint Americans on controversial criminal justice issues as
pose critical-thinking questions and ask students to collected through surveys. Students are encouraged
concretely articulate arguments and analytical con- to compare their own opinions with the national
clusions about issues. perspective.
●● Close Ups Understanding criminal justice in a purely
theoretical way does not give students a balanced
understanding of the field. The wealth of examples
in this book shows how theory plays out in practice
and what the human implications of policies and
Supplements
procedures are. In addition to the many illustrations
in the text, the Close Up features in each chapter For the Instructor
draw on newspapers, court decisions, first-person
MindTap for Criminal Justice
accounts, and other current sources.
MindTap Criminal Justice from Cengage Learning rep-
●● Evidence-Based Practice and Policy To illustrate resents a new approach to a highly personalized, on-
criminal justice policies that have been proposed or line learning platform. A fully online learning solution,
are being tested, we include a box called Evidence- MindTap combines all of a student’s learning tools—
Based Practice and Policy in every chapter. These readings, multimedia, activities, and assessments into a
features discuss research-tested practices, such as singular Learning Path that guides the student through
those concerning patrol strategies, identification the curriculum. Instructors personalize the experience
procedures, and jury reform, so that students will be by customizing the presentation of these learning tools
prepared to face the new realities of criminal justice. for their students, allowing instructors to seamlessly
●● Criminal Justice and the Risk of Misinformation A introduce their own content into the Learning Path via
new feature in each chapter examines problems with “apps” that integrate into the MindTap platform. Ad-
inaccurate information spread by politicians, social ditionally, MindTap provides interoperability with ma-
media, and news media, as well as record-keeping jor Learning Management Systems (LMS) via support
and communication flaws within criminal justice for industry standards and fosters partnerships with
organizations. Students are challenged to be skepti- third-party educational application providers to pro-
cal of information until they make efforts to verify vide a highly collaborative, engaging, and personalized
that the information is accurate. Misinformation learning experience.
xxiv Preface
Online Instructor’s Resource Manual

Includes learning objectives, key terms, a detailed chap-
A Group Effort
ter outline, a chapter summary, lesson plans, discussion No one can be an expert on every aspect of the crimi-
topics, student activities, “what if” scenarios, media nal justice system. Authors need help in covering new
tools, a sample syllabus, and an expanded test bank developments and ensuring that research findings are
with 30 percent more questions than the prior edition. correctly interpreted. This revision has greatly ben-
The learning objectives are correlated with the discus- efited from the advice of two groups of criminal justice
sion topics, student activities, and media tools. scholars. The first group of reviewers teach at a wide
Online Test Bank range of colleges and universities throughout the coun-
Each chapter of the test bank contains questions in mul- try and have used previous editions of the text in the
tiple-choice, true/false, completion, essay, and new crit- classroom, so their comments concerning presentation,
ical-thinking formats, with a full answer key. The test levels of student abilities, and the requirements of in-
bank is coded to the learning objectives that appear in troductory courses at their institutions were especially
the main text, and includes the section in the main text useful. Reviewers in the second group we consulted are
where the answers can be found. Finally, each question nationally recognized experts in the field; they focused
in the test bank has been carefully reviewed by experi- their attention on the areas in which they specialize.
enced criminal justice instructors for quality, accuracy, Their many comments helped us avoid errors and drew
and content coverage, so instructors can be sure they our attention to points in the literature that had been
are working with an assessment and grading resource of neglected.
the highest caliber. The many criminal justice students and instructors
who used the Fifteenth Edition also contributed abun-
Cengage Learning Testing Powered by Cognero dantly to this new edition. Their comments provided
This assessment software is a flexible, online system crucial practical feedback. Many of them gave us their
that allows instructors to import, edit, and manipulate comments personally when we lectured in criminal jus-
test bank content from The American System of Crimi- tice classes around the country.
nal Justice test bank or elsewhere, including their own Others have helped us as well. Chief among them
favorite test questions; create multiple test versions in an was Product Team Manager Carolyn Henderson Meier,
instant; and deliver tests from their LMS, classroom, or who has supported our efforts. Our Senior Content De-
wherever they want. veloper, Shelley Murphy, provided invaluable comments
as we revised the book.
Online PowerPoint ® Lectures The project has benefited much from the attention
Helping instructors make their lectures more engaging of Senior Content Project Manager Christy Frame,
while effectively reaching visually oriented students, and Product Assistant Megan Nauer was invaluable
these handy Microsoft PowerPoint slides outline the in helping us develop the supplements. Marne Evans
chapters of the main text in a classroom-ready presenta- used her effort and skill to contribute to the copyedit-
tion. The PowerPoint slides are updated to reflect the ing process. As always, Greg Hubit used his managerial
content and organization of the new edition of the text, skills to oversee the project from manuscript submis-
are tagged by chapter learning objective, and feature sion to bound books. Joe Devine designed the inte-
some additional examples and real-world cases for ap- rior and Irene Morris designed the cover of the book.
plication and discussion. Debra Nichols made valuable suggestions in her role as
proofreader.
For the Student We acknowledge the reviewers for this Sixteenth
Edition, along with all who reviewed our previous fif-
MindTap for Criminal Justice teen editions. We are grateful for their contributions,
MindTap Criminal Justice from Cengage Learning and their valuable comments and suggestions for our
represents a new approach to a highly personalized, revisions. Ultimately, however, the full responsibility for
online learning platform. A fully online learning solu- the book is ours alone. We hope you will benefit from
tion, MindTap combines all of your learning tools— it, and we welcome your comments.
readings, multimedia, activities, and assessments into
Christopher E. Smith (smithc28@msu.edu)
a singular Learning Path that guides you through the
Christina DeJong (dejongc@msu.edu)
course.
CRIME AND THE CRIMINAL
PART 1 JUSTICE SYSTEM
T
Chapter 1 he American system of crimi- of legal codes, and the penalties
CRIME AND JUSTICE IN AMERICA nal justice is a response to for breaking laws. From defining
crime—a problem that has which behavior counts as criminal
Chapter 2
demanded the attention of all so- to deciding the fate of offenders
VICTIMIZATION AND CRIMINAL cieties throughout history. To un- who are caught, the process of
BEHAVIOR
derstand how the system works criminal justice is a social process
Chapter 3 and why crime persists in spite of subject to many influences other
THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM our efforts to control it, we need to than written law.
examine both the nature of crimi- By introducing the study of this
Chapter 4 nal behavior and the functioning process, Part 1 provides a broad
CRIMINAL JUSTICE of the justice system itself. As we framework for analyzing how our
AND THE RULE OF LAW shall see, the reality of crime and society—through its police, courts,
justice involves much more than and corrections—tries to deal with
“cops and robbers,” the details the age-old problem of crime.
Chapter 1
CRIME AND JUSTICE
IN AMERICA
CHAPTER FEATURES CHAPTER LEARNING OBJECTIVES CHAPTER OUTLINE
●● Evidence-Based LO1 Discuss how public policies on The Main Themes of This Book
Practice and Policy The crime are formed Crime and Justice as Public Policy
Challenges of Evidence- LO2 Recognize how the crime Issues
Based Practice: Quality control and due process Evidence-Based Practices
of Information and models of criminal justice help The Role of Public Opinion
Implementation us understand the system Contemporary Policies
●● Close Up New LO3 Be able to explain: “What is a Crime and Justice in a Democracy
Directions for Crime crime?” Crime Control versus Due Process
Policy in the Trump The Politics of Crime and Justice
Administration
LO4 Describe the major types of
Citizens and Criminal Justice Policy
crime in the United States
●● Criminal Justice Defining Crime
and the Risk of
LO5 Analyze how much crime there
is and understand how it is Types of Crime
Misinformation The Visible Crime
measured
Challenge of Identifying Victimless Crimes
Facts amid a Flood of Political Crime
Information Occupational Crime
●● Inside Today’s Organized Crime
Controversies Criticism Transnational Crime
of Justice System Cybercrime
Officials: Improper or The Crime Problem Today
Useful? The Worst of Times?
●● Technology and The Most Crime-Ridden Nation?
Criminal Justice Keeping Track of Crime
Transnational Trends in Crime
Cybercrime
Joe Raedle/Getty Images
T
he sound of gunfire shattered the relative calm in the Ft. Lauderdale,
Florida, airport, in the early afternoon of January 6, 2017. Minutes ear-
lier, Estaban Santiago, a 26-year-old New Jersey native who lived in
Alaska, had retrieved his suitcase from the checked baggage carousel, went
into the bathroom to remove a handgun from his luggage, and then came
back into the baggage area, firing randomly at people in the vicinity. He
killed five people and wounded six others, while dozens of people suffered
minor injuries diving for cover to avoid the gunshots (Gomez, 2017). When he
used up all of his bullets, Santiago lay face down on the floor, with his arms
spread out, and waited for police officers to arrest him. He was charged with
causing death at an international airport, which could lead to the death pen-
alty under federal law (Gomez, 2017).
As frightening an event as this shooting was, it was not a typical crime.
Thefts and burglaries occur every day. Computer hackers steal financial in-
formation on a daily basis. Yet apparent indiscriminate attacks, such as the
Ft. Lauderdale airport shooting, are the kinds of incidents that can influence
people’s perceptions about crime. When significant news media coverage
reports unexpected, seemingly random violence in which individuals are put
at risk of death by a complete stranger, people’s fears may affect their as-
sumptions and behavior. They may become suspicious of certain people or
avoid being in public at certain times and places. Such violent incidents also
raise questions about how American society should respond in order to pro-
tect its citizenry and institutions against dangerous events. Think about the
possible questions that are raised by the Ft. Lauderdale shooting:
●● To what extent are Americans at risk of mass shootings in public places?
How common are these events? Is there reason to be afraid whenever
one leaves home?
4 PART 1 Crime and the Criminal Justice System
●● Does the incident show that firearms are too easily available to people
who cannot be trusted? Alternatively, does this actually show that weap-
ons should be more easily available to all citizens at airports so that peo-
ple can defend themselves?
●● Santiago’s friends said that his behavior had become unusual after he
returned from a tour of duty in Iraq with U.S. military forces. Earlier, in
November 2016, Santiago had gone to the FBI office in Anchorage and
reported to special agents that an intelligence agency was controlling his
mind. The FBI agents confiscated the gun Santiago had in his vehicle
but returned it to him when he later passed a mental health evaluation.
Does this incident show that we should be more cautious about return-
ing confiscated firearms to people who manifest signs of psychological
problems (Gomez, 2017)?
●● Between January and October 2016, Santiago had five encounters with
the Anchorage police stemming from calls reporting that he assaulted his
girlfriend multiple times, and that he disobeyed orders to stay away from
her. The police said they did not have enough evidence of these claims to
proceed with charges against him. Is there a risk that domestic violence
complaints are not treated with sufficient seriousness and therefore peo-
ple who are the subject of multiple complaints are often left free to pose
a risk of more-serious violence (Currie, 2017)?
Debating and addressing these questions intelligently requires informa-

tion and understanding about complex issues. To what extent are Americans
knowledgeable about the realities of crime? This is a relevant question be-
cause our understanding of crime—or our lack of understanding—can affect
how we influence public policy when we act as voters, as members of com-
munity organizations, or for some college students, as future justice system
officials.
All Americans influence criminal justice policy. We make judgments about
political candidates, in part, based on their stance toward gun control, capi-
tal punishment, and other criminal justice issues. We express our views and
fears to city councils, school boards, state legislatures, and other policy-
making bodies that decide whether and how to spend money on safety and
security in our communities. We make choices about the neighborhoods
where we will reside, the schools where we will send our children, and the
stores where we will shop, based, in part, upon our perceptions about risk
and crime. Even these decisions can have important impacts on economic
development and neighborhood stability within communities. Moreover,
many college students who study criminal justice will eventually become
professionals in the justice system and thereby have even more influence
over how policies develop and how policies are applied to the lives of others
within American society. In light of the importance of criminal justice to all
Americans—and, conversely, the important contributions that all Americans
play in shaping criminal justice policy—it is essential that Americans develop
realistic understandings of the nature of crime and justice in their society.
Chapter 1 Crime and Justice in America 5
A Gallup Poll published in November 2015 revealed that 36 percent of

Americans fear walking alone at night within a mile of their home (Norman,
2015). A later Gallup Poll in November 2016 found that more than two-thirds
of Americans believe that crime rates had increased in the prior year (Swift,
2016). Given Americans’ concerns about criminal justice issues, politicians
attempt to gain favor with voters by proposing policies to address crime.
These proposals do not always reflect careful analysis of the costs and ben-
efits of different policy choices. In fact, politicians often try to outdo one
another in being “tough on crime” without fully understanding the costs and
consequences of such policies. This toughness has led to many shifts in
public policies: adding 100,000 police officers nationwide, building more
prisons, extending the death penalty to cover 60 federal offenses, mandat-
ing longer sentences, and requiring certain parolees to register with the po-
lice. The public’s perception of crime tends to encourage the government to
spend millions of dollars in ways that affect individuals drawn into the crimi-
nal justice system for punishment.
In the face of politicians’ desire to appear tough on crime, an impor-
tant question arises: Are concerns about crime justified? Polls indicate that
many Americans do not realize that serious crime declined steadily from the
record-setting years of the early 1980s through 2000. Additional drops oc-
curred for various crimes during the early years of the twenty-first century.
Despite widespread beliefs in constantly rising crime rates (Swift, 2016),
there is no national crime wave. Violent crime rates decreased from 637 per
100,000 people in 1996 to 373 per 100,000 in 2015 (FBI, Crime in the United
States, 2016a). The homicide rate was nearly 9.5 per 100,000 people in 1990.
By 2015, the homicide rate was less than 5 per 100,000 people, just half of
what it had been 25 years earlier (FBI, Crime in the United States, 2016a).
Because beliefs and fears about crime seem disconnected from the actual
overall drops in crime rates, many critics believe that people in the United
States are unduly preoccupied with and insufficiently informed about crime
as a policy issue.
The Main Themes of This Book

The study of criminal justice offers a fascinating view of a crucial social prob-
lem. Drawing from the perspectives of such academic disciplines as economics,
history, law, political science, psychology, and sociology, the field of crimi-
nal justice aims at supplying knowledge and developing policies to deal with
criminality. This aim, however, poses a fundamental challenge in a democratic
society: how to develop policies that deal with crime while still preserving indi-
vidual rights, the rule of law, and justice.
Democracy in the United States is defined and guided by historic Amer-
ican values, including individual liberty, the preservation of constitutional
rights, an expectation of personal privacy, and the protection of private prop-
erty and free enterprise. These American values guide the development of
public policy in all areas of government, including criminal justice. The ap-
plication of American values, however, creates special tensions and problems
Many Americans are fearful of walking

at night near their own homes.
People often have inaccurate beliefs
about crime steadily increasing. If
government budget cuts lead to a
reduction in police services, how
will that affect Americans’ fears and
beliefs about crime?
Biho Song/EyeEm/Getty Images
in criminal justice. For example, people’s sense of liberty may depend on how
freely they can walk the streets without fearing crime; therefore, they want
tough crime-control policies. On the other hand, other aspects of American
values emphasize the protection of the criminal defendant’s rights in order to
ensure that no one is improperly denied his or her liberty. Finding the proper
balance between conflicting values may pose an even greater challenge dur-
ing the current era, in which fears about terrorism have enhanced citizens’
concerns about crime and public safety. In the aftermath of the September 11,
2001, terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center in New York and the Pen-
tagon in Washington, D.C., more than half of Americans believed it would
be necessary to sacrifice some civil liberties in order to gain greater security.
A survey in 2011 revealed that 40 percent of Americans still expressed that
view ten years after the attacks of 9-11 (Rainie and Maniam, 2016). If there
were to be another large-scale terrorist attack on the United States or else-
where, new laws and policies produced in response to such an event may
strike a new balance that diminishes individuals’ rights in favor of enhancing
order and security.
To facilitate the exploration of these issues and others, this book presents
three major themes: (1) crime and justice are public policy issues; (2) criminal
justice can best be seen as a social system; and (3) the criminal justice system
embodies society’s effort to fulfill American values, such as liberty, privacy,
and individuals’ rights.
An additional minor theme will be highlighted in each chapter. This fourth
theme is a reflection of the times in which we live: the impact of widespread
federal, state, and local budget cuts on crime and criminal justice. Many
states are seeking to save money by reducing their prison populations. As a
result, governments must simultaneously develop and expand mechanisms for
punishing offenders in the community and for reintegrating former prisoners

into society. In addition, many cities and counties reduced the size of their
police forces due to financial pressures. For example, as compared to a decade
earlier, there were 7 percent fewer police officers statewide in California in
2015, even as those officers served a growing population of citizens within
the state (Reese, 2016). Camden, New Jersey, a poor community with signifi-
cant crime problems, laid off more than one-third of its police force in 2011
and eliminated the department completely in 2013 when arrangements were
made for a county-based police department to take over (Wood, 2014). These
changes in priorities—and the subsequent impact on communities—were a
direct result of budget reductions stemming from a loss of tax revenue as the
national economy gradually regained its footing in the years following the
economic recession of 2008. The problems and choices involved in cutting
budgets while still seeking to protect the public are components of the first
major theme of this book: crime and justice as public policy issues. However,
these decisions and their results have assumed such importance for contempo-
rary criminal justice agencies at all levels of government that we will highlight
these problems throughout the book.
As we shall see, values can come into conflict as choices are made about
how to operate the system and define public policies. These themes are im-
portant for all Americans because of people’s involvement in shaping criminal
justice policy through their roles as voters, members of community organiza-
tions, and, for many students of criminal justice, as future criminal justice
professionals. All Americans are affected by criminal justice issues through
perceptions that guide their choices about how to behave, where to live, and
how to protect themselves and their families from victimization. All Ameri-
cans also influence criminal justice when they vote on statewide ballot issues,
vote for specific political candidates, make suggestions to their neighborhood
associations, and express their views to elected officials. A knowledge of
criminal justice from a public policy perspective and an understanding of the
operation of the criminal justice system are essential tools for Americans. In-
dividuals can use this knowledge to make decisions about their own behavior
and to inform their voting decisions and other involvement in shaping public
policy. In asserting their influence over criminal justice, Americans also need
to bear in mind the third theme: the need to uphold and strike an appropri-
ate balance between our nation’s values, including personal privacy and due
process, and the necessary government authority for maintaining safety and
security in society.
This chapter focuses on the first theme, concerning crime and justice as
public policy issues. The third theme, American values, is also presented in
this chapter and will appear in each chapter throughout the book. Chapter 1
also examines the nature and definition of crime. Crime is those behav- crime
iors defined by law as so harmful or undesirable that individuals proven A specific act of commission or omission
in violation of the law, for which a
to have undertaken them should be punished by the government. As you
punishment is prescribed.
learn about crime and the criminal justice system, take note of the many
different academic disciplines that contribute to our knowledge in these
areas. For example, the study of criminal justice requires psychologists to
analyze the thinking and behavior of individuals. Criminologists develop
and test theories about the causes of criminal behavior. Sociologists and
economists examine the impact of society on crime as well as crime’s im-
pact on society. Political scientists explore the development of public pol-
icy and the operations of criminal justice agencies. Increasingly, chemists,
biologists, and engineers play important roles in criminal justice because
of the development of new scientific methods for investigating crimes and
new technologies for weapons, surveillance, databases, and other essential
aspects of law enforcement administration. Clearly, criminal justice pro-

vides a multidisciplinary area of study that appeals to people with varied
interests and expertise.
An understanding of the crime problem and U.S. society’s definition of this
problem as a public policy issue will give you the groundwork for later discus-
sions about criminal justice as a social system in which actors and agencies
interact and make decisions. To guide your study, we address the following
themes.
Crime and Justice as Public Policy Issues

Who bears responsibility for addressing issues of crime and justice? The an-
swer to this question depends on the organization of a society and the nature
of its governing system. Looking back at human history, one can see many
approaches to crime and punishment. For example, in a sparsely populated ru-
ral society that lacked effective control by government, crime and justice were
often viewed as private matters. When one individual harmed another through
violence or theft, a measure of justice could be obtained through vengeful acts
by the victim’s family or through the payment of compensation by the perpetra-
tor. Such approaches were common in the centuries before central governments
became dominating forces in modern nations. Alternatively, local leaders could
rely on cultural traditions to impose punishments upon wrongdoers.
In the United States, by contrast, crime and justice are public policy is-
sues, because the government addresses them. Institutions and processes of
government produce laws to define crimes; create and operate agencies to in-
vestigate, prosecute, and punish criminals; and allocate resources to address
the problems of crime and justice. Moreover, these institutions and processes
are influenced by the actions of American citizens, as they cast their votes for
specific candidates; bring issues and problems to the attention of elected of-
ficials; and publicly protest against those policies that they see as unfair, inap-
propriate, or ineffective.
public policy Crime and justice are important and difficult public policy issues in the
Priorities and actions developed by United States. In a democracy, we struggle to strike a balance between main-
government to use public resources as
taining public order and protecting individual freedom. Both sides of this equa-
a means to deal with issues affecting
society. tion represent American values. To enjoy the liberty that we value so highly,
we want to feel safe to move freely in society. On the other hand, if we push
too strongly to ensure safety, we could limit individual rights and liberty by
unnecessarily restricting, detaining, or punishing too many individuals. For
example, we could impose policies that make us feel safe from crime, such as
placing a police officer on every street corner or by executing suspected crimi-
nals. Such severe practices have been used elsewhere in the world. Although
they may reduce crime, they also fly in the face of democratic values. If we gave
law enforcement officers a free hand to work their will on the public, we would
be giving up individual freedom, due process, and the American conception of
justice. Liberty and legal rights are so important that they are enshrined in the
nation’s founding document, the U.S. Constitution. However, the protection
of these democratic values can impede the ability of criminal justice officials
to catch and punish offenders. Thus we continually struggle to find the proper
balance between stopping crime and preventing government officials from vio-
lating individuals’ rights.
Some critics of criminal justice, such as Jeffrey Reiman, argue that our
system is designed not to reduce crime or to achieve justice but to project to
the American people a visible image of the threat of crime (Reiman, 1996: 1).
This is done by maintaining a sizable population of criminals while at the same
time failing to reduce crime. Reiman argues that we need to move away from
a system of criminal justice to one of criminal justice. He urges policies that
●● End crime-producing poverty
●● Criminalize the harmful acts of affluent and white-collar offenders
●● Create a corrections system that promotes human dignity
●● Make the exercise of police, prosecution, and judicial power more just
●● Establish economic and social justice
If adopted, Reiman’s thought-provoking critical perspective would pro-
duce significant changes in priorities in the criminal justice system and effect
changes in programs, policies, and the distribution of government resources
affecting the rest of society.
Evidence-Based Practices
Dealing with the crime problem concerns not only the arrest, conviction, and
punishment of offenders; it also requires the development of policies to deal with
a host of issues such as gun control, stalking, hate crimes, computer crime, drugs,
child abuse, and global criminal organizations. Many of these issues are contro-
versial; policies must be hammered out in the political arenas of state legislatures
and Congress. Any policy choice carries with it costs and consequences as well
as potential benefits. Predicting consequences can be difficult. In addition, legis-
lators often enact laws based on their beliefs about the nature of a problem and
the responses that will be effective in addressing the problem. These beliefs are
not necessarily based on a thorough understanding of available research on the
nature of problems in criminal justice. Similarly, police chiefs, prison wardens,
and others who carry out laws and policies may rely heavily on practices they
are accustomed to using, rather than exploring the full range of possible effec-
tive alternatives. Decision makers’ reliance on unsupported beliefs or customary
practices may result in missed opportunities to develop policies and practices
that might more effectively advance desired goals.
One emerging trend in creating policies within criminal justice is the use of
evidence-based practices. These are practices that have proven to be ef- evidence-based practices
fective in research studies. Social scientists examine many aspects of criminal Policies developed through guidance
from research studies that demonstrate
justice, including the causes of crime, the effectiveness of crime control strate-
which approaches are most useful and
gies, and efficiency in police procedures. These studies can demonstrate that cost-effective for advancing desired
some approaches are more useful and cost-effective than others in addressing goals.
problems. Research also shows that some approaches are unproven or ineffec-
tive. As described by Faye Taxman and Steven Belenko, evidence-based prac-
tices are “practices that should be widely used because research indicates that
they positively alter human behavior” (Taxman and Belenko, 2013: 3). Thus
legislators, police chiefs, prison wardens, and other decision makers are in-
creasingly looking to scholars’ research for guidance about which laws and
policies to develop. Ideally, working partnerships can be formed between
researchers and justice system officials in order to increase the effectiveness
of communication, understanding, and application of reforms (E. Davis and
Robinson, 2014). However, even when research-supported approaches are
available, evidence-based practices are not always followed. Sometimes de-
cision makers are not aware of relevant research about a problem that they
are addressing. Legislators and other policy makers also may resist adopting
evidence-based practices when the research findings underlying those practices
conflict with their own strongly held beliefs or their commitment to familiar,
customary approaches. Read the Evidence-Based Practice and Policy feature on
the next page to see an overview of issues concerning this contemporary trend.
EVIDENCE-BASED PR ACTICE AND POLICY
THE CHALLENGES OF EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICE:

QUALITY OF INFORMATION AND IMPLEMENTATION
The movement toward the use of evidence-based practices in ethical and practical misgivings about leaving a similarly trou-
public policy began in the field of medicine. Most Americans bled neighborhood without any new police tactics in order to
are familiar with reading about the Federal Drug Administration have a comparison area. Will there be people victimized in the
(FDA) requiring testing of medicines before they can be pre- “control”—untreated—neighborhood who otherwise might have
scribed by doctors. This testing involves experimental research been saved if both neighborhoods immediately benefited from
in which newly developed medicines for treating illnesses and the new idea? There can also be issues of finding proper control
medical conditions must be given to research subjects with the areas if police want to test a new crime-control approach on
results compared to results for other subjects who are given no a neighborhood that has unique characteristics and problems.
medication, differing experimental dosages, or different treat- Similar issues exist for criminal justice researchers who want
ments. Similarly, research is conducted by university medical to test new practices and policies using experimental methods
centers on surgical techniques, dietary treatments, and other when focusing on individual offenders with drug addiction, vio-
approaches to treatments of illnesses and conditions before lent behavior, or mental health issues. The experimental method
those specific approaches are proven safe and effective. requires that some people with these problems be excluded
Criminal justice researchers can face challenges in employ- from the initial treatment in order to serve as a basis for com-
ing experimental methods to evaluate practices and policies. In parison with the similarly troubled people who receive new
medicine, experimental methods are often relatively straightfor- forms of therapy, supervision, education, medication, or other
ward: Take a group of people with a particular illness or medical resources. The excluded people in the control group may suf-
condition, give half of them the new medication and give half of fer continuing harms during the research study that might
them a “placebo”—a pill or ointment that they believe is the new have been prevented if they had been included in the treat-
medicine—and then monitor the results. By having all of the rement group. Sometimes criminal justice agencies working with
search subjects believe that they are taking the new medication new approaches and ideas may be unwilling to exclude people
being tested, the researchers can seek to avoid psychological and therefore the evaluation study of results must necessarily
impacts that might otherwise affect the results. If people know employ a less rigorous research method.
that they are not being given a medication, it may affect their Additional issues can arise if researchers are not sufficiently
perceptions of how they feel. By contrast, in criminal justice, vigilant in designing a study, gathering information, and monitor-
if police departments and researchers want to test whether a ing results. If the individuals or neighborhoods being studied are
new approach to police patrol strategies has positive impacts not carefully identified and matched, there are risks that compar-
on a neighborhood experiencing gang problems, there can be isons and results may not be as useful as they first appear to be.
The Role of Public Opinion

In a democracy, public opinion greatly influences political leaders. They know
that if they develop policies contrary to public views, they may lose the next
election and diminish the legitimacy of those policies. As a result, these lead-
ers often enact policies that are thought by researchers to have little potential
impact on crime but that nonetheless allay the general public’s anxiety about
crime and safety.
Throughout this book, you will find marginal items labeled “What
Americans Think.” These features present the results of public opinion
surveys on issues concerning crime and the administration of justice. As
you read each chapter, consider these expressions of public opinion. Do
you agree with the majority of Americans on each issue? Or does your
understanding of criminal justice give you a different perspective on the
policies that might better address these problems? See, for example, “What
Americans Think” about the justice system’s capacity to make unbiased
decisions.
Moreover, if information is not gathered and recorded systemati- additional resources, providing updated training, and introduc-
cally, there can be errors within the data that impact the results. ing effective supervision to ensure that new practices and policy
Even if studies provide evidence that a particular practice or are given the opportunity to work well.
policy is beneficial, issues can arise concerning implementation, As we will see in the examples presented in chapters
namely the translation of that evidence into the actual decisions, throughout this book, the success of evidence-based prac-
actions, and programs carried out by justice system officials. tices and policy requires several key elements: (1) close atten-
Past experiences with many kinds of policy initiatives have re- tion to the quality of the research; (2) a willingness to try new
vealed numerous potential pitfalls. An agency may not have approaches; (3) and a commitment from leaders to provide the
adequate resources, expertise, and training for carrying out necessary resources, training, and supervision to implement
evidence-based practices. Officials within an agency may cling evidence-based practices effectively.
to their customary ways of doing things. Moreover, police of- Sources: Center for Effective Public Policy, A Framework for Evidence-
ficers, probation officers, and others may believe that their own Based Decision Making in Local Criminal Justice Systems, 3rd ed. (2010)
experiences have taught them to prefer practices and policies (www.pretrial.org/download/performance-measures/The%20EBDM
that are not supported by research evidence. They may be re- %20Framework%202010.pdf); S. Orchowsky, An Introduction to Evidence-
Based Practices, Justice Research and Statistics Association (April 2014)
luctant or unwilling to accept research findings or to allow re-
(www.jrsa.org/pubs/reports/ebp_briefing_paper_april2014.pdf); T. Sullivan,
searchers to tell them how to do their jobs better. B. Hunter, and B. Fisher, Evidence-Based Policy and Practice: The Role of
The successful development and implementation of the State in Advancing Criminal Justice Research, report submitted to the
evidence-based practices and policy depend on partnerships U.S. Department of Justice (October 2013) (www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij
between criminal justice leaders—police chiefs, prosecutors, /grants/243916.pdf).
judges, mayors, and governors—and researchers who study
ways to address problems more effectively. Criminal justice IMPLEMENTING NEW PRACTICES
leaders must help to facilitate research and then be open to Imagine that you are a police chief. A researcher is seeking your
considering the results produced by that research, even if the cooperation in conducting a study of whether crime will be re-
results require new ways of approaching problems. In addi- duced by setting up small police stations in five locations around
tion, those leaders must communicate their commitment to the city instead of having all officers work out of the downtown
evidence-based practice and policy to the police officers, pro- police headquarters. Write a brief memo outlining four concerns
bation officers, corrections officers, and other officials who must you have about testing this idea and what staffing and resource
incorporate new approaches and ideas into their everyday de- changes you may need to order to align the new operations with
cisions and actions. This commitment often requires acquiring the study.
Contemporary Policies
Over the past several decades, both conservatives and liberals have promoted
policies for dealing with crime. Each group has its own perspective on what
works best to advance justice. Conservatives believe that solutions will come
from stricter enforcement of the law through the expansion of police forces
and the enactment of laws that require swift and certain punishment of crimi-
nals (Pickett, Tope, and Bellandi, 2014; Logan and DiIulio, 1993). Advocates
of such policies have dominated since the early 1980s. They argue that we
must strengthen crime control, which they claim has been hindered by certain
decisions of the U.S. Supreme Court and by programs that substitute govern-
ment assistance for individual responsibility (Rushford, 2009).
In contrast, liberals argue that stronger crime-control measures endanger the
values of due process and justice (Epp, Maynard-Moody, and Haider-Markel,
2014; M. Alexander, 2010). They also claim that strict measures are ineffective
because progress will come from reshaping the lives of offenders and changing the
social and economic conditions from which criminal behavior springs. Thus they
advocate programs to reduce poverty, increase educational opportunities for

WHAT AMERICANS
THINK poor youths, and provide counseling and drug rehabilitation (Edelman, 2010).
As you consider these arguments, think about how they relate to crime
QUESTION: “How confident are
trends. In the 1960s, when we were trying the liberal approach of rehabili-
you in the U.S. judicial system’s
tating offenders, crime increased. Does this mean that the approach does
ability to fairly judge people without
not work? Perhaps these programs were merely overwhelmed by the sheer
bias for race and ethnicity?”
number of people who were in their crime-prone years (between the ages of
16 and 24). Perhaps there would have been even more crime if not for the efforts to
A lot Not rehabilitate people. On the other hand, crime rates decreased when tough policies
9% much
None
31%
were implemented in the 1980s and thereafter. But was that because of the conser-
16%
vative policies in effect, or because there were fewer people in the crime-prone age
group? If conservative policies are effective, then why did violent-crime rates rise in
the early 1990s, when tough policies were still in force? Clearly, there are no easy
answers. Nonetheless, we cannot avoid making choices about how to use the po-
lice, courts, and corrections system most effectively.
Crime and Justice in a Democracy

Some Americans agree that criminal justice policies should control crime by enforc-
40% ing the law and should protect the rights of individuals. But achieving both ob-
Source: Spring 2016 national poll of jectives is difficult. They involve questions such as the amount of power police
respondents aged 18 to 29, Harvard should have to search people without a warrant, the rules judges must follow
Institute of Politics (http://iop.harvard.edu
in deciding if certain types of evidence may be used, and the extent to which
/youth-poll/harvard-iop-spring-2016-poll).
prison wardens may punish inmates. These questions are answered differently
in a democracy than they would be in an authoritarian state.
The administration of justice in a democracy also differs from that in an
authoritarian state in the nature and extent of the protections provided for an
accused person while guilt is determined and punishment imposed. The police,
prosecutors, judges, and correctional officials are expected to act according to
democratic values—especially with respect to the rule of law and the mainte-
nance of rights and liberties. Further, citizens must view the criminal justice
system as legitimate and have confidence in its actions.
Laws in the United States begin with the premise that all people—the guilty
as well as the innocent—have rights. Moreover, unlike laws in some other
countries, U.S. laws reflect the desire to avoid unnecessarily depriving people
of liberty, either through permitting the police to arrest people at will or by
punishing a person for a crime that he or she did not commit.
Although all Americans prize freedom and individual rights, they often dis-
agree about the policies that deal with crime. Our greatest challenge as we
move through the twenty-first century may be to find ways to remain true to
the principles of fairness and justice while operating a system that can effec-
tively protect, investigate, and punish.
✔P OI N T 1. What are evidence-based practices?

2. What criminal justice policies are advocated by conservatives?
3. What are liberals’ criticisms of contemporary policies?
STOP AND ANALYZE: Do you see yourself as more inclined to take the conservative or the liberal position with respect to crimi-
nal justice policy? If the approach that you chose was implemented as the dominant guide to policy, what
forms of injustice might occur? List two situations in which something you regard as an injustice might
arise under your approach.
(Answers are at the end of the chapter.)
Crime Control versus Due Process

In one of the most important contributions to systematic thought about crimi-
nal justice, Herbert Packer (1968) describes two competing models of criminal
In a democracy, citizens must take

an interest in the criminal justice
system, as they are doing in this
demonstration after publicized
incidents of police using lethal
force on unarmed people. Here,
demonstrators seek to raise
awareness about aspects of officials’
performance that need to improve
and change. As a citizen, how can
you become involved in criminal
justice issues?
AP Images/Alex Menendez
justice administration: the crime control model and the due process crime control model
model. These are contrasting ways of looking at the goals and procedures of A model of the criminal justice system
that assumes freedom is so important
the criminal justice system. The crime control model is much like an assembly
that every effort must be made to
line, whereas the due process model is like an obstacle course. repress crime; it emphasizes efficiency,
In reality, of course, no criminal justice official or agency functions accord- speed, finality, and the capacity to
ing to one model or the other. Elements of both models appear throughout the apprehend, try, convict, and dispose of a
system. However, the two models reveal key tensions within the criminal justice high proportion of offenders.
process, as well as the gap between how we describe the system and the way most due process model
cases are actually processed. Table 1.1 presents the main elements of each model. A model of the criminal justice system
that assumes freedom is so important
that every effort must be made to
Crime Control: Order as a Value ensure that criminal justice decisions
The crime control model assumes that every effort must be made to repress are based on reliable information; it
crime. It emphasizes efficiency and the capacity to catch, try, convict, and emphasizes the adversarial process,
punish a high proportion of offenders; it also stresses speed and finality. This the rights of defendants, and formal
decision-making procedures.
model places the goal of controlling crime uppermost, putting less emphasis on
protecting individuals’ rights. As Packer points out, the crime control model
calls for efficiency in screening suspects, determining guilt, and applying sanc-
tions to the convicted; this will achieve liberty for all citizens. High rates of
crime and the limited resources of law enforcement make speed and finality
necessary. All of these elements depend on informality, uniformity, and few
challenges by defense attorneys or defendants.
TABLE 1.1 DUE PROCESS MODEL AND CRIME CONTROL MODEL COMPARED
What other comparisons can be made between the two models?
MAJOR BASIS OF
GOAL VALUE PROCESS DECISION POINT DECISION MAKING
Due Process Model Preserve individual Reliability Adversarial Courtroom Law
liberties
Crime Control Model Repress crime Efficiency Administrative Police, pretrial Discretion
processes
In this model, police and prosecutors decide early on how likely the suspect
is to be found guilty. If a conviction is doubtful, the prosecutor may drop the
charges. At each stage—from arrest to preliminary hearing, arraignment, and
trial—established procedures are used to determine whether the accused should
be passed on to the next stage. Rather than stressing the combative aspects of the
courtroom, this model promotes bargaining between the state and the accused.
Nearly all cases are processed through such bargaining, and they typically end
with the defendant pleading guilty. Packer’s description of this model as an
assembly-line process conveys the idea of quick, efficient decisions by actors at
fixed stations that turn out the intended product—guilty pleas and closed cases.
Due Process: Law as a Value

If the crime control model looks like an assembly line, the due process model looks
more like an obstacle course. This model assumes that freedom is so important
that every effort must be made to ensure that criminal justice decisions stem from
reliable information. It stresses the adversarial process, the rights of defendants,
and formal decision-making procedures. For example, because people are poor
observers of disturbing events, police and prosecutors may well be wrong in pre-
suming a defendant to be guilty on the basis of witness accounts only. Thus, people
should be labeled as criminals only on the basis of conclusive evidence. To reduce
error, the government must prove beyond a reasonable doubt that the defendant is
guilty of the crime. Therefore, the process must give the defense every opportunity
to show that the evidence is not conclusive, and an impartial judge and jury must
decide the outcome. According to Packer, the assumption that the defendant is in-
nocent until proved guilty has a far-reaching impact on the criminal justice system.
In the due process model, the state must prove that the person is guilty of the
crime as charged. Prosecutors must prove their cases while obeying rules dealing
with such matters as the admissibility of evidence and respect for defendants’
constitutional rights. Forcing the state to prove its case in a trial protects citizens
from wrongful convictions. Thus the due process model emphasizes justice as
protecting the rights of individuals and reserving punishment for those who un-
questionably deserve it. These values are stressed even though some guilty defen-
dants may go free because the evidence against them is not conclusive enough.
By contrast, the crime control model values efficient case processing and punish-
ment over the possibility that innocent people might get swept up in the process.
✔P OI N T 4. What are the main features of the crime control model?

5. What are the main features of the due process model?
STOP AND ANALYZE: The due process model is most frequently portrayed in television dramas and movies that show criminal
cases argued in trials before juries. List two reasons why this model represents only a small fraction of
criminal cases.
The Politics of Crime and Justice

Criminal justice policies are developed in national, state, and local political
arenas. There is always a risk that politicians will simply do what they believe
voters want, rather than seriously weighing whether the policies will achieve
their intended goals. Frequently, “knee-jerk” reactions inform the political
process. Think about how you see politicians become motivated to take action.
News reports focus on an event or problem that captures significant public
attention. Calls to do something arise. Politicians respond with (1) outrage,
(2) a limited examination of the problem, and (3) a law—often poorly thought
out and with little regard for unintended consequences. Politicians often pro-
pose laws without carefully studying the nature and extent of the problem they
claim to address (Socia, 2014; Gest, 2001).
If not written carefully, laws may affect more people than the original targets
of the law. In one example, a 12-year-old Boy Scout and honors student in Texas
forgot to remove a small pocketknife from his jacket pocket after a weekend
camping trip. When he found the knife in his pocket at school, he placed it in his
locker. Another student reported him to school officials. Because the state’s Safe
Schools Act of 1995 imposed a “zero tolerance” policy for weapons in schools,
the boy was arrested and taken to a juvenile-detention facility without officials
informing his parents. After being expelled from school and spending weeks in
a school for juvenile offenders, he began contemplating suicide (Axtman, 2005).
Other examples of laws with unanticipated consequences might include res-
idence restrictions on sex offenders who are often forbidden from living near
schools and playgrounds after their release from prison. Because of the public’s
fear of sex offenders, politicians can seek to show that they are “tough on
crime” by targeting such offenders with new laws. However, because of the
geographic distribution of schools in cities and towns, this can make it difficult
for these offenders to find anywhere to live and thereby hinder their ability to
reenter society as productive citizens (Socia, 2014; Schwirtz, 2013). In Miami,
for example, dozens of sex offenders ended up sleeping every night in tents un-
der a bridge. Evidence-based practice indicates that a stable home is a key ele-
ment for the rehabilitation of ex-offenders. Thus the policy choice of residence
restrictions was counterproductive. A more workable and effective approach
would be to enforce anti-loitering laws to prevent these offenders from being in
specific locations during the day (Skipp, 2010).
The clearest link between politics and criminal justice shows up in the state-
ments of Republicans and Democrats who disagree about the best approach to
policy problems or try to outdo each other in exhibiting how tough they can be
on crime. Looking at new state gun laws that took effect in January 2017, for
example, one can see that the Republican-dominated legislature in Missouri
enacted a law so that nearly any law-abiding adult can carry a concealed fire-
arm without a permit and without taking any training classes (Meckles, 2017).
By contrast, the Democrat-dominated legislature in California imposed a re-
quirement of background checks for the purchase of ammunition, limited the
number of bullets a gun’s magazine can hold, and prohibited the loaning of
weapons to family members who have not had background checks (McGreevy,
2016). These laws reflect differing beliefs among many legislators from each
political party about whether the public’s possession of firearms helps to com-
bat crime or causes harms that need to be prevented.
These laws also reflect legislators’ efforts to serve their constituencies,
whose values and beliefs about aspects of crime and justice vary among states
and regions of the country. The constituents of Republicans and Democrats
often differ in their views and preferred policies concerning such matters as
gun control, marijuana legalization, causes of crime, effectiveness of severe
punishments, and fairness in the justice system. Legislators, who are motivated
by their desire for reelection, respond to voters’ expectations by enacting laws
to define crimes, adjust mandated punishments, and decide how much money
will go to the annual budgets of criminal justice agencies. Unfortunately, the
effort to satisfy voters and project an image of “doing something about crime”
may lead to policy choices that are based on beliefs and perceptions about
crime rather than on research and evidence-based practices. Read the Close Up
discussing apparent differences in approaches by the new presidential admin-
istration of Donald Trump and the prior administration of President Barack
Obama. Criminal justice faces challenges for developing effective policies when
decision makers are motivated by political considerations and personal beliefs.
Many other types of political decisions affect criminal justice, some of
which create undesirable consequences. For example, Congress appropriates
millions of dollars to help states and cities wage the “war on drugs.” Such
CLOSE UP
NEW DIRECTIONS FOR CRIME POLICY IN THE TRUMP ADMINISTRATION

During the administration of President Barack Obama (January first decade of the twenty-first century was not necessary to
2009 to January 2017), the federal government moved in new protect public safety and was too costly in terms of budget ex-
directions with respect to several aspects of criminal justice. penditures and the impact on human lives. As we will see in
President Obama and his advisers used their priorities and later chapters, the increased incarceration rate was not driven
values to initiate actions that would shape those aspects of by a rise in crime rates, but instead, by the decisions of state
the criminal justice system that are under the national gov- and federal legislators to impose lengthier prison sentences for
ernment’s influence and control. With respect to policing, many crimes. Critics pointed, in particular, to the increased im-
President Obama’s U.S. Department of Justice aggressively prisonment of nonviolent drug offenders as unnecessarily ex-
investigated police departments and local justice systems pensive and unjust.
in several cities where controversial shootings of unarmed The Obama administration sought to reduce sentences for
African American men by police officers led to public pro- drug offenders and to provide resources in the form of educa-
tests and controversy. The Justice Department’s investigation, vocational training, and other programs that would help
tive reports produced harsh criticisms of police departments prepare them for a successful reentry into society. Obama used
in Ferguson, Missouri; Baltimore, Maryland; and other cities. his presidential authority to commute—declare as over—the
These cities were criticized for racially discriminatory treatment prison sentences being served by more than 1,000 federal of-
of citizens, excessive use of force by police officers, rights fenders who otherwise would have served longer periods in
violations involved in stopping and searching people without prison. The Obama administration also announced that it would
proper justification, and poor supervision and control of offi- no longer sign contracts to hold federal offenders in private pris-
cers’ actions on the streets. Using the threat of lawsuits, the ons owned and run by private profit-seeking corporations.
Justice Department reached agreements with these police By contrast, statements by candidate Donald Trump and
departments to implement specific corrective steps in hiring, his allies conveyed an endorsement of the aggressive police
training, and supervising officers. practices that led to risks of rights violations, discrimination,
Officials in the Obama administration believed that the sig- and excessive use of force by police. He campaigned by mak-
nificant increase in prison populations from the 1980s into the ing promises that he would be a law-and-order president who
funding leads to the arrest of more people but fails to provide additional money
to pay attorneys who represent poor defendants. A legislature may create a
budget crisis for local police agencies by requiring the collection of DNA sam-
ples from everyone in local jails when it does not provide additional funds for
technicians and labs to gather, store, and test samples. At the state and local
levels, many criminal justice authorities—including sheriffs, prosecutors, and
judges—are also elected officials. There are no elected justice officials in the
federal system except the president of the United States, who appoints federal
prosecutors throughout the country. The decisions of state and local elected
officials will be influenced by the concerns and values of their communities,
because these officials must please a majority of voters in order to be reelected.
Because the decisions of prosecutors, sheriffs, and judges are affected by their
efforts to satisfy voters, there are concerns that these officials will lose sight of
other important values, such as equal treatment for all defendants.
As you learn about each part of the criminal justice system, keep in mind
the ways that decision makers and institutions are connected to politics and
government. Criminal justice is closely linked to society and its institutions,
and to understand it fully we must be aware of those links.
✔P OI N T 6. At what level of government are many justice officials elected to office?

7. How do politics influence criminal justice policies?
STOP AND ANALYZE: If a legislator asked you to provide two suggestions for improving policy making in criminal justice by
decreasing the influence of politics, what would you say?
would expand the use of stop-and-frisk searches on the streets, rather than government-run enterprises for many services, has
quickly end criminal violence in urban areas, dismantle “every informed predictions about this potential reversal of direction by
last criminal gang,” and stop the killing of police officers. Most the new administration.
strikingly, while the Justice Department under President Obama
Sources: J. Johnson, “ ‘I Will Give You Everything.’ Here Are 282 of Donald
found that Chicago police officers routinely violated people’s
Trump’s Campaign Promises,” Washington Post, November 28, 2016 (www
rights and injured people through the use of unreasonable force, .washingtonpost.com); E. Lichtblau, “Obama Legacy of Freeing Prisoners
Trump said that Chicago’s crime problems could be solved by May Come under Trump Siege,” New York Times, January 15, 2017 (www
the police “being very much tougher.” .nytimes.com); J. Surowiecki, “Trump Sets Private Prisons Free,” New Yorker,
Trump’s U.S. Attorney General appointee, Alabama senator December 5, 2016 (www.newyorker.com); U.S. Department of Justice Civil
Rights Division, Investigation of the Chicago Police Department, January 13,
Jefferson Sessions, a former federal prosecutor, promised in his 2017 (www.justice.gov/opa/file/925846/download); L. Vivanco, “Trump Sug-
confirmation hearings to crack down on drugs, violence, gun gests Chicago Could Solve Crime Problems ‘in a Week’ if Cops Got Tougher,”
crimes, and illegal immigrants. His testimony and record, as well Chicago Tribune, August 23, 2016 (www.chicagotribune.com).
as Trump’s campaign statements, raised expectations that the
new administration would revert to pre-Obama punitive policies
emphasizing strict enforcement and punishment, instead of re- DEBATE THE ISSUE
ducing sentences and devoting resources for offenders’ reentry What beliefs and conclusions about crime problems do you see
into society. underlying the actions of the Obama administration? By con-
Immediately after the election results were announced in trast, what beliefs and conclusions about crime problems do you
November 2016, stock prices surged for corporations that build see underlying the statements of candidate Trump and Senator
and run private prisons; investors predicted that the Trump ad- Sessions? Which perspective do you see as most consistent
ministration would reverse President Obama’s decision to halt with your own conclusions about crime and justice? Write down
the use of private prisons for the incarceration of convicted fed- four reasons for your position and then challenge yourself by
eral offenders. Trump’s business background and his stated proposing a research study that might provide evidence-based
confidence in the economic benefits of relying on private-sector support for one aspect of the opposing viewpoint.
Criminal justice policies are decided

by legislators who respond to voters’
concerns and perceptions about
crime. Legislators also determine
priorities for government spending on
various policy issues. Do you think
your state and local government
spends too little, too much, or
just enough on criminal justice
as compared to issues such as
education and transportation?
Bob Daemmrich/The Image Works
Citizens and Criminal Justice Policy

Americans should not view themselves as passive observers of criminal jus-
tice policy. In fact, they are intimately involved in the processes that produce
public policy. Most obviously, citizens vote for the elected officials who cre-
ate criminal laws, run the criminal justice system, and implement criminal
justice policies. Often, votes are based on concerns about issues, such as eco-
nomic problems or wars, which are regarded as more pressing than criminal
justice issues at a given moment in time. At other times, citizens may vote
CR IM IN A L J U S T I C E A ND THE RISK OF MISINFORM ATION
THE CHALLENGE OF IDENTIFYING FACTS AMID A FLOOD OF INFORMATION

During the 2016 presidential election, the concept of “fake sources to verify its accuracy. Why does this happen? Research
news” emerged as one of the most controversial elements in studies have helped to explain the likely psychology behind this
a divisive campaign. Advances in technology have placed at problem.
Americans’ fingertips a flood of information from online news Studies by psychologists have shown that people filter in-
sources, interest-group websites, Twitter, Facebook, Instagram, formation in an effort to reinforce their existing beliefs. They are
and other sources. People can instantly seek information; in ad- inclined to believe information that they want to believe, even if
dition, they often receive breaking news and announcements on that information is false, and reject information that they do not
their laptops and smartphones without even asking for it. Al- want to believe, even if that information is true. Indeed, there
though there is a wealth of information, there is no guarantee, is research showing that the stronger the information providing
however, that the information they receive is accurate or worth evidence that someone has an erroneous belief, the stronger
their consideration. Indeed, we know that there is a significant is the individual’s efforts to resist accepting that information.
flow of inaccurate information on the Internet and from social- For example, if an individual believes that fear of the death pen-
media sources. Some of this information is manufactured and alty will deter people from committing murders, that person is
spread for political purposes; other information may be pro- likely to reject studies—of which there are many—that show kill-
duced and dispersed by conspiracy theorists who actually ers typically do not think rationally about the prospect of being
believe a patently false or unproven idea that has popped into caught or the potential punishment for their crime. Similarly, if
their heads. Still other sources of phony information are rumors people believe that gun-control laws do not work and that wide-
spread by people who misunderstand or misinterpret some ac- spread carrying of firearms by citizens reduces crime, they are
tual statement or event. Moreover, there are now opportunities likely to reject evidence that supports contrary positions.
for people to receive revenue for the creating and spreading For example, Missouri had strong gun-control laws requiring
of false information. After the election, for example, American people seeking to purchase a handgun to appear in person at
reporters found teenagers in the eastern European country of the sheriff’s office for a background check. Beginning in 2007,
Macedonia earning as much as $10,000 per month by manu- the state legislature relaxed those laws and lowered the age re-
facturing fake news stories about American politics and post- quirement for those seeking to carry a concealed weapon. By
ing them to Facebook. The authors of these fake stories earned 2015, researchers at Johns Hopkins University found that six
lucrative amounts through penny-per-click advertising that paid years after Missouri relaxed its requirements for background
posters for the number of readers who took the bait and clicked checks and permits, the gun homicide rate had increased by
to the articles. Reporters revealed similar activities by underem- 16 percent. During that same time period, the national gun ho-
ployed college graduates in California who made much more micide rate declined by 11 percent. When the researchers con-
money from creating fake news stories than they did from work- trolled for other factors that might affect the gun homicide rate,
ing in restaurants. such as poverty, and included analyses of other states, they
Americans’ susceptibility to misinformation is a serious found that Missouri’s increase after relaxing gun regulations was
problem in a democracy that assumes citizens will be suffi- actually higher: 18 percent (S. Tavernise, 2015).
ciently educated about candidates and issues to cast rational What was the impact of this information? The Missouri leg-
votes in elections. Yet, it is clear that many Americans whole- islature apparently did not regard this research evidence as ac-
heartedly embrace false information and happily spread that curate or useful as it enacted additional legislation in 2016 that
information to even more people without first checking other enabled people to carry concealed weapons without either a
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
RIEN QUE D’UN CÔTÉ
New Oxford (U. S. A.), Juin-Juillet 1892.
— La vérité, dit le voyageur dans le train, c’est que nous vivons

dans un pays tropical pendant trois mois de l’année, seulement nous
ne voulons pas le reconnaître. Regardez ceci. Il nous passa une
longue liste de morts survenues par suite de la chaleur, grâce à quoi
les journaux prenaient un peu d’animation. Toutes les villes où les
gens vivent à haute tension étaient en train d’expédier leurs notes de
boucher, et les journaux, apôtres eux-mêmes de l’Évangile de la
Hâte, suppliaient leurs lecteurs de rester calmes et de ne pas se
surmener tant que durait la vague de chaleur. Les rivières étaient
tachetées, barrées de cailloux desséchés par le soleil ; les bûches et
ceux qui les poussaient sur le fleuve étaient quelque part, en amont
de la rivière Connecticut bloqués par la sécheresse ; et l’herbe, au
bord de la voie, était brûlée en cent endroits par les étincelles
tombées des locomotives. Des hommes, sans chapeau, sans veste,
sans souffle, étaient couchés à l’ombre de la gare où, seulement
quelques mois plus tôt, le thermomètre marquait 35° au-dessous de
zéro. Maintenant on lisait 37° à l’ombre. La grand’rue — vous
souvenez-vous de la grand’rue d’un petit village bloqué par la neige
ce printemps-ci ? [1] — avait renoncé à vivre, et un drapeau
américain avec le nom de quelque politicien imprimé sur le bas,
pendait, raide comme une planche, au milieu de la rue. Il y avait des
hommes avec des éventails et des vestes d’alpaga recroquevillés
dans des chaises cannées sur la véranda de l’unique hôtel ; parmi
eux se trouvait un ex-Président des États-Unis. Lui-même achevait
de donner l’impression que les meubles de tout le pays avaient été
sortis pour le nettoyage d’été, pendant l’absence des habitants. Rien
n’a plus l’air désespérément « ex » qu’un Président rentré dans la
circulation ordinaire. Le drapeau étoilé voulait dire que la campagne
présidentielle avait commencé dans la grand’rue, avait commencé,
et s’était close. La politique s’évapore sous la chaleur estivale
lorsque tout le monde est occupé à rentrer les derniers foins, et,
comme disent les fermiers : — Le Vermont sera forcément
républicain. L’habitude du pays c’est de traîner les élections avec
force poussière et démêlés pendant plusieurs mois, pour la grande
amélioration des affaires et des manières. Mais le bruit de cette
guerre-là monte bien faiblement le long de la vallée du Connecticut
et se perd au milieu du concert des sauterelles. Leur musique avive,
pour ainsi dire, la chaleur de la journée. En vérité c’est, pour le
moment, un pays tropical. Des orages accompagnés de tonnerre
rôdent et grognent autour de la ceinture des collines, se dissipent en
quelques crachats de pluie et laissent finalement l’air plus mort que
jamais. Dans les bois, où même les sources fidèles commencent à
tarir, les palmiers et les balsamiers ont répandu tous leurs parfums
sur la chaleur et attendent que le vent leur apporte des nouvelles de
la pluie. Les clématites, la carotte sauvage et toutes les fleurs
bohémiennes campées par tolérance entre la ligne des palissades et
la route portent un masque de poussière blanche, et la verge jaune
dans les pâturages roussis jusqu’à prendre la couleur du lin brûlé
elle aussi comme du cuivre poli. Une colonne de poussière sur la
longue crête de route qui traverse les collines révèle la présence
d’un attelage se démenant et suant entre les fermes, tandis que les
toits des maisons de bois palpitent dans la buée formée par leur
propre chaleur. Au-dessus de nos têtes le faucon est la seule
créature occupée. Son cri, aigu comme celui du milan, fait
abandonner aux poussins leur bain de sable et courir, le bec ouvert,
auprès de leurs mères. L’écureuil rouge, comme à l’ordinaire, fait
semblant d’avoir des affaires importantes à liquider au milieu des
noyers cendrés, mais c’est pure fatuité. Une fois que le passant sera
parti, il cessera de jacasser pour regagner la place où les brises
légères pourront le mieux agiter les plumes de sa queue. De
quelque part là-bas, de dessous la bosse indolente de la prairie,
nous arrivent le bourdonnement d’une faucheuse, son whurr-oo, et
le grognement des chevaux fatigués.
[1] Voir En vue de Monadnock.
Les maisons ne sont faites que pour y manger et y dormir. On

passe le reste de son existence étendu tout de son long sur la
véranda. Lorsque la circulation est intense il passe devant cette
véranda trois attelages par jour, et il faut bien alors échanger des
propos au sujet du temps et de la récolte d’avoine. Une fois celle-ci
rentrée il y aura un intervalle d’inertie dans la ferme, et les fermiers
se proposeront sérieusement de faire les mille choses qu’ils ont
négligées pendant l’été. Ils entreprendront telle ou telle chose,
« quand le moment sera venu ». La phrase, si on la traduit, équivaut
exactement au mañana des Espagnols, au Kul hojaiga de l’Inde
supérieure, au Yuroshii des Japonais, et au taihod lent et traînant
des Maoris. La seule personne qui réellement « arrive » par un
temps pareil c’est le pensionnaire d’été — celui qui est venu se
réfugier là, fuyant les cités torrides de la Plaine — et généralement
c’est une femme. Elle se promène, fait de la botanique, de la
photographie, arrache l’écorce des bouleaux blancs pour en tresser
des corbeilles à papier ornées de rubans bleus et ce faisant excite
l’émerveillement du fermier. Ce qui l’étonne encore bien plus, c’est
de voir le commis de la ville, en chandail, qui dispose de quinze
jours de vacances par an, et apparemment de ressources illimitées,
qu’il gagne de la façon la plus aisée, en « restant assis à écrire
devant un bureau ». La femme du fermier voit la mode qu’étale la
pensionnaire d’été et, grâce à eux deux, femme et mari pourront se
faire une idée des beautés de la vie urbaine, connaissance qui leur
vaudra peut-être des reproches de la part de leurs enfants plus tard.
Le chandail et la robe faite à la ville sont des sergents recrutant, bien
innocemment, pour le compte des brigades citadines et, comme la
profession du voisin reste toujours un mystère pour chacun de nous,
ceux qui endossent le chandail ou la robe de ville s’imaginent que le
fermier doit être heureux et content. Un lieu de villégiature, c’est, en
somme, une des mille fenêtres d’où l’on peut envisager les mille
aspects de la vie qui se déroule dans les États sur la côte de
l’Atlantique. Rappelez-vous qu’entre juin et septembre tous ceux qui
peuvent le faire fuient les grandes villes — non pas par dérèglement
comme c’est le cas pour les Londoniens — mais à cause de la
chaleur. Donc ils s’en vont par millions, avec leurs millions, les
femmes des hommes riches pendant cinq bons mois, les autres
aussi longtemps que possible ; et, comme font les oiseaux de même
plume, elles forment des communautés, classe par classe, race par
race, division par division, s’étendant à travers tout le pays, depuis le
Maine et les domaines supérieurs du Saguenay à travers les
montagnes et les sources chaudes d’une demi-douzaine d’États du
Centre jusqu’aux lointains parages de Sitka où elles se rendent par
bateau. Alors elles dépensent de l’argent en notes d’hôtels, au milieu
de dix mille fermes, en payant des compagnies privées qui louent et
remplissent de gibier des terrains de chasse, en yachts, en canoës
indiens, en bicyclettes, en cannes à pêche, en chalets, en
chaumières, en bibliothèques circulantes, en camps, en tentes, et
dans tous les luxes possibles. Mais celui du repos, la majorité
d’entre elles l’ignorent. Elles traînent fidèlement derrière elles le
télégraphe et le téléphone, de peur que leur gent mâle n’oublie pour
un seul instant et le boulet et les entraves qu’ils ont au pied. Au point
de vue tristesse mêlée de comique il y a peu de spectacles qui
soient comparables à celui d’un millionnaire sans veste, les souliers
boueux, le chapeau orné d’appâts à truite, et un chapelet de petits
poissons à la main, suspendu désespérément au téléphone de
quelque « lieu fréquenté pour sa salubrité » à l’autre bout du monde :
— Allo ! — Allo ! Oui ! — Qui est-ce qui parle ? — Ah ! très bien.
Parlez. Oui, c’est moi ! De quoi ? Répétez. Vendu combien ? —
Quarante-quatre et demi ? — Répétez. — Non ! Je vous avais dit de
tenir bon. Comment ? Comment ? — Qui est-ce qui a acheté à ce
taux ? Dites donc, attendez un instant. Téléphonez-leur. Non,
attendez. Je vais venir (regardant sa montre). Dites à Schaefer que
je le verrai demain. Par dessus l’épaule, à sa femme qui porte
d’énormes bagues en diamants à 10 heures du matin : — Lison, ma
valise ? Il faut que je m’en aille.
Et il s’en va manger à l’hôtel et dormir dans sa maison fermée.
Les hommes sont aussi rares dans la plupart des rendez-vous d’été
qu’ils le sont aux Indes dans les postes des collines à la fin d’avril.
Les femmes vous racontent qu’ils ne peuvent pas quitter leur travail,
et que s’ils s’absentaient ils seraient malheureux tant qu’ils ne
seraient pas de retour. Pour savoir si cet abandon général des maris
par leurs femmes est chose bonne en soi, demandez ce qu’en
pensent ceux qui connaissent les beautés du système Anglo-Indien.
Qu’hommes et femmes aient besoin, réellement besoin de repos,
un seul coup d’œil sur les tables d’hôtel bondées nous en donne la
certitude ; c’est si palpable en réalité que l’étranger, à qui l’on n’a pas
appris que les embarras et les tracas sont en eux-mêmes choses
honorables, meurt d’envie parfois de pouvoir faire dormir pendant
dix-sept heures par jour toute cette foule qui ne se repose jamais.
J’ai demandé à non moins de cinq cents hommes et femmes dans
différentes parties des États-Unis la raison de leur santé délabrée et
de leur air si déprimé. L’élément masculin me dit : — Si vous ne
marchez pas avec les autres on vous laisse en route, et les femmes
souriaient d’un sourire pervers, répondant qu’aucun étranger n’avait
jusqu’ici découvert la véritable cause de leur tracas et de leur
tension, ni pourquoi leurs vies étaient arrangées de façon à
surmonter le plus grand nombre de difficultés dans un temps le plus
restreint donnés. Or, qu’on abandonne les hommes à leur propre
folie, mais on m’a dévoilé ce qui est cause de tout le mal chez les
femmes. C’est la chose qu’on appelle « aide » qui n’est pas une
aide. Parmi la multitude de cadeaux que l’Américain a donnés à
l’Américaine (pour les détails voir les journaux quotidiens) il a oublié,
ou est incapable de lui donner de bons domestiques. Et ce tracas
sordide empiète aussi bien chez le ménage du millionnaire que dans
l’appartement du petit employé de la cité. — Ah oui ! il est facile de
rire, dit une femme avec un douloureux emportement, nous sommes
à bout, nous et nos enfants, et nous sommes toujours en train de
nous tracasser, je le sais bien. Mais que faire ? Si vous restez ici
vous verrez que c’est le pays de tous les luxes et d’aucune chose
indispensable. Vous verrez, et alors vous ne rirez plus. Vous
comprendrez pourquoi les femmes emmènent leurs maris dans des
pensions et n’ont jamais de chez soi. Vous saurez ce qu’on veut dire
par un catholique irlandais. Les hommes ne veulent pas s’occuper
de nos ennuis, mais nous, nous le ferions bien. Si nous avions le
suffrage des femmes nous fermerions la porte à tous les Irlandais et
nous l’ouvririons à tous les Chinois, et nous donnerions un peu de
protection aux femmes. C’était le cri d’une âme usée, à bout, malade
d’exaspération. Mais c’était la vérité. Aujourd’hui, je ne ris plus d’un
peuple qui dépend de races ilotes incapables pour un service mal
fait. La prochaine fois que vous, qui faites marcher votre ménage en
Angleterre, avez maille à partir avec votre domestique qui est
respectable, aimable, appliquée, et que vous prenez aux gages de
seize livres par an, qui porte bonnet et vous dit « Madame »,
rappelez-vous le travail d’indigent d’Amérique, celui des femmes de
soixante millions de rois qui n’ont pas de sujets. Personne ne
pourrait acquérir une connaissance complète du problème en une
seule existence, mais il pourrait en deviner la grandeur et la portée,
après qu’il serait descendu dans l’arène et aurait lutté avec le
Suédois et le Danois et l’Allemand et l’innommable Celte. Alors il
comprend combien cela doit être bon pour l’espèce qu’un homme se
mette en miettes pour lutter sauvagement avec son voisin, tandis
que sa femme sans cesse se débat dans sa cuisine au milieu d’une
sauvagerie primitive. Aux Indes parfois, quand une famine menace,
la vie du pays se dresse devant vous dans toute sa nudité, son
exigence et son amertume. Ici, malgré ses colifichets et ses
ornements, elle ne consent pas à se laisser étouffer ; ses clameurs
et son vacarme se font entendre bien au-dessus de tous les autres
bruits, comme il arrive parfois, à bord du transatlantique, que le
tonnerre de machines dérangées dans leur fonctionnement arrête
les conversations engagées sur le pont. Tandis que les yeux
interrogateurs des passagers semblent dire : « Ce véhicule est fait et
payé pour nous mener au port tranquillement, pourquoi ne le fait-il
pas ? » Seulement ici le cliquetis de la machine mal agencée
résonne toujours aux oreilles, bien que hommes et femmes courent
de-ci de-là avec des appareils destinés à épargner la main-d’œuvre,
et des évangiles, prônant « le pouvoir qu’on obtient grâce au repos »,
tripatouillant et graissant la machine et ajoutant au bruit. Cette
machine-là est neuve. Un de ces jours elle sera la plus belle du
monde. On ajoute donc au nombre des inventeurs amateurs certains
individus avec des calepins, qui viennent vérifier chaque écrou,
chaque matras, tâter les boulons, enregistrer le nombre de tours
faits, et qui de temps en temps annoncent que tel ou tel appareil
n’est pas « essentiellement américain. » Cependant que, sans
nécessité, meurent au milieu des roues des hommes et des
femmes ; ils ont, dit-on, succombé dans « la bataille de la vie ».
Le Dieu qui nous voit tous mourir sait que cette bataille-là
n’existe déjà que trop, mais nous, nous ne le savons pas, nous
continuons donc à adorer le couteau qui tranche et la roue qui nous
broie, tout aussi aveuglement que le balayeur paria adore Lal Beg, le
Balai Glorifié qui est l’incarnation de son métier. Mais le balayeur a
du moins assez de bon sens pour ne pas se tuer — à force de
balayer — ce dont il s’enorgueillit.
Un étranger ne peut guère remédier à ces ennuis en en parlant ;
car ce même sang maigre et desséché qui engendre la fièvre de
l’agitation engendre aussi le sauvage orgueil paroissial qui pousse
un cri aigu si un regard fixe ou un doigt vient à se diriger vers lui.
Entre eux les gens des villes de l’Est reconnaissent volontiers
qu’eux-mêmes ainsi que l’élément féminin travaillent infiniment trop
et se détraquent, et que les conséquences pour leurs rejetons sont
fort désagréables, certes, mais en présence de l’étranger ils
préfèrent parler de l’avenir de leur grand continent (ce qui n’a rien à
voir avec la question), invoquer le Baal des Dollars, énumérer leurs
voies ferrées, leurs mines, leurs téléphones, leurs banques, leurs
villes, et tous les coquillages, boutons et jetons qu’ils ont fait leurs
Dieux. Or, une nation ne marche pas en avant grâce à sa boîte
crânienne, ainsi que certains livres voudraient nous le faire accroire,
mais grâce à son ventre, comme le fit le serpent jadis, et en fin de
compte le travail accompli par le cerveau est récolté par une race à
allure lente au ventre inimaginatif et aux nerfs qui restent à leur
place.
Tout cela est très consolant — du point de vue de l’étranger. Il
s’aperçoit avec une satisfaction non mitigée que de la haute tension
naît l’impatience sous forme d’un jeune paquet de nerfs qui est bien
le lutin le plus indiscipliné qu’on puisse voir. De l’impatience devenue
adulte, habituée à des conversations violentes et vilaines, à
l’impatience et à l’insouciance de ses voisins, naît la licence,
encouragée par la paresse et supprimée par la violence lorsqu’elle
devient insupportable. La licence engendre la rébellion (et à ce fruit-
là on a déjà goûté une fois) et de la rébellion sort du profit pour ceux
qui attendent. Il entend parler du pouvoir du Peuple qui, par pure
négligence, oublie de veiller à ce que les lois soient suivies comme il
convient dès le début, et ce Peuple, non pas une ou deux fois par
an, mais plusieurs fois par mois, descend dans la rue et, avec un
maximum de dépense de forces et de cris, s’en va pendre ses
congénères. Ce ne sont là, l’assure-t-on, que des gens fidèles
observateurs de la loi qui n’ont fait qu’exécuter « la volonté du
peuple ». C’est à peu près comme si un homme négligeait de trier
ses papiers pendant un an, puis se mettait à briser son bureau à
coups de hache en s’écriant : « Voyez comme j’ai de l’ordre ! » Il
entend des avocats, en tout autre temps sensés et cultivés, défendre
ce meurtre brutal avec le prétexte que « le Peuple protège la Loi », la
loi qu’ils n’ont jamais mise en exécution. Il voit que l’on accorde à
chacun le droit, — concédés à moitié seulement aujourd’hui, mais
tout de même à moitié, d’anticiper la loi lorsqu’il s’agit de ses intérêts
personnels, et l’impatience nerveuse (toujours les nerfs) anticiper le
jugement concernant les personnes suspectes qui sont en prison, ou
l’accusé au banc des prévenus, ou la décision arbitrale entre deux
nations avant que celle-ci ait été rendue. Il sait que le mot d’ordre à
Londres, à Yokohama et Hong-Kong lorsqu’on a des affaires à traiter
avec l’Américain pur sang, c’est de le faire attendre, pour la bonne
raison que l’inaction forcée l’enfièvre, comme rester immobile sous
le harnais énerve un cheval à moitié dressé. Il rencontre mille petites
particularités de langage, de manière, de pensée, — affaires de
nerfs, d’estomac, développées par une lutte incessante — et toutes
relèvent un tantinet de la licence. Pas plus que ne le ferait
l’entrechoquement inquiet de cornes d’un troupeau de bétail, mais
certainement pas moins. Tout cela profite à ceux qui attendent.
D’autre part, pour envisager la chose plus humainement, il y a
des milliers d’hommes et de femmes charmants dont la santé se
détériore pour la lamentable raison que s’ils ne marchent pas avec la
procession ils « restent en route ». Et ils restent — dans des
vêtements qui n’ont que de l’apparence, au milieu de monceaux de
salsepareille. Des jeunes hommes, que l’on rencontre par hasard
dans les rues, vous parlent de leurs nerfs, chose qu’aucun jeune
homme ne devrait connaître ; et les amis de vos amis succombent à
de la prostration nerveuse, et les gens que l’on entend parler dans le
train s’entretiennent de leurs nerfs et des nerfs de leurs parents ; et il
faut qu’on s’occupe des nerfs des petits enfants avant qu’ils ne
perdent leurs dents de lait, et les hommes comme les femmes entre
deux âges ont leurs nerfs aussi, et les vieillards perdent la dignité
que leur confère leur âge par suite d’une agitation indécente et les
annonces dans les journaux prouvent bien que cette liste
catégorique n’est pas un mensonge. Plus encore que les soucis et la
panique, l’hyperconscience de soi-même d’un peuple neuf fait qu’ils
éprouvent comme un orgueil perverti dans le tapage inutile qui
augmente le taux de la mortalité — plaisir enfantin à voir l’éclat, le
rayonnement et la poussière produits par la Marche du Progrès.
N’est-ce pas « essentiellement américain ? » Oui et non. Si les villes
étaient toute l’Amérique, ainsi qu’elles prétendent l’être, dans
cinquante ans on verrait la Marche du Progrès arrêtée, tout comme
une machine s’arrête lorsque les essieux chauffent trop…
Là-bas dans la prairie la faucheuse s’est arrêtée et les chevaux
se secouent. Les derniers rayons du soleil abandonnent la cime de
Monadnock et, à quatre kilomètres de là, la Grand’Rue allume ses
lampes électriques. C’est le soir, où joue la fanfare dans la
Grand’Rue et les gens de Putney, de Marlborough, de Guilford, et
même de New Fane viendront dans leurs voitures bien remplies
pour entendre la musique et regarder l’Ex-Président. De par delà le
versant de la prairie deux hommes arrivent très lentement, ils sont
nu-tête et vont les bras ballants. Ils ne se pressent pas, ils ne se
sont pas pressés, et ils ne se presseront jamais car ils sont de la
campagne, banquiers de la chair et du sang des villes à jamais en
état de banqueroute. Leurs enfants seront peut-être de pâles
pensionnaires d’été, de même que ces pensionnaires, mauvaises
herbes élevées à la ville, prendront peut-être leur succession dans
ces fermes. De la charrue au trottoir va l’homme, mais il revient
finalement à la charrue.
— Vous allez manger la soupe ?
— « Vou-ii, » répond une voix lente à travers l’herbe non coupée.
— Dites donc, va falloir peindre cette grange.
— On fera ça un jour ou l’autre.
Ils s’en vont, dans le crépuscule, sans adieu ni salutation,
lentement comme leurs propres bœufs. Et il y en a quelques millions
comme cela — hommes peu commodes à contrecarrer,
inébranlables, silencieux, ne répondant jamais directement aux
questions qu’on leur pose, et aussi impénétrables que cet autre
fermier oriental qui est le fondement même d’un autre pays. On ne
parle pas d’eux dans les journaux des villes, on ne les entend pas
beaucoup dans les rues, et ils comptent pour très peu dans
l’appréciation que se fait l’étranger de l’Amérique.
Mais c’est eux cependant l’Américain.
LETTRES D’UN CARNET D’HIVER
Nous avions marché de front avec l’année depuis le

commencement même, c’est-à-dire à partir du moment où la
première sanguinaire jaillit d’entre les plaques de neige d’avril, tandis
que l’épais amoncellement au fond de la prairie résistait encore.
Dans l’ombre projetée par les bois et sous les aiguilles tombées des
sapins, des paquets de neige persistèrent jusqu’en fin Mai, mais ni
les saisons ni les fleurs ne s’en inquiétèrent et avant même que
nous ne fussions bien assurés que l’Hiver était parti, les valets de
Monseigneur Baltimore, revêtus de leurs livrées neuves, vinrent pour
nous dire que l’Été était arrivé dans la vallée, et, de grâce, leur
serait-il permis de se nicher au fond du jardin ?
Il vint cet Été, courroucé, trop nerveux pour pouvoir rester un
instant en place, vu qu’il avait tant à faire : le blé et le tabac à faire
mûrir, les pâturages à revêtir, les feuilles mortes à enfouir sous de
nouveaux tapis, tout cela en cinq petits mois. Et voilà que
brusquement, au beau milieu de son travail, par une étouffante et
immobile journée de Juillet, il fit sortir un vent du Nord-Ouest, un
vent se déchaînant sous une arche de nuages ballonnés et couleur
d’acier, un vent âpre et méchant, sentant la grêle, un vent qui mit
moins de dix minutes pour venir et s’en aller, mais qui obstrua les
routes d’arbres tombés, renversa une grange et arracha les pommes
de terre ! Puis, cela fait, un nuage blanc en forme de haltère se mit à
descendre en tournoyant le long de la vallée et passa en hurlant et
en pivotant, en pivotant et en hurlant à lui tout seul à travers le calme
azur du soir. Une tornade des Indes occidentales ne se serait pas
montrée plus alerte que notre petit cyclone, si bien que lorsque notre
maison se dressa comme un jeune coq sur le point de lancer son
défi, et qu’un ormeau de soixante pieds de haut fut renversé, et que
ce qui avait été une route poussiéreuse se fit torrent rugissant, — le
tout en moins de trois minutes, — nous nous rendîmes compte que
l’été de la Nouvelle Angleterre avait du sang de créole dans les
veines. Il s’en alla enfin jusqu’au bout, la figure enflammée,
courroucé, claquant toutes les portes des collines derrière lui, et
alors l’Automne qui est un Monsieur bien élevé prit le
commandement.
Nulle plume ne saurait décrire la transformation des feuilles,
l’insurrection du peuple des arbres contre l’année qui s’étiole. Ce fut
un petit érable qui commença la révolte, s’embrasant soudain d’un
rouge de sang qui se détachait sur le fond vert sombre d’une
ceinture de sapins. Le lendemain matin, les sumaks répondirent du
milieu de leur étang. Trois jours plus tard les flancs des collines à
perte de vue avaient pris feu et les routes étaient pavées de carmin
et d’or. Puis il souffla un vent humide qui mit à mal tous les
uniformes de cette somptueuse armée, et les chênes, qui s’étaient
tenus en réserve, endossèrent leurs cuirasses ternes et bronzées, et
résistèrent ferme jusqu’à la dernière feuille emportée par le vent.
Enfin rien ne resta sinon l’estompage des ramures dénudées et l’on
put plonger les regards jusque dans le cœur le plus intime des bois.
Il faut s’attendre à avoir la gelée jusqu’au milieu de Mai et après
le milieu de Septembre, de sorte que l’Été a très peu de temps pour
faire des travaux d’émail ou pour broder les feuilles. Ce sont ses
frères qui apportent les cadeaux : le Printemps donne les
Anémones, les Sceaux de Salomon, les Chausses de Hollandais,
les Quakeresses, et les Arbousiers qui traînent et sentent aussi
divinement que la véritable aubépine. L’Automne apporte à double
brassée la Verge Jaune et toute la tribu des Asters roses, lilas et
blanc crémeux. Lorsque ceux-ci s’en vont le rideau tombe, et les
Puissances, quelles qu’elles soient, qui, par derrière, changent le
décor, travaillent sans bruit. Dans les pays tropicaux vous pouvez
entendre derrière les silences de la nuit s’effectuer le travail de la
croissance ou du dépérissement. Même en Angleterre les marées
de l’air d’hiver ont un but, une tendance définie, mais ici elles sont
muettes absolument. Le tout dernier travail d’établi, c’était en cette
saison, l’extrémité allongée d’une tige de ronce présentée sous une
forme conventionnelle mais très audacieuse, en fer battu, et que l’on
avait jetée sur l’herbe gelée un instant avant que l’on vînt l’examiner.
Le reflet bleu de la fournaise se mourait encore le long de la tige
principale, et les ramifications latérales étaient rouges comme des
cerises et telles qu’elles venaient de quitter les charbons ardents.
C’était, manifestement, un morceau détaché de quelque porte
invisible dans les bois ; mais nous n’avons jamais trouvé l’ouvrier qui
l’avait faite, bien qu’il eût laissé la marque de son pied fourchu aussi
visible que l’eût fait un daim égaré. Au bout d’une semaine, les fortes
gelées avec leurs faux et leurs marteaux avaient renversé toutes les
floraisons au bord de la route en même temps que les aimables
buissons servant de voile à la pente de la route sans palissade.
Là les saisons firent momentanément halte. L’Automne s’en était
allé, mais l’Hiver n’existait pas encore. C’était du Temps qu’on nous
débitait, rien que le temps qui s’écoule, clair et frais, jours de grâce
faits pour que nous en jouissions. Deux pieds de feuilles sèches ou
de terre encadraient les blanches maisons en bois des fermiers ;
déjà les bûcherons sortaient pour préparer les stocks de bois pour
l’année à venir. Or fendre du bois est un art et le fendeur est à tous
points de vue un artiste. Il fabrique lui-même le manche de sa hache
et dans l’idée de chaque bûcheron il n’existe au monde qu’un seul
morceau de bois qui soit réellement parfait. Celui-là on ne le trouve
jamais, mais ce qui s’en rapproche le plus, on le fignole, on
l’équilibre, on le soupèse jusqu’à ce qu’on l’ait amené aussi près que
possible de cet idéal. Une de mes connaissances a atteint en
l’espèce presque la perfection de l’arme d’Umslopogas. Presque
droite, l’extrémité garnie de cuir, étonnamment souple, elle est à
double lame qui sert à la fois à fendre et à hacher. Si son Démon est
avec lui — et quel est l’artiste qui saurait répondre de tous ses
caprices ? — il vous fera tomber l’arbre sur le bâton ou la pierre qu’il
vous plaira de désigner, que ce soit sur la montagne ou dans la
vallée, à droite ou à gauche. Mais en véritable artiste qu’il est, il vous
assurera que cela n’est rien. Le premier sot venu sait faire ce qu’il lui
plaît avec un arbre en terrain découvert, mais abattre un arbre au
milieu d’un épais fourré sans causer de dommage exige un artisan.
C’est une véritable révélation que de voir tomber un érable, au tronc
large de quatre pieds, haut de quatre-vingts pieds, aussi adroitement
que le pêcheur lance son appât, au seul endroit où il ne risquera
pas, en leur fauchant la tête, de blesser l’amour-propre de cinquante
érables plus jeunes que lui. Les pins blancs, les sapins du Canada
et les spruces se partagent ce pays en compagnie des érables, des
bouleaux blancs et noirs et des hêtres. L’érable semble avoir peu de
préférences et les bouleaux blancs s’égaillent frileux aux confins des
camps, mais les pins se tiennent fermes en régiments compacts,
lançant des éclaireurs pour envahir à la première occasion un
pâturage abandonné. Pas de pardessus plus chaud que les pins
lorsque le vent souffle en tempête sur des lieues à la ronde faisant
résonner les bois comme des orgues de cathédrale, et que les
premières neiges de l’année revêtent de leur poudre les rebords des
rochers.
Les mousses, les lichens, verts, couleur de soufre, ambrés,
constellent le sol cuivré couvert d’aiguilles où le pin nain duveteux
court de-ci de-là, sans but apparent, égrenant, en bribes, des
syllabes de charmes à demi oubliés.
Il y a des baies multicolores à la lisière des bois, où dîne la
perdrix (qui n’est au fond qu’un coq de bruyère à fraise) et, tout à
côté des routes servant à charrier les bûches, poussent sur les
souches pourries des champignons vénéneux de toutes nuances.
En quelque lieu que le roc, vert ou bleu, dresse sa crête au flanc du
coteau, les aiguilles enserrent sa base en masses profondes, si bien
que, au moment où les rayons du soleil les incendient, la pierre et
son encadrement se transfigurent en une gloire égale à celle d’une
turquoise reposant sur un fond d’or pâle. Les bois sont remplis de
couleur, au point de former de véritables zones, des éclaboussures ;
ce sont à la fois toutes les couleurs du sauvage, le rouge, le jaune et
le bleu. Leurs retraites ne renferment cependant que peu de vie, car
les peuplades des bois ne fréquentent pas volontiers les ombres.
C’est au milieu des hêtres et des caryers au bord de la route — d’où
ils pourront voir ce qui se passe sur la route et bavarder — que se
font les affaires des écureuils. Ici même on n’en trouve aucun de
couleur grise (pour l’excellente raison qu’ils sont trop bons à manger
et ont à payer en conséquence), mais il y en a cinq, rouges, qui
nichent dans un caryer tout près d’ici et que nulle température ne
fera dormir. La marmotte, qui est à la fois dormeuse et stratège, fait
son trou au milieu d’une prairie où elle vous apercevra, vous, avant
que vous ne la voyez, elle. De temps à autre un chien trouve moyen
de l’intercepter et la bataille qui s’en suit vaut la peine qu’on traverse
des champs pour y assister. Mais il y a longtemps que la marmotte
est allée se coucher et elle ne ressortira qu’en Avril. Le rakoon
demeure — où ? ma foi ! personne ne sait au juste, — mais lorsque
la lune du chasseur est pleine et immense, il descend jusqu’aux
terres de blé et on le chasse avec des chiens pour avoir sa fourrure
qui fait le meilleur des pardessus, et sa chair qui est savoureuse
comme du poulet. Le cri plaintif qu’il fait entendre la nuit ressemble à
celui d’un enfant égaré.
Dans ce pays on a l’air de tuer, pour une raison ou une autre,
tout ce qui bouge. Les faucons, bien entendu ; les aigles à cause de
leur rareté ; les renards pour leurs fourrures ; les merles aux flancs
rouges et les petits loriots de Baltimore parce qu’ils sont jolis, et
autres menus êtres pour s’amuser, comme en France. Vous pouvez
vous procurer pour douze shillings ce qu’on peut appeler un fusil, et
si votre voisin est assez bête pour mettre des pancartes annonçant
qu’il est défendu de « chasser » et de pêcher à la ligne, vous vous
rendez bien entendu dans ses réserves. Ce qui fait que le pays est
très silencieux et inanimé.
Pourtant il y a des ours à quelques kilomètres seulement, comme
vous pourrez vous en apercevoir en lisant l’avis suivant, ramassé
chez le marchand de tabac de l’endroit :
AMI, PRENDS TON FUSIL ! CHASSE A L’OURS.
Vu que les ours sont trop nombreux dans la ville de Peltyville

Corner Vermont, les chasseurs des villes environnantes sont
invités à prendre part à la grande chasse qui sera faite sur les
Montagnes bleues dans la ville de Peltyville Corner Vermont, le
mercredi 8 Novembre, si le temps le permet, sinon le premier
jour qu’il fera beau. Venez chacun, venez tous !
Ils s’y rendirent, mais ce fut l’ours qui ne voulut pas participer à la
fête. L’avis avait été imprimé dans je ne sais quelle Imprimerie
Électrique. Mélange un peu bizarre, n’est-il pas vrai ?
En général l’ours ne sort guère de ses parages habituels mais il a
un faible pour les porcs et les jeunes veaux, ce qui entraîne un
châtiment. Douze heures de chemin de fer et un peu de marche
vous amènent jusqu’au pays de l’élan ; et quelque vingt milles d’ici à
vol d’oiseau, vous trouvez des forêts vierges où demeurent des
trappeurs et où il y a également un Étang Perdu que beaucoup ont
trouvé une fois mais… n’ont jamais retrouvé depuis.
Les hommes, qui de nature sont moutons, ont suivi leurs amis et
le chemin de fer le long des vallées de la rivière où se trouvent les
villes. Une fois que l’on a atteint l’autre côté des collines, les
habitants sont clairsemés, et, hors de leur État, peu connus. Ils se
retirent de la circulation en Novembre s’ils demeurent sur les hautes
terres ; redescendant au mois de Mai lorsque la neige le permet.
Il n’y a guère plus d’une génération, on faisait soi-même dans
ces fermes ses vêtements, son savon, ses bougies, on tuait trois fois
par an sa viande : bœuf, veau ou cochon ; le reste du temps on se
reposait. Aujourd’hui on s’achète des vêtements dans les magasins,
des savons brevetés et du pétrole. Bien mieux, c’est parmi ces
tentes que les énormes biographies des Présidents à reliure rouge
et dorées sur tranche, les Bibles qui coûtent vingt livres et servent à
toute une famille, accompagnées d’extraits de mariage, de lettres de
faire part, de certificats de baptême et des centaines d’authentiques
gravures sur acier, se vendent le mieux.
C’est également ici, mais dans les sentiers moins fréquentés,
que le charlatan ambulant (celui qui vend les pilules électriques,
marque brevetée, et toutes sortes de remèdes pour les maladies
nerveuses) se partage le champ d’exploitation avec le marchand de
graines, de fruits, et le vendeur de pilules pour bestiaux. Ici on se
drogue pas mal, je crois, car il faut être bien pauvre pour ne pas
connaître la prostration nerveuse. Voilà comment il se fait que le
charlatan conduit un couple de chevaux traînant un camion peint aux
gaies couleurs muni d’une capote, et parfois emmène avec lui sa
femme. Je n’ai rencontré qu’une seule fois un colporteur à pied.
C’était un vieillard tout tremblant de paralysie qui poussait devant lui
quelque chose ressemblant tout à fait à une de ces petites carrioles
employées pour les pompes funèbres d’un enterrement pauvre. Sa
marchandise consistait en épingles, galon, parfumerie et
assaisonnements variés. Il fallait se servir soi-même, car il ne
pouvait rien faire de ses mains et il vous racontait une histoire
interminable où il embrouillait à la fois le récit de la cession faite par
contrat d’une ferme à quelqu’un de sa famille avec le sentiment
d’orgueil qu’il éprouvait à pouvoir couvrir, à son âge, tant d’étapes
chaque jour. Il parcourait parfois six kilomètres. Ce n’était pas un Roi
Lear, comme la cession de la ferme aurait pu le faire supposer, mais
un être marqué au cachet de la tribu du Juif Errant ; vieux radoteur
tout tremblotant. Il n’en manque pas de son espèce, hongreurs et
gens de semblable acabit qui font de longues étapes, poussant
parfois jusqu’en Virginie, ou peu s’en faut, allant dans la direction du
nord jusqu’à ce qu’ils atteignent la frontière. Leur conversation et
leur bavardage leur tiennent partout lieu de paiement en espèces.
Pourtant les chemineaux sont rares — ce n’est pas un mal — car
l’article américain correspond assez exactement à ces tribus
errantes et criminelles que l’on voit dans l’Inde. C’est un gredin
pilleur, trop avisé pour travailler. Piètre endroit que Vermont pour
mendier la nuit tombée près d’une ferme ! Ah oui !
Au printemps les Bohémiens s’installent près de la rivière,
enfermant leurs chevaux à la manière de leur tribu. Ils ont le type
bohémien, et certains de vieux noms bohémiens, mais ils
reconnaissent qu’ils ont pas mal de sang de gentil dans les veines.
L’hiver a chassé tous ces gens réellement intéressants vers le
sud et, dans quelques semaines, si la neige donne tant soit peu, les
fermes éloignées n’auront plus de visites, sauf celle du traîneau
encapuchonné du Docteur. Ce n’est pas une petite affaire que
d’exercer son métier de docteur ici pendant les mois d’hiver lorsque
les neiges sont amoncelées pour de bon et où une paire de chevaux
peut fort bien s’enfoncer jusqu’à l’arçon. C’est parfois quatre
chevaux par jour que l’on emploie, jusqu’à épuisement complet, car
ce sont de braves gens.
Dans le grand silence produit par la neige naît, très
probablement, la partie non la moins importante de cette conscience
propre à la Nouvelle Angleterre dont parlent ses enfants dans leurs
récits. Il reste beaucoup de temps pour penser, et penser est une
chose très dangereuse. La conscience, la peur, les lectures mal
digérées et, peut-être aussi une nourriture pas très bonne ont libre
jeu. Un homme, et surtout une femme, peuvent aisément entendre
des voix étranges, comme la parole du Seigneur, parmi ces
montagnes mortes, avoir des visions et des rêves, des révélations et
des épanchements spirituels et finir (pareilles choses se sont vues)
d’une façon assez lamentable dans ces grandes maisons auprès de
la rivière de Connecticut qui ont été tendrement baptisées La
Retraite. La haine s’engendre tout aussi bien que la Religion, la
haine entre voisins ; profonde, qui plonge jusqu’aux racines de l’être,
qui résulte de mille petits détails accumulés, que l’on couve et fait
éclore près du poêle lorsque la conversation se fait à deux ou trois
dans les longues soirées. Il serait fort intéressant d’obtenir les
statistiques des réveils religieux, des assassinats, et de découvrir
combien se sont accomplis au printemps. Mais, pour les gens
indemnes de folie, l’hiver est un long régal pour les yeux. Dans
d’autres pays on sait que la neige est un ennui qui arrive et puis s’en
va, que l’on malmène et gâche finalement. Ici elle reste sur le sol
plus longtemps que n’importe quelle récolte, parfois de Novembre à
Avril, et pendant trois mois la vie se déroule au rythme des
clochettes de traîneaux qui ne sont pas, comme l’insinua certain
visiteur du Sud, objets de parade, mais des sauvegardes. L’homme
qui s’avise de conduire sans elles n’est pas aimé. La neige est un
baromètre fidèle, prédisant qu’on pourra se livrer au sport en
traîneau ou se calfeutrer étroitement dans les casernes. Elle est le
seul engrais que reçoivent les pâturages pierreux ; elle couvre la
terre d’un manteau et empêche le gel de faire éclater les conduites
d’eau. Elle est la meilleure, j’avais failli écrire la seule, faiseuse de
routes dans les États. Mais d’autre part elle est capable de se
dresser dans la nuit et d’ordonner aux populations tels les Égyptiens
de se tenir immobiles. Elle sait arrêter les courriers, annihiler tous les
horaires, éteindre les lampes de vingt villes et tuer un homme en vue
même de son seuil ou de son bétail affamé. Quiconque s’est trouvé
dans une tourmente, même atténuée, comme la Nouvelle Angleterre
sait en faire, ne s’avise de parler à la légère de la neige.
Représentez-vous quarante-huit heures de vent hurlant, avec le
thermomètre bien près de zéro, creusant et soulevant la neige
nouvellement tombée sur cent kilomètres. L’air est comme rempli de
projectiles qui fouettent le visage, et à dix mètres les arbres sont
invisibles. Le pied glisse sur un rocher poli et noir comme
l’obsidienne où le vent a mis à nu quelque coin exposé de la route et
sa glace boueuse du début de l’hiver. Le pas suivant que vous faites
vous enfonce jusqu’à la hanche et davantage, car ici c’est un mur
qu’on n’a pas vu qui refoule l’élan de la neige flottante et sifflotante.
Voici à un moment une crête escarpée qui se dresse en travers de la
route ; le vent vient de changer tant soit peu, aussitôt tout s’écroule
comme le sable dans un sablier, ne laissant qu’un trou de tourbillons
blancs. Il y a une accalmie et vous pouvez apercevoir alors toute la
surface des champs se ruant furieusement à l’assaut en une
direction donnée, marée qui part d’entre les troncs des arbres. Et
pendant que vous regardez, les creux des pâturages se remplissent,
se vident, puis se remplissent et se vident de nouveau. Les rochers
rappellent un instant le flanc nu d’un vaisseau chassé par la
tempête, puis blanchissant, disparaissent de la vue. Près de la
grange, du côté sous le vent, dansent d’irresponsables démons de la
neige, là où trois rafales se rencontrent, ou bien vont en titubant
jusqu’au large où ils sont immédiatement abattus par le grand vent.
Au plus fort de la tempête il n’y a ni ciel ni terre, mais seulement un
tourbillon fou qui pourrait brasser un homme. Les distances prennent
des proportions fantastiques de cauchemar ; ce qui en été ne
constituait qu’une course pouvant être effectuée nu-tête, en une
minute, devient une lutte haletante d’une demi-heure où chaque pied
de terrain n’est conquis que dans l’intervalle d’une accalmie. C’est
par un temps pareil que les granges à la lourde charpente en bois
geignent, poutre contre poutre, comme les vaisseaux au milieu d’une
mer houleuse. Et les provisions de foin pour l’hiver se recouvrent de
longues raies de poussière de neige amenée par le vent, tandis que
les bœufs dans l’étable bien au-dessous cognent de leurs cornes et
gémissent mal à l’aise.
Le lendemain est bleu, sans un souffle, et absolument immobile.
Les fermiers se frayent à coups de pelle un chemin jusqu’à leurs
bêtes, attachent au moyen de chaînes leurs grands socs au traîneau
le plus lourd et prennent tous les bœufs qu’Allah leur a accordés. Ils
les conduisent tandis que le soc en labourant creuse un sillon dans
lequel un cheval peut avancer, et les bœufs à force de s’enfoncer
coup sur coup jusqu’au ventre finissent par pouvoir s’agripper. La
route une fois faite est un double ruisseau profond entre des murs
de neige de trois pieds de haut où, comme c’est la coutume, les
véhicules les plus lourds ont le droit de passage. Celui qui a une
voiture plus légère devra plonger jusqu’à la ceinture et mener sa
bête récalcitrante jusque dans l’amoncellement, se fiant à la
Providence pour maintenir en équilibre son traîneau.
Dans les grandes villes où l’on étouffe, crache et halète, la
grosse neige se change en dégel. Ici elle reste immobile, mais le
soleil, la pluie et le vent se mettent à la travailler, de crainte que la
couleur et la texture n’en restent invariables. La pluie revêt le tout
d’une croûte granulée ; dans ce chagrin d’un vert blanc les arbres se
reflètent légèrement. De lourdes brumes montent et descendent et
créent une sorte de mirage, jusqu’au moment où elles se tassent et
enserrent les collines aux reflets métalliques, et alors vous savez
quelle apparence doit présenter la lune à un de ceux qui l’habitent.
Au crépuscule, de nouveau, les rebords aplatis des rochers, les
replis et les plissements des hautes terres prennent l’aspect de
sable mouillé, de quelque énorme et mélancolique plage tout au
bout du monde, et lorsque le jour rencontre la nuit, c’est un véritable
pays de fantômes. Au couchant, dernier reste de la journée morte,
s’étalent, nacrées et d’un rouge de rouille, d’interminables étendues
de rivage attendant que revienne le reflux ; à l’est, nuit noire parmi

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THE AMERICAN SYSTEM OF

C H RIS TO PHER E. SM ITH

Australia ● Brazil ● Mexico ● Singapore ● United Kingdom ● United States

Senior Content Developer: Shelley Murphy

Senior Marketing Manager: Mark Linton

Photo Development Editor: Sarah Evertson

Photo Researcher: Sanjay Vishwakarma,

Text Researcher: Kanchana Vijayarangan,

Senior Art Director: Helen Bruno

Printed in the United States of America

The late George F. Cole, Ph.D., was Professor Emeritus of

Trained as a lawyer and social scientist, Christopher

Christina DeJong, Ph.D., is Associate Professor of Criminal

PART 1 CRIME AND THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM 1

PART 2 POLICE 195

PART 3 COURTS 385

PART 4 CORRECTIONS 555

PART 5 THE JUVENILE JUSTICE SYSTEM 739

PA RT 1 CRIME AND THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM 1

CIVIC ENGAGEMENT: Your Role in the System 85

5 POLICE 196 6 POLICE OFFICERS

TECHNOLOGY AND CRIMINAL JUSTICE: Ransomware: Plain View Doctrine 351

10 PROSECUTION AND DEFENSE 424 Jury 490

12 PUNISHMENT AND SENTENCING

11 DETERMINATION OF GUILT: PLEA

The Sentencing Process 541 Attitudes and Values of Judges 547

Assaultive Behavior and Inmate Characteristics 689

PA RT 5 THE JUVENILE JUSTICE SYSTEM 739

Criminal justice is a complex subject encompassing

Online Instructor’s Resource Manual

Debating and addressing these questions intelligently requires informa-

A Gallup Poll published in November 2015 revealed that 36 percent of

The Main Themes of This Book

Many Americans are fearful of walking

Biho Song/EyeEm/Getty Images

punishing offenders in the community and for reintegrating former prisoners

aspects of law enforcement administration. Clearly, criminal justice pro-

Crime and Justice as Public Policy Issues

EVIDENCE-BASED PR ACTICE AND POLICY

THE CHALLENGES OF EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICE:

The Role of Public Opinion

advocate programs to reduce poverty, increase educational opportunities for

Crime and Justice in a Democracy

✔P OI N T 1. What are evidence-based practices?

Crime Control versus Due Process

In a democracy, citizens must take

Due Process: Law as a Value

✔P OI N T 4. What are the main features of the crime control model?

The Politics of Crime and Justice

NEW DIRECTIONS FOR CRIME POLICY IN THE TRUMP ADMINISTRATION

✔P OI N T 6. At what level of government are many justice officials elected to office?

Criminal justice policies are decided

Citizens and Criminal Justice Policy

CR IM IN A L J U S T I C E A ND THE RISK OF MISINFORM ATION

THE CHALLENGE OF IDENTIFYING FACTS AMID A FLOOD OF INFORMATION

New Oxford (U. S. A.), Juin-Juillet 1892.