Levelling

2.1.
Linear Measurements – Chain Surveying

Chain Surveying- only linear measurements are made in the field, suitable for surveys of
small extent on open ground to secure data for exact description of boundaries of a piece of
land or to take simple details, principle of triangulation
Survey stations: prominent point on the chain line and can be either at the beginning of the
chain line or at the end is main station. Subsidiary/tie station are points between the main
stations. Marked by pegs on soft ground. On roads, streets etc., marked by making two or
preferably three tie measurements with respect to some permanent reference objects near
the station .
Survey lines: Lines joining the main survey stations.
Base line is the biggest of main survey line and various survey lines are plotted with
reference to this.
Check/proof lines: lines run in the field to check the accuracy of the work. Length of the
check line measured in the field must agree with its length on the plan. It may be laid by
joining vertex of the triangle to any point on the opposite side or by joining two points on any
two sides of a triangle. Each triangle must have a check line.
Department of Mining Engineering, IIT(ISM) Dhanbad
2.1. Linear Measurements – Chain Surveying
Tie lines: line which joins the subsidiary or tie stations on
the main line. Main objective is to take details of nearby
objects and also serves as check line.


Arrangement of survey lines: Let us take case of plotting a simple triangle ABC. Let a
and b represent points A and B correctly plotted with respect to each other and C be the
correct position of point c to be plotted. Let there be some error (e) in measurement of side
AC so that c’ is the wrong position. Corresponding displacement of plotted position of C will
depend upon angle ACB.
When angle ACB = 90⁰ then displacement of C will be
equal to error in side AC
nearly 1.15 times the error in side AC
equal to twice of the error in side AC
Therefore, for accurate result angle ACB must be 90⁰.
Equilateral in case equal liability of errors in all sides Error in (a), (b) and (c) is e, 1.15e
No angle should be less than 30⁰ and more than 120⁰ to and 2e respectively
get a well-proportional or well-shaped triangle otherwise ill.
Conditions to be fulfilled by survey lines or survey stations
 Survey stations must be mutually visible
 Survey lines must be as few as possible to plot framework conveniently.
 Framework must have one or two base lines. If one base line is used, it must run
along length and through middle of the area. If two base lines are used, intersect to
form letter X.
 Lines must run through level ground as possible.
 Main-line should form well-conditioned triangles.
 Each triangle or portion of skeleton must be provided with sufficient check lines.
 All lines from which offsets are taken should be placed close to the corresponding
surface features so as to get short offsets.
 As far as possible, survey lines should not pass through obstacles.
 Fall within boundaries of the property to be surveyed to avoid trespassing.
Locating ground features: Offsets
 An offset is lateral distance of an object or ground feature measured from a
survey line.
 Point or object is located by measurement of a distance and angle (usually 90⁰)
from a point on the chain line.
 When the angle of offset is 90⁰, it is called perpendicular offset or sometime
simply offset and when the angle is other than 90⁰ then it is called oblique offset.
 Another method of locating offset is method of ties in
which distance is measured from two separate points on
chain line such that three points form as nearly as possible
equilateral triangle
 Method of perpendicular offsets involves less measuring
on ground
Locating ground features: Offsets
 Offsets should be taken in order of their chainages.
 In general, an offset should be taken wherever the outline of an object changes.
 In case of straight wall or boundary, an offset at each end is sufficient.
 To locate irregular bodies, sufficient offsets at suitable interval and at such
points where the direction suddenly changes.
 In case of nallah, offsets should be taken to both the sides of its width.
 However, in case of regular curves with constant width, offsets should be taken
to the centre line only and width should also be measured.

Taking Perpendicular Offsets
 Leader holds zero of tape at P to be located and follower carries tape box and
swings tape along the chain.
 Length of offset is shortest distance from the object to the chain obtained by
swinging the tape about the object as centre called swing offset.
Degree of precision in measuring offsets
 Normally, limit of precision in plotting is 0.25 mm.
 If scale of plotting is 1 cm = 2 m, 0.25 mm on paper is 0.05 m on
ground.
 Offsets should be measured to the nearest 5 cm.

Long Offsets
 Survey work can be accurately and expeditiously accomplished if the objects
and features that are to be surveyed are near to survey lines.
 Aim should always be to make the offset as small as possible.
 Long offset may be largely obviated by judiciously placing the main lines of the
survey near the object or by running subsidiary lines from the main lines.
 Triangle abc run to locate deep bend of outline of
fence, base of triangle is on main line and bd is check
line

2.1. Linear Measurements
Field book- oblong book of size 20 cm × 12 cm, opens lengthwise, chain or tape
measurements are entered, single line (large scale) and double line (ordinary work, distance
entered between two lines of page), starts from bottom of page and work upwards, entered
left/right
Single line booking for comparatively large scale and detailed dimension work

Double line booking: used for ordinary work, distance along the chain being entered
between the two lines of the page

Booking field notes

All distances along the chain line i.e. chainages are
entered on the central line or in the central column
Offsets are written opposite to central line on the right
or left of the column according to their ground
positions with respect to the chain line.
Close to the offsets, their sketches are drawn to guide
the draftsman to draw them correctly.
Tie or subsidiary stations along a chain line should be
indicated by a circular an oval around their chainages.

Field work-
Equipment
20 m chain, 10 arrows, ranging and offset rods, tape (10 or 20 m length), setting
right angle instrument, field book, pencil, plumb bob, pegs, wooden hammer,
chalks etc.
Steps
i. Reconnaissance (whole to part) identify the best positions by walking around
ii. Marking and fixing survey stations
iii. Running survey lines

Problems on Entering Records in Field Book
While measuring a chain line AB, the following offsets
are taken. How would you enter the field book?
(a) A telegraph post is 10 m perpendicularly from 2.5 m
chainage to the right of the chain line.
(b) A road crosses obliquely from left to right at 10 m
and 14 m chainage. Perpendicular offsets are 2 m and
3 m to the side of the road from 5 m and 20 m
chainage respectively.
(c) A tube-well is 5 m perpendicularly from 30 m
chainage to the left of the chain line.
(d) Total chainage of AB is 45 m.
Field Work
Equipment- a 20 m chain, 10 arrows, ranging rods and offset rods, a tape (10/20
m length), instrument (cross staff or optical square) for setting 90⁰, field book,
pencil for note-keeping, plumb bob, pegs, wooden hammer, chalks etc.
Chain survey- Steps

(a) Reconnaissance – work from whole to part, fix best positions of survey lines
and stations, reference sketch of ground prepared by showing principal
features such as building etc.
(b) Marking and fixing survey stations
(c) Running survey lines- chaining started from base line

Instruments for setting out right angles
Cross staff- consists of a frame or box with two pairs of vertical slits and is
mounted on a pole shod for fixing in the ground
i. Open- two pairs of vertical slits giving two lines of sights at right angles to
each other
ii. French- hollow octagonal box, vertical sighting slits are cut in middle of each
face such that lines between the centre of opposite slits make angle of 45⁰ with
each other, possible to set 45⁰/90⁰.

Optical square- more convenient and accurate than cross-staff.
 consists of circular box with three slits E, F and G
 in line with openings E and G, a glass silvered at the
top and unsilvered at the bottom is fixed facing the
opening E
 opposite to the opening F, a silvered glass is fixed at
A making an angle of 45⁰ to the previous glass
 a ray from ranging rod at Q passes through lower
unsilvered portion of the mirror at B and seen
directly by eye at slit E
 another ray from object at P is received by the mirror
at A and reflected towards mirror at B which reflects
it towards eye. Thus, images of P and Q are visible
at B.
 If both images are in same vertical line, PD and QD
will be right angle to each other

Prism square- works on same principle as that of optical

square, more modern and precise, has merit that no
adjustment is required since angle between reflecting
surfaces (45⁰) cannot vary.
Site square- to set straight lines and offset line at 90⁰,

consists of a cylindrical metal case containing two
telescopes set at 90⁰ to each other, a fine setting screw
near the base, circular spirit level at top and knurled ring at
base, used in conjunction with a datum rod screwed into
base of instrument.

Why angular measurements?
Chain Surveying = Area to be surveyed is
comparatively small/fairly flat
But when the area to be surveyed is Large,

Undulating and Crowded with many details
and triangulation is not possible
 Compass Surveying is used

What is a magnetic compass
• Earth's Magnetic Field (compass
needles). Earth is like a giant
magnet with a North and South
Pole.
• The magnetic North and South

Pole are not aligned with the
Geographic North and South
Pole.
• The Geographic North Pole is

defined by the latitude 90° N and
is the axis of the Earth's rotation.
Compass Survey:
• It is the branch of Surveying in which direction of survey lines are measured with a compass and length of the line are
determined with Chain or Tape
• Generally compass is used to establish traverse in the field
• Traverse is a framework consisting of series of straight lines connected together forming a closed or open polygon.
B
A C CHAIN SURVEY TRAVERSE SURVEY
Only Linear Linear and Angular

D Measurements Measurements
• Points such as A, B, C are called as Traverse Points and the line joining Framework consist of Framework consist of
these points are called as “Traverse Line” Network of Triangles Open or Close Polygon
Check line on Proof line Check lines and Proof lines
• At each Traverse Station ANGLES are measured are required to check the are not required as
accuracy of plot Accuracy is checked by
method of Adjustment.
• Depending on instrument used traverse can be classified as:
Used for smaller area Used for larger area when
I. Compass Traverse when accuracy desired is accuracy desired is high
II. Plane Table Traverse low
III. Theodolite Traverse
Principle of Compass Surveying:
• Basic Principle: TRAVERSING = Series of connected lines.
• Recommended for large areas
Open Traverse
• Not recommended for areas where local attraction is Close Traverse
suspected due to the presence of magnetic substances
like steel structures, iron ore deposits, electric cables etc.
 In traversing, the direction of the survey line is measured

by the use of a measuring instruments like magnetic
compass, Theodolite, Plane Table etc. while the lengths
are measured by chaining or taping.
 When the direction is measured using magnetic compass,
then “Compass Traversing”
 A compass is a small instrument essentially consisting of a
magnetic needle, graduated circle and a line of sight http://n4.sdlcdn.com/imgs/a/m/5/Artshai-Small-Pocket-
Brass-Magnetic-SDL569972361-1-d04b6.jpg
How to choose one should go for open traverse or
closed traverse?
1. Open Traverse:
• It is a traverse which starts from a point of known location and
closes at either at the same point or another point of known
location.
• It can be checked by method of chords or astronomical
observations
• (e.g.) If river will come in between
• 2. Close Traverse:
• A close traverse is a one which starts from a point of known
location and closes at another point of unknown location.
• If a ground is their, a map is plotted, and area of boundary could
be determined.
• Close traverse is better because we can use a CHECK in this case
as ∑θ we know theoretically.
Direction of the line:
• Direction: In order to get the location of a point in surveying on, above or
below the surface of the earth, it is necessary to know its distances from a
point / station along a line whose direction is known.
• The direction of a line is defined by a horizontal angle with respect to a

reference line.
• Depending on the type of reference, the direction of the line is termed as
relative or absolute.
• In relative direction, the reference line does not remain fixed over time.
Location of the point (P) by
distance and direction
Relative Direction
• The direction of a line is expressed in different ways depending upon the type of survey. It is depends on
included angle, deflection angle etc.
• These quantities may be observed directly in the field or can be obtained indirectly by computation.
Interior Angle
In any closed polygon, the direction of any side can be depicted by the angle it
makes with its adjacent side. This angle measured clockwise or anti-clockwise is
known as interior angle. Figure shows interior angles at the stations A, B, C, D and E
of a closed polygon. The direction of the side AB can be obtained either of the
included angles at vertices such as A, B etc.
Deflection Angle
The angle between a line and the prolongation of the preceding line is called a
deflection angle.
Figure shows deflection angles. In this, the line BC is having a right deflection angle.
CD does have left deflection angle. Deflection angles may have values between 0°
and 180°, but usually they are not employed for angles greater than 90°.
Angles measured in Traversing or in Compass Surveying
• The direction of a
line is expressed in
different ways
depending upon
the type of survey.
It is depicted by
bearing, included
angle, deflection
angle etc.
• These quantities
may be observed
directly in the field
or can be obtained
indirectly by
computation.
Checks in closed traverse
• 1. The Sum of Interior angles of n-sided closed traverse = (2n-4) x 90o
• 2. Sum of Exterior angles of a n-sided closed traverse = (2n+4) x 90o
• Algebraic sum of deflection angle should be equal to 360o clockwise
•  Clockwise deflection angles = + ve, and
•  Anticlockwise deflection angle = – ve
Numerical-1: The data from a closed traverse survey PQRS (run in the clockwise direction) are given in the
table below. The closing error for the traverse PQRS (in degrees) is? GATE 2019
Line Included Angle
PQ 88
OR 92
RS 94
SP 89
Meridian
• Some reference direction based on which
direction of line is measured.
• The reference line with respect to which
horizontal angle of survey line are measured is
known as meridian.
• There are different types of meridians based on
the type of reference.
1. True Meridian
2. Magnetic Meridian
3. Grid Meridian
4. Arbitrary Meridian
• True meridian
– Line passing through geographic north and south pole and observer’s
position
– Position is fixed
– Established by astronomical observations
– Used for large extent and accurate survey (land boundary)
Meridian
• Magnetic meridian
• Line passing through the direction shown by freely
suspended magnetic needle
• Affected by many things i.e. magnetic substances
• Position varies with time Observer’s Geographic north
position pole
• Assumed meridian
• Line passing through the direction towards some
permanent point of reference
Geographic south
• Used for survey of limited extent pole
Disadvantage
• Meridian can’t be re-established if points lost.
Convergence of Meridian
• Meridians on the surface of the earth converge
towards each other as the distance from the
equator towards either of the poles increases.
Grid Meridian
• To eliminate the effect of convergence of meridian, a meridian through a
station is adopted as a reference meridian and all other meridians are
considered parallel to the reference meridian.
• Together, all of these are known as grid meridians and the reference
meridian is known as central meridian.
Bearing
• The horizontal angle measured in clockwise or anticlockwise
direction between the meridian and the survey line is termed as
bearing. Different types of bearings are defined based on
different criteria.
• The true bearing to a point is the angle measured in degrees in a
clockwise direction from the north line. We will refer to the true
bearing simply as the bearing. The four main directions of a compass
are known as cardinal points.
•
For example, the bearing of point P is 065º which is the number of
degrees in the angle measured in a clockwise direction from the north line
to the line joining the centre of the compass at O with the
point P (i.e. OP).
The bearing of point Q is 300º which is the number of degrees in the

angle measured in a clockwise direction from the north line to the line
joining the centre of the compass at O with the point Q (i.e. OQ).
Types of Bearing
• Based on meridian
• Azimuth
• Magnetic Bearing
• Grid Bearing
• Arbitrary Bearing
• Based on direction
• Fore Bearing
• Back Bearing
• Based on designation
• Whole Circle Bearing
• Quadrantal Bearing (or Reduced bearing)
1. Based on meridian 1. Azimuth
• The azimuth or true bearing of a line is its
horizontal angle from the North direction
of the true meridian measured clockwise.
1. Based on meridian 2.Magnetic Bearing
• The horizontal angle which a line makes with the magnetic meridian
measured from Magnetic North line is called magnetic bearing. It varies with
time.
• Magnetic meridian of a line can be measured in the field by using prismatic
compass (Figure).
• The horizontal angle between a line and a grid meridian is called grid bearing.
1. Based on meridian 3. Grid bearing
1. Based on meridian 4. Arbitrary Bearing
The horizontal angle of a line measured with respect to an arbitrary meridian is called arbitrary bearing.
2. Based on Designation
The angle representing bearing is designated depending on the measurement of the angle either in clockwise
and anti-clockwise direction measured either from the North or from the South limb whichever provides
minimum angle
• Whole circle bearing

• Quadrantal bearing (or Reduced bearing)
Whole Circle Bearing (WCB)
• The whole circle bearing (W.C.B) of a
line is the horizontal angle measured
clockwise from the North limb of the
meridian. It varies from 0° to 360°
• In Figure, The whole circle bearing

(W.C.B) of the line OA is 52° and that of
line OB is 208°.
Reduced/ Quadrantal Bearing (RB/QB)
• The quadrantal bearing (Q.B.) also known as
reduced bearing (RB) of a line is defined by the
acute angle which the line makes with the
meridian. Thus, it depends on the quadrant in
which the line presents.
• It is measured in clockwise or anti-clockwise

direction either from the North or from the
South limb of the meridian whichever is nearer
and thus provides minimum angle.
• Thus, reduced bearing of a line is designated by

the direction from which it is measured (i.e.,
either N for North or S for South) followed by
the value of the angle at the end, the direction
to which it is measured (i.e., either E for East or
W for West).
Conversion of WCB to QB (RB)
• Draw and convert … you don’t need any formula.
Reduced Bearing/ Whole Circle Bearing
Quadrantal Bearing
(i) N 30o50’ E (i)15o20’
(ii) S 39o35’ E (ii) 159o30’
(iii) S 15o85’ W (iii) 236o20’
(iv) N 64o30’ W (iv) 270o30’
259030’ 4. N 89020’W 4.
195045’ 3. S 56020’ W 3.
140025’ 2. S 20030’ E 2.
30050’ 1. N 15020’E 1.
3. Based on Direction
• Any straight line has two diametrically opposite directions.
• The direction in which a survey work proceeds is known as forward direction and the
opposite direction is known as backward direction.
• There are two types of bearing depending upon the direction of the line for which it is
being is determined.
• Fore Bearing
• Back Bearing
Fore Bearing In Figure(right), fore bearing of the line AB
is given by NOB.
• The bearing of a line measured in the
forward direction (i.e., along the progress
of survey) is known as fore bearing.
• Fore bearing = Back bearing ± 180°
Fore Bearing of a line

Back Bearing
• The bearing of a line measured in the backward direction (i.e., opposite to
the direction of progress of survey) is known as back bearing.
• In Figure , the back bearing of the line AB is NOA (= 223°). NOA is also called
bearing of the line BA. Thus,
• Back Bearing = Fore Bearing ± 180°
Fore Bearing (FB) and Back Bearing (BB)
Fore bearing and Back bearing depends on Direction of Traverse
θB B
If FB<180o If FB>180o
Line AB Line BA
θB B BB = θA FB = θB
FB = θA FB = θB
θA BB = FB + 180o BB = FB - 180o
BB = θB BB = θA
A
θA
A
Internal/ External Angle (θ) = | FB – BB | A FB

BB
Difference of fore bearing and Back bearing at any station is
either equal to Internal angle or External angle θ FB
A
BB
θ
Internal or External Angle (θ)
Closed traverse
Fore bearing and back bearing conversion
• The fore bearing of line AB, BC, and CD are respectively:
• AB: 15°30’ Ans:
195°30’
• BC: 112°30’ 292°30’
• EG: 260 ° 20’ 80°20’
• Determine back bearing.
• Find the FB from back bearing for the following lines

Ans:
• AB: 75 °30’ 255°30’
• CD: 110 °30’ 290°30’
40°30’
• EF: 220 °30’
2.2. Angular Measurements
Calculation of angle from bearings
 Angle between AB and AC = θ2 – θ1 = FB of AB – FB
of AC, both bearing measured from a common point
A
 Angle α = (180⁰ + θ1) - θ2
= BB of previous line – FB of next line
Clock wise Anti Clock wise

θi = BB - FB θi = FB - BB
If θi < 0 then add 360o

Determine Interior Angle in Traverse
A FB
• Internal/ External Angle (θ) = | FB – BB |
BB
θ
Q. The bearings of the lines OA, OB, OC, OD are 30°30′, 140°15′, 220°45′ and
310°30′, respectively. Find the angles AOB, BOC and COD.
• AOB = Bearing of OB – bearing of OA

= 140°15′ – 30°30′ = 109°45′
• BOC = Bearing of OC – bearing of OB
= 220°45′ – 140°15′ = 80°30′
• COD = Bearing of OD – bearing of OC
= 310°30′ – 220°45′ = 89°45′
1. How to measure Included Angle from Bearing of
the Survey Line?
• The included angle between two lines may either be an interior angle or an
exterior angle
A FB
BB B Clock wise Anti Clock wise
O
∠ θi = BB - FB ∠θi = FB - BB
θ
B
O
A FB
BB
θ
Ques- The following fore bearings were observed with a compass. Calculate the interior
angles
Line- AB (60⁰ 30’), BC (122⁰ 0’), CD (46⁰ 0’), DE (205⁰ 30’), EA (300⁰ 0’)
Sol: Included angle = Bearing of previous line – bearing of next line
Angle A = Bearing of AE – Bearing of AB
= (300⁰ - 180⁰) - 60⁰ 30’ = 59⁰ 30’
Angle B = (60⁰ 30’ + 180⁰) - 122⁰ = 118⁰ 30’
Angle C = (122⁰ + 180⁰) - 46⁰ = 256⁰
Angle D = (46⁰ + 180⁰) - 205⁰ 30’ = 20⁰ 30’
Angle E = (205⁰ 30’ - 180⁰) - 300⁰ + 360⁰ = 85⁰ 30’
Total Sum = 540⁰ 0’
Check: (n – 2) x 180⁰ = 3 x 180⁰ = 540⁰

Calculation of bearings from angle
 Bearing of line AB = θ1
 Bearing of next line BC = θ2 = θ1 + α - 180⁰
 Bearing of next line CD = θ3 = θ2 + β - 180⁰
 Bearing of next line DE = θ4 = θ3 + γ - 180⁰
 Bearing of next line EF = θ5 = θ4 + δ + 180⁰
(θ1 + α) (θ2 + β ) (θ3 + γ) are more than 180⁰ while (θ4 + δ) is less than 180⁰
Bearing of next line = add measured clockwise angles to the bearings of the
previous line.
If the sum is more than 180⁰ deduct 180⁰.
If the sum is less than 180⁰ add 180⁰.
In a closed traverse, clockwise angles

will be obtained if we proceed round the
traverse in anti-clockwise direction.
Q. The fore bearings of the lines AB, BC, CD and DE, are 45°30 ′ 120°15 ′, 200°30
′ and 280°45 ′, respectively. Find angles B, C and D.
• Interior B = BB of AB – FB of BC
= (45°30′ + 180°0′) – 120°15′
= 225°30′ – 120°15′ = 105°15′
• Interior C = BB of BC – FB of CD
= (120°15′ + 180°0′) – 200°30′
= 300°15′ – 200°30′ = 99°45′
• Interior D = BB of CD – FB of DE Clock wise Anti Clock wise
= (200°30′ – 180°0′) – 280°45′ ∠ θi = BB - FB ∠θi = FB - BB
= 20°30′ – 280°45′ = – 260°15′
• While traversing, If the included angle is negative then 360o is added to it.
Interior D = – 260°15′ + 360°0′ = 99°45′
A traverse ABCDA is made in the form of a square taking in clockwise order. If the bearing of
AB is 120°30 ′, find the bearing of the other sides.
FB of AB = 120°30′
FB of BC = BB of AB – ∠B
= (120°30′ + 180°0′) – 90°0′
= 300°30′ – 90°0′ = 210°30′
FB of CD = BB of BC + exterior ∠C While traversing, If the included

= (210°30′ – 180°0′) + (360° – 90°) angle is negative then 360o is
= 30°30′ + 270°0′ = 300°30′ added to it.
FB of DA = BB of CD – ∠D
= (300°30′ – 180°0′) – 90°0′
= 120°30′ – 90°0′ = 30°30′
FB of AB = BB of DA – ∠A
= (30°30′ + 180°0′) – 90°0′
= 210°30′ – 90°0′ = 120°30′ (checked)
∠θi = BB - FB ∠θi = FB - BB
Numerical 3: Following are the bearings taken in a closed compass traverse. Compute the
Angles and correct them for observational errors
Lines F.B. B.B.

AB S37o30’E N37o30’W
BC S43o15’W N44o15’E
CD N73o00’W S72o15’E
DE N12o45’E S13o15’W
EA N60o00’E S59o00’W
Angles Calculated Corrected Corrected

Value Value Value
A 263o30’ ∟A +15’ 263o45’ Total Error = 1o15’ = 75’
Correction for each angle = 75’/5 = 15’
B 260o45’ ∟B +15’ 261o00’
C 242o45’ ∟C +15’ 243o00’ Clock wise Anti Clock wise
D 265o00’ ∟D +15’ 265o15’ ∠ θi = BB - FB ∠θi = FB - BB
E 226o45’ ∟E +15’ 227o00’ If θi < 0 then add 360o
Numerical: The followings are the fore and back bearings of the sides of a closed traverse:
Side FB BB Included Exterior Interior
Angle Angle
AB 150o15’ 330o15’
A 150o15’ 209o45’
BC 20o30’ 200o30’ B 309o45’ 50o15’
CD 295o45’ 115o45’ C 95o15’
DE 218o0’ 38o00’ D 102o15’
EA 120o30’ 300o30’ E 82o30’
Calculate the interior angles of the traverse.

D=218o0’
E=120o30’ C = 295o45’
∠ θi = BB - FB ∠θi = FB - BB
A=150o15’
B=20o30’
Ques- The following interior angles were measured with a sextant in a closed traverse. The
bearing of line AB was measured as 60⁰ 0’ with prismatic compass. Calculate the bearings
of all other line if angles A = 140⁰ 10’, B = 90⁰ 8’, C = 60⁰ 22’, D = 69⁰ 20’
Sol:
Bearing of AD = Bearing of BA + 140⁰ 10’ - 180⁰ = (60⁰ 0’ +
180⁰) + 140⁰ 10’ - 180⁰ = 200⁰ 10’ or, Bearing of DA = 20⁰ 10’
Bearing of DC = Bearing of AD + 69⁰ 20’ - 180⁰ = 89⁰ 30’ or,

Bearing of CD = 269⁰ 30’
Bearing of CB = Bearing of DC + 60⁰ 22’ + 180⁰ = 329⁰ 52’

or, Bearing of BC = 149⁰ 52’
Bearing of BA = Bearing of CB + 90⁰ 8’ - 180⁰ = 240⁰ or,

Bearing of AB = 60⁰ (check)

Magnetic Declination/ Departure
• The horizontal angle which a magnetic meridian makes with the true or astronomic meridian
is called the magnetic declination, or magnetic variation, departure of the line.
• If the north end of the compass needle deflects right of the true meridian, the declination is
said to be east (Figure a) and if it deflects to the left of the true meridian, the declination is
said to be west (Figure b). Declination varies from place to place and at any station time to
time.
(Figure a) (Figure b)
Source: www.cyberphysics.pwp.blueyonder.co.uk
Magnetic Declination/ Departure:
• Magnetic declination varies from time to time and also from place to place.
In India, ‘Survey of India’ department conducts astronomical survey and
publishes Isogonic Charts from which magnetic declinations at any point can
be found.
• The lines joining the points at which declination is the same at the given
time are called ‘Isogonic Lines’. Lines joining points of zero declinations are
called ‘Agonic Lines’.
Magnetic Declination
 Diurnal/Daily variation: During a period of 24 hours, difference in declination between
morning and afternoon is often as much as 10’ of arc. Factors: Locality, Season, Time, Year
 Annual variation: Yearly variation of period of 1 year, Declination has a yearly swing of
about 1’ or 2’ in amplitude.
 Secular variation: Periodic and roller-coaster (sine curve) pattern, swings like pendulum
 Irregular variation are due to what are known as magnetic storms, earthquakes and other
solar influences. Cannot be predicted and may occur anytime. Change of this kind
amounting to more than a degree have been observed.
Determination of True Bearing
 True bearing = Magnetic bearing Declination
Ques- The magnetic bearing of a line is 48⁰ 24’. Calculate the true
bearing if the magnetic declination is 5⁰ 38’ East.
Sol: Declination = + 5⁰ 38’ , True Bearing = 48⁰ 24’ + 5⁰ 38’

Ques- In an old map, a line AB was drawn to a magnetic bearing of 5⁰ 30’ the magnetic
declination at the time being 1⁰ East. To what magnetic bearing should the line be set
now if the present magnetic declination is 8⁰ 30’ East.
Sol: True Bearing = 5⁰ 30’ + 1⁰
Present declination = 8⁰ 30’ East (+)
True Bearing = Magnetic Bearing + 8⁰ 30’
Magnetic Bearing = 6⁰ 30’ - 8⁰ 30’ = - 2⁰ = 358⁰
Ques- Find the magnetic declination at a place if the magnetic bearing of the sun at
noon is (a) 184⁰ (b) 350⁰20’
Sol: (a) At noon sun is exactly on geographical meridian. Hence, the true bearing of the sun at
noon is zero or 180⁰ depending upon whether it is to the north or south of the place. Since MB
of sun is 184⁰, the true bearing will be 180⁰, TB = MB + Declination (Decl) or, Decl = -4⁰ (4⁰ W)
(b) Decl = 9⁰40’ E

The reduced bearing of a 10 m long line is N30oE. The departure of the line is
(a) 10.00m (b) 8.66 m (c) 7.52 m (d) 5.00 m
(GATE 2016, II- Shift) Ans: D
Correction for Declination
• When magnetic directions are used to obtain estimates for azimuth or an old
survey is required to be retraced, it is necessary to reduce the magnetic directions
to true bearings or azimuths by making use of declination for necessary
corrections.
True Bearing = Magnetic Bearing ± Magnetic Declination
If Declination is East + (ve)
If Declination is West - (ve)
Numerical: On an old map a line was drawn to a magnetic

bearing of 320o30’ , when the declination was 3o30’ W. Find
the present bearing of the line, if the declination is 4o15’ E.
Ans. 312o45’
Variation of Magnetic Declination
• Declination at a place will vary due to four causes:
Secular Variation Annual Variation Diurnal Variation Irregular Variation
Occurs continuously over It is a variation of declination It is a variation of It is caused due to storm,
long period of time in a year declination in one day volcanic eruption,
earthquake etc.
Approximately follows ‘Sine Caused due to revolution of Caused due to rotation of
Curve’ over a period of 300 earth around the sun. earth about its own axis.
years. Range = 1’ to 2’ Range = 3’’ to 12’’
Range = 5 to 10 min
Time period of variation may Annual variation is not same Diurnal variation is The irregular variation may
be even more as annual rate of change of (a) Greater in day than in be quite large, depending
secular variation nights, summer than in upon the magnitude of the
No reliable method to winter, at poles than at disturbances
measure equator
(b) It changes from year to
year
Earth Magnetic Field Declination from 1590 to 1990
Devices to measure Magnetic Declination?
• A compass is a small instrument essentially consisting of magnetic needle, a
graduated circle, and a line of sight.
• The compass cannot measure angle between two lines directly but can
measure angle of a line with reference to magnetic meridian at the instrument
station point is called magnetic bearing of a line.
• The angle between these two lines is then calculated by getting bearings of
these two lines.
1) The prismatic compass
2) The surveyor’s compass
The prismatic compass The surveyor’s compass

Prismatic compass
• Prismatic compass is a light and simple instrument used for rough surveys where
too much accuracy is not required and prismatic compass is used to the fine
bearing of the traversing and included angles between them.
• This compass can be used as a hand instrument or can be fitted on a tripod and
is a portable magnetic compass and the greatest advantage of the prismatic
compass is without changing the position the sighting and reading can be done
simultaneously.
The surveyor’s compass
• The surveyor’s compass is similar to the prismatic
compass except for the following points.
(a) There is no prism on it. Readings are taken with the
naked eye.
(b) It consists of an eye-vane (in place of prism) with a
fine sight slit.
(c) The graduated aluminium ring is attached to thee
circular box. It is not fixed to the magnetic needle.
(d) The magnetic needle moves freely over the pivot.
The needle shows the reading on the graduated ring.
(e) The ring is graduated from 0° to 90° in four
quadrants. 0° is marked at the north and south, and
90° at the east and west. The letters E (east) and W
(west) are interchanged from their true positions. The
figures are written the right way up.
(f) No mirror is attached to the object vane.
The surveyor’s compass
Prismatic Compass Surveyors Compass
• Graduation circle is fixed to broad edge type needle. Hence, • Graduation circle is fixed to the pointed needle. Hence, it will ot
it will rotate with the line of sight. rotates with the line of sight
• There is a prism at viewing end

• At viewing end there is no prism. There is only a slit
• Sighting and reading can be done simultaneously
• Sighting and viewing cannot be done simultaneously
• The magnetic needle do not act as an index
• Magnetic needle acts as index while reading
• The graduations are in whole circle bearing
• The graduations are in Quadrantal system
• Graduations are marked inverted since its reflection is read
through prism
• Graduations are marked directly. They are not inverted
• The reading is taken through a prism and reading and sighting is
taken from the same position • The reading is taken by directly viewing from top glass. But
sighting and reading is taken from the different position
• Tripod may or may not be used. It can be held on a stretched hand
also.
• Tripod is essential for using it. More Accurate
• Less Accurate
Instruments used for Compass Survey
1. Prismatic Compass/Surveyors Compass
2. Tape
3. Ranging Rods
4. Tripod
5. Arrows
Field procedure of observing Bearing from Compass

1. Fixing the compass with tripod stand
2. Centering
3. Levelling
4. Adjustment of prism
5. Observation of bearing
1. Fixing the compass with tripod stand
1. The tripod stand is placed at the required station with its legs well apart.
2. The prismatic compass is held by the left hand and placed over the threaded top of the
stand.
3. The compass box is turned clockwise by the right hand.
4. Thus the threaded base of the compass box is fixed with the threaded top of the stand.
2. Centering
1. The compass is centered by dropping a piece of stone from the bottom of the compass box.
2. Centering may also be done with the aid of a plumb bob held centrally below the compass box.
3. Levelling
1. Levelling is done with the help of a ball-and-socket arrangement provided on top of the
tripod stand.
2. This arrangement is loosened and the box is placed in such a way that the graduated ring
rotates freely without touching either the bottom of the box or the glass cover on top.
4. Adjustment of prism
• The prism is moved up and down till the figures on
the graduated ring are seen sharp and clear.
5. Observation of bearing
After centering and levelling the compass box over the station, the
ranging rod at the required station is bisected perfectly by sighting
through the slit of the prism and horsehair at the sight vane.
Field Procedure of Compass Traversing
1. Reconnaissance
2. Preparation of index sketch
3. Marking the station on the ground
4. Measurement of bearings of traverse legs
1. How to measure Included Angle from Bearing of the Survey Line ?
2. How to measure Bearing from Included Angle of the Survey Line ?

Local Attraction
• A magnetic needle indicates the north direction when freely suspended or pivoted.
• If the needle comes near some magnetic substances, it does not show the actual north.
• This disturbing influence of magnetic substances is known as ‘local attraction’.
• If the difference of the fore and back bearings of the line is exactly 180° then there is no local attraction.
• To compensate for the effect of local attraction, the amount of error is found out and is equally distributed
between the fore and back bearings of the line.
• For example, consider the case when

• Observed FB of AB = 60°30′
• Observed BB of AB = 240°0′
• Calculated BB of AB = 60°30° + 180°0′ = 240°30′
• ∴ Corrected BB of AB = 1/2 (240°0′ + 240°30′) = 240°15′
• Hence, Corrected FB of AB = 240°15′ – 180°0′ = 60°15′
Local Attraction
 Magnetic needle uninfluenced by other attracting forces (magnetic substances)
 Any local attraction which prevents needle from pointing to magnetic north.
 Sources: magnetite in the ground, wire carrying electric current, steel structures, railroad
rails, underground iron pipes, keys, steel-specs, metal buttons, axes, steel tapes, chains
Detection – by finding difference in fore and back bearing of a line and if it is deviating from
180⁰ then influenced by local attraction provided there are no observational and instrumental
errors.
Avoidable attraction from the articles on person, chains, tapes etc.

Elimination of Local Attraction:
If it is there then all measured bearing will be incorrect and amount of error will be equal in all the
bearings. Two methods are there.
(a) Method 1: The interior angles of a traverse are calculated from the observed bearings. Then an
angular check is applied. The sum of the interior angles should be equal to (n – 2) × 180° (n being the
number of sides of the traverse). If it is not so, the total error is equally distributed among all the angles
of the traverse. Then, starting from the unaffected line, the bearings of all the lines may be corrected
by using the corrected interior angles. This method is very laborious and is not generally employed.
(Special Case: No line 180° then closest 180° to be taken, apply half correction to each FB and BB of
the line respectively)
(b) Method 2: In this method, the interior angles are not calculated. From the given table, the
unaffected line is first detected on the basis of difference of FB and BB to be 180°. Then, commencing
from the unaffected line, the bearings of the other affected lines are corrected by finding the amount of
correction at each station. This is an easy method, and one which is generally employed.
.

Q. : Following are the bearings observed while traversing with a compass, an area where local attraction was
suspected. Find the correct bearings of the lines and also the true bearings, if the magnetic declination is 10°W.
Solution: Procedure
(a) On verifying the observed bearings, it is found that the FB and BB of
AB differ by exactly 180°. So stations A and B are free from local
attraction. Hence the observed FB and BB of AB are correct.
(b) The observed FB of BC is also correct.

The actual BB of BC should be 139°30′ + 180°0′ = 319°30′
But the observed BB is 317°0′.
So, a correction of (319°30′ – 317°0′) = +2°30′ should be applied at C.
(c) Correct FB of CD = 215°15′ + 2°30′ = 217°45′

Therefore, the actual BB should be 217°45′ – 180°0′ = 37°45′
But the observed BB is 36°30′.
So, a correction of (37°45′ – 36°30′) = +1°15′ should be applied at D.
(d) Correct FB of DE = 208°00′ + 1°15′ = 209°15′
• The correct BB should be (209°15′ – 180°0′) = 29°15′
• But the observed BB is 29°0′. So, a correction of (29°15′ – 29°0′) = +0°15′ should be applied at
E.
(e) Correct FB of EA = 318°30′ + 0°15′ = 318°45′
• The actual BB of EA should be 318°45′ – 180°0′ = 138°45′ which tallies with the observed BB of
EA.
• So, station A is free from local attraction as stated at the beginning. The result is tabulated
as follows:
• The true bearing is tabulated as follows:
Ques- The following bearings were observed while traversing with a compass.
Line FB BB Line FB BB
AB 45⁰ 45’ 226⁰ 10’ CD 29⁰ 45’ 209⁰ 10’
BC 96⁰ 55’ 277⁰ 5’ DE 324⁰ 48’ 144⁰ 48’
Mention which stations were affected by local attraction and determine the corrected bearings.
Sol: Line DE is correct, hence, both D and E are free from local attraction and all other bearings
measured at these stations are also correct. DC is correct. Bearing BC is 276⁰ 30’- 180⁰ = 96⁰ 30’ (- 25’
at C)
Line Observed Correction Corrected Remarks
Line FB BB BB-FB AB 45⁰ 45’ 0 at A 45⁰ 45’
AB 45⁰ 45’ 226⁰ 10’ 180⁰ 25’ BA 226⁰ 10’ - 25’ at B 225⁰ 45’ Diff is 180⁰
BC 96⁰ 55’ - 25’ at B 96⁰ 30’ Stations B
BC 96⁰ 55’ 277⁰ 5’ 180⁰ 10’ and C are
CB 277⁰ 5’ - 35’ at C 276⁰ 30’
CD 29⁰ 45’ 209⁰ 10’ 179⁰ 25’ affected
CD 29⁰ 45’ - 35’ at C 29⁰ 10’ by local
DE 324⁰ 48’ 144⁰ 48’ 180⁰ DC 209⁰ 10’ 0 at D 209⁰ 10’ attraction
DE 324⁰ 48’ 0 at D 324⁰ 48’
ED 144⁰ 48’ 0 at E 144⁰ 48’
Ques- Apply the corrections if the bearings of the previous example are measured in quadrantal
system as under:.
Line FB BB Line FB BB
AB N 45⁰ 45’ E S 46⁰ 10’ W CD N 29⁰ 45’ E S 29⁰ 10’ W
BC S 83⁰ 05’ E N 82⁰ 55’ W DE N 35⁰ 12’ W S 35⁰ 12’ E
Sol:
Line Observed Correction Corrected Remarks
AB N 45⁰ 45’ E 0 at A N 45⁰ 45’ E
BA S 46⁰ 10’ W - 25’ at B S 45⁰ 45’ W
BC S 83⁰ 05’ E - 25’ at B S 83⁰ 30’ E Stations B
CB N 82⁰ 55’ W - 35’ at C N 83⁰ 30’ W and C are
affected
CD N 29⁰ 45’ E - 35’ at C N 29⁰ 10’ E by local
DC S 29⁰ 10’ W 0 at D S 29⁰ 10’ W attraction
DE N 35⁰ 12’ W 0 at D N 35⁰ 12’ W
ED S 35⁰ 12’ E 0 at E S 35⁰ 12’ E

Ques- The following bearings were observed in running a closed traverse. At what stations do
you suspect the local attraction? Determine the correct magnetic bearings. If declination was 5⁰
10’ E, what are true bearings?
Sol:
Line FB BB BB-FB Line Observed Correction Corrected True Remarks
bearing bearing
AB 75⁰ 5’ 254⁰ 20’ 179⁰ 15’
AB 75⁰ 5’ + 30’ at A 75⁰ 35’ 80⁰ 45’
BC 115⁰ 20’ 296⁰ 35’ 181⁰ 15’
BA 254⁰ 20’ + 1⁰ 15’ at B 255⁰ 35’ 260⁰ 45’
CD 165⁰ 35’ 345⁰ 35’ 180⁰
BC 115⁰ 20’ + 1⁰ 15’ at B 116⁰ 35’ 121⁰ 45’
DE 224⁰ 50’ 44⁰ 5’ 180⁰ 45’ CB 296⁰ 35’ 0 at C 296⁰ 35’ 301⁰ 45’
Stations A, B
EA 304⁰ 50’ 125⁰ 5’ 179⁰ 45’ CD 165⁰ 35’ 0 at C 165⁰ 35’ 170⁰ 45’ and E are
DC 345⁰ 35’ 0 at D 345⁰ 35’ 350⁰ 45’ affected by local
attraction
DE 224⁰ 50’ 0 at D 224⁰ 50’ 230⁰ 0’
ED 44⁰ 5’ + 45’ at E 44⁰ 50’ 50⁰ 0’
EA 304⁰ 50’ + 45’ at E 305⁰ 35’ 310⁰ 45’
AE 125⁰ 5’ + 30’ at A 125⁰ 35’ 130⁰ 45’

Ques- The following are bearings are taken on a closed compass traverse. Compute the interior
angles and correct them for observational errors. Assuming the observed bearing of line CD to
be correct adjust the bearing of the remaining sides.
Sol:
Line FB BB BB-FB
Angle A = BB (EA) – FB (AB) = 50⁰ 5’
AB 80⁰ 10’ 259⁰ 00’ 178⁰ 50’
Angle B = BB (AB) – FB (BC) = 138⁰ 40’
BC 120⁰ 20’ 301⁰ 50’ 181⁰ 30’ Angle C = BB (BC) – FB (CD) = 131⁰ 0’
CD 170⁰ 50’ 350⁰ 50’ 180⁰ Angle D = BB (CD) – FB (DE) = 120⁰ 40’
DE 230⁰ 10’ 49⁰ 30’ 180⁰ 30’ Angle E = BB (DE) – FB (EA) = 99⁰ 10’
EA 310⁰ 20’ 130⁰ 15’ 180⁰ 05’ Sum of all angles = 539⁰ 35’
Error = (5-2) x 180⁰ - 539⁰ 35’ = - 25’
Hence, a correction of +5’ is applied to all the angles.
Corrected angles are A = 50⁰ 10’; B = 138⁰ 45’; C = 131⁰
5’; D = 120⁰ 45’; E = 99⁰ 15’
Starting with the corrected bearings of CD, all other
bearings can be calculated as
Sol:
Bearing of DE = BB (CD) - angle D = 350⁰ 50’ - 120⁰ 45’ = 230⁰ 5’
Bearing of ED = 50⁰ 5’
Bearing of EA = BB (DE) - angle E = 50⁰ 5’ - 99⁰ 15’ + 360⁰ = 310⁰ 50’

Bearing of AE = 130⁰ 50’
Bearing of AB = BB (EA) - angle A = 130⁰ 50’ - 50⁰ 10’ = 80⁰ 40’

Bearing of BA = 260⁰ 40’
Bearing of BC = BB (AB) - angle B = 260⁰ 40’ - 138⁰ 45’ = 121⁰ 55’

Bearing of BC = 301⁰ 55’
Bearing of CD = BB (BC) - angle C = 260⁰ 40’ - 138⁰ 45’ = 170⁰ 50’

Bearing of DC = 350⁰ 50’

Ques- The following bearings were observed in running a closed traverse. Determine the
correct magnetic bearings of the lines.
Line FB BB BB-FB
Sol: Bearing of CD is correct as it is more close to 180⁰.
AB 71⁰ 05’ 250⁰ 20’ 179⁰ 15’
Corrected FB of CD = 161⁰ 35’ + 5’ = 161⁰ 40’
(45’) Corrected BB of CD = 341⁰ 50’
BC 110⁰ 20’ 292⁰ 35’ 181⁰ 15’ Now, Difference in FB and BB of CD is 180⁰.
(1⁰ 15’) Angle A = BB (EA) – FB (AB) = 50⁰ 5’
CD 161⁰ 35’ 341⁰ 45’ 180⁰ 10’
Angle B = BB (AB) – FB (BC) = 140⁰ 0’
(10’)
DE 220⁰ 50’ 40⁰ 05’ 180⁰ 45’
Angle C = BB (BC) – FB (CD) = 131⁰ 0’
(20’) Angle D = BB (CD) – FB (DE) = 120⁰ 55’
EA 300⁰ 50’ 121⁰ 10’ 179⁰ 40’ Angle E = BB (DE) – FB (EA) = 260⁰ 45’(Ext)= 99⁰ 15’(Int
(20’) Sum of all angles = 541⁰ 15’
Error = (5-2) x 180⁰ - 541⁰ 15’ = - 1⁰ 15’
Hence, a correction of -15’ is applied to all the angles.
Corrected angles are A = 49⁰ 50’; B = 139⁰ 45’; C = 130⁰
45’; D = 120⁰ 40’; E = 99⁰ 0’
Sol: Corrected bearings of all the lines are obtained from the included angles and the
corrected bearing of CD.
FB of DE = 341⁰ 40’ - 120⁰ 40’ = 221⁰ 0’
BB of ED = 41⁰ 0’
FB of EA = 41⁰ 0’ + 261⁰ = 302⁰ 00’

BB of AE = 122⁰ 00’
FB of AB = 122⁰ 00’ - 49⁰ 50’ = 72⁰ 10’

BB of BA = 252⁰ 10’
FB of BC = 252⁰ 10’ - 139⁰ 45’ = 112⁰ 25’

BB of BC = 292⁰ 25’
FB of CD = 292⁰ 25’ - 130⁰ 45’ = 161⁰ 40’ (Check)

N: The following bearings were observed where local attraction was suspected. Calculate the actual bearings.
Solution:
Procedure (a) The FB and BB of DA are numerically equal but their quadrants are exactly opposite. So, stations D and A
are free from local attraction. Hence, the observed FB and BB of DA are correct
(b) FB of AB = S 40°30′ W (correct)

Therefore, the actual BB of AB should be N 40°30′ E But the observed BB of AB is N 41°15′ E.
So, a correction of (40°30′ – 41°15′) = – 0°45′ is to be applied at B.
(c) Correct FB of BC = S 80°45′ W – 0°45′ = S 80°0′ W

Therefore, the actual BB should be N 80°0′ E
But the observed BB of BC is N 79°30′ E.
So, a correction of (80°0′ – 79°30′) = + 0°30′ is to be applied at C.
(d) Correct FB of CD = N 19°30′ E + 0°30′ = N 20°0′ E
• The actual BB of CD should be S 20°0′ W. But the observed BB of CD is S
20°0′ W.
• So, station D is free from local attraction, which tallies with the previous
comment.
• The result is tabulated as follows:
LEVELLING
LEVELLING/Basic Definitions:
• Elevation of a Point is defined as the vertical distance between the point and the reference level surface (datum). Most commonly
used datum is MSL
• Levelling is defined as “the process by which the elevation of a point above or below the MSL OR the difference in the elevations
between the points is determined”.
• Objective of Levelling:
 To find the elevation of given point with respect to some assumed reference line called Datum
 Or To establish point at required elevation with respect to datum
• Principle of Levelling:
 The principle of levelling is to obtain horizontal line of sight with respect to which vertical distances of the points above or below this
line of sight are found.
• For execution of Engineering Projects it is very necessary to
determine elevations of different points along the alignment of
proposed project.
• Other applications are :
i) Taking rail levels existing before track renewals to finalise final rail
level profile including vertical curves.
ii) Initial ground levels for earthwork calculations.
iii) Levels for measurement of earthwork.
iv) Measurement of ballast etc.
• Above figure shows a level surface. Thus a level surface is a curved

surface, which is equidistant from the centre of the earth.
Some Important Terms
• Level Surface: Any surface parallel to the mean spheroid of the earth is called a level
surface and the line drawn on the level surface is known as a level line.
• Level Line: Line lying on level surface
• Horizontal Surface: Surface tangential to level surface at a given point is called horizontal
surface at that point.
When leveling is involved in small areas, there may not be much difference in horizontal and
level surface but when large areas are involved there is considerable difference.
• Horizontal Line: It is a straight line tangential to level line.
9
2
• Vertical Line: It is the line connecting centre of the earth and the point. At any point, it is easily located by a freely suspended
plumb-bob.
• Datum: The point or the surface with respect to which levels of other points are determined is called datum or datum surface.
 In preparing maps of large areas like a country mean sea level is taken as datum while in local projects level of some
permanent objects are taken as datum.
 M.S.L. is obtained by making hourly observations of the tides at any place over a period of 19 years. MSL adopted by
Survey of India is now Bombay which was Karachi earlier.
• Reduced Levels (RL): The levels of various points taken as heights above or below the datum surfaces are known as reduced
levels.
2.3. Levelling

2.3. Levelling
 It is the branch of surveying to find the elevations of given points with respect to
a given or assumed datum and to establish points at a given elevation or at
different elevations with respect to a given or assumed datum.
 It deals with measurement in a vertical plane.
 Level surface – It is defined as a curved surface which at each point is perpendicular
to direction of gravity at that point e.g. surface of still water and any surface parallel to
mean spheroidal surface of earth.
 Level line – It is a line lying in a level surface and therefore, normal to the plumb line at
all points.
 Horizontal plane: Any plane through any point on earth’s mean level surface
and tangent to the surface at that point is known as horizontal plane. It is
perpendicular to the plumb line through the point.
 Horizontal line: Line lying in horizontal plane

2.3. Levelling
 Vertical line: A line through a point perpendicular to the horizontal plane is
called a vertical line
 Datum – It is any surface to which elevations are referred. The mean sea level
affords a convenient datum world over. It is often more convenient, however, to
assume some other datum, especially if only the relative elevation of points are
required.
 Elevation: It is vertical distance of a point above or below the reference surface
datum. When elevation with respect to earth’s surface, the datum is mean sea
level.
 Vertical angle - It is the angle between two intersecting lines in a vertical plane.
Generally, one of these lines is horizontal.
 Mean Sea level – It is the average height of the sea for all stages of the tides.
At any particular place it is derived by averaging the hourly tide heights over a
long period of 19 years.
2.3. Levelling
 Bench mark – It is a relatively permanent point of reference whose elevation
with respect to some assumed datum is known. It is used either as a starting
point for levelling or as a point upon which to close as a check.
 Methods of Levelling – 3 methods
 Barometric levelling - difference in elevation between two points is
proportional to the difference in atmospheric pressure at these points, a
barometer may be used to find the difference in elevation, inaccurate and little
used as atmospheric pressure does not remain constant in the course of the
day
 Trigonometric / Indirect levelling – Elevation of points are calculated from the
measured vertical angles and horizontal distances measured in the field. Also,
called stadia levelling.

2.3. Levelling
 Spirit / Direct levelling – Vertical distances with respect to a horizontal line
(perpendicular to the direction of gravity) may be used to determine the relative
difference in elevation between two adjacent points. A spirit level and a sighting
device (telescope) are combined and vertical distances are measured by
observing on graduated rods placed on the points. It is most precise and
commonly used by engineers. A horizontal plane of sight tangent to a level
surface at any point is readily established by means of a spirit level or level vial.
 Levelling instruments – A level and a levelling staff
 Level is to provide horizontal line of sight and essentially consists of a
telescope (to provide line of sight), a level tube (to make the line of sight
horizontal), a levelling head (tribrach and trivet stage to bring the bubble in its
centre of run) and a tripod (to support the instrument).
 Different levels are – dumpy, wye/y, reversible and tilting.

Levelling Instruments
• Level: The level furnishes a horizontal line of sight
• Levelling Staff: It is used to determine the vertical distances of the points

below the horizontal line of sight.
The purpose of a level is to provide a horizontal line of sight. It comprises of following

parts:
(a) A telescope to provide a line of sight
(b) A level tube to make the line of sight horizontal
(c) A levelling head to bring the bubble in its centre of run
(d) A tripod to support the instrument
Functions of Salient Parts
• Telescope : used to sight a staff placed at desired station and to read staff reading distinctly.
• Diaphragm : holds the cross hairs (fitted with it).
• Eye piece : magnifies the image formed in the plane of the diaphragm and thus to read staff during
leveling.
• Level Tube : used to make the axis of the telescope horizontal and thus the line of sight.
• Leveling screws : to adjust instrument (level) so that the line of sight is horizontal for any orientation
of the telescope.
• Tripod stand : to fix the instrument (level) at a convenient height of an observer.

Dumpy Level Wye (Y) Level Tilting Level Reversible level Automatic Level
Dumpy level is Delicate instrument. In the case of this The Cooke’s level Also known as self
compact, simple Consists of loose and open instrument the combines good features aligning level. The
and stable parts subjected to frictional telescope has a small of both the dumpy and Y fundamental difference
wear motion about a levels between the self aligning
horizontal axis. It is level and the classic spirit
therefore known as level is that, in the former
tilting level the line of sight is no
Telescope is rigidly Telescope can be removed The telescope can be longer levelled manually
fixed to its support from the Y supports and Main Feature – Vertical rotated about its using a tubular spirit level
reversed end for end axis need not be truly longitudinal axis in its but is levelled
vertical, since the line sockets, and can also be automatically.
of collimation is not withdrawn from its
It can neither be It can also be revolved perpendicular to it sockets and replaced end Advantages:
rotated about its about its longitudinal axis for end 1. Operational comfort
longitudinal axis, in the Ys. 2. High Precision
nor it can be 3. High Speed
removed from its Advantages: The line of collimation, 4. Freedom for errors
supports 1. The ease and rapidity is however, made 5. Freedom from
with which the horizontal for each external influences
permanent adjustment pointing of the 6. Range of application
can be tested telescope by means of a
2. Adjustments can be tilting screw.
made indoors.
2.3. Levelling
Dumpy Level
 Consists of a telescope tube firmly
secured in two collars fixed by
adjusting screws to the stage carried
by vertical spindle.

2.3. Levelling
Wye or Y Level

2.3. Levelling
Reversible Level
 Combines features of both dumpy and wye level.

2.3. Levelling
Tilting Level
 Line of sight is tilted without tilting the vertical
axis unlike in dumpy and wye where it is
perpendicular to vertical axis.
 Thus, line of sight and vertical axis need not be
exactly perpendicular to each other which
helps in quick levelling.

2.3. Levelling
 Levelling Staff – It is a straight rectangular rod having graduations, the foot of
the staff represent zero reading. The purpose of level is to establish horizontal a
horizontal line of sight. The purpose of levelling staff is to determine the amount
by which the station (foot of staff) is above or below the line of sight.
 It is divided into two classes- self-reading staff (read directly by instrument
through the telescope) and a target staff (contains a moving target against
which the reading is taken by staff man).
 3 forms of self-reading staff –
solid, folding and telescopic

2.3. Levelling
 Terms and abbreviations
 Station - point where the level rod is held and not where level is set up and it is
the point whose elevation is to be ascertained or the point that is to be
established at a given elevation.
 Height of Instrument (HI) – It is the elevation of plane of sight (line of sight)
with respect to the assumed datum. It does not mean the height of the
telescope above the ground where the level stands.
 Back Sight (BS) (plus sight)– It is the sight taken on a rod held at a point of
known elevation to ascertain the amount by which the line of sight is above that
point and thus to obtain the height of instrument. HI = Datum + BS
 Fore Sight (FS) (minus sight)– It is taken on a rod held at appoint of
unknown elevation, to ascertain the amount by which the point is below the line
of sight and thus to obtain the elevation of the station. Elevation= HI - FS

2.3. Levelling
 Terms and abbreviations
 Turning Point (TP) - It is appoint on which both minus sight and plus sight are
taken on a line of direct levels. Minus sight (FS) is taken on the point in one set
of instrument to ascertain the elevation of the point while the plus sight (BS) is
taken on the same point in other set of instrument to establish new height of
instrument.
 Intermediate Station (IS) – It is point , intermediate between two turning points,
on which only one sight (minus of FS) is taken to determine the elevation of the
station.

2.3. Levelling
 Steps in Levelling – 2 steps
 To find by how much amount the line of sight is above the bench mark
 To ascertain by how much amount the next point is below or above the line of
sight.
 HI = Elevation of A + BS = 213.176 m
 Elevation of B = HI – FS = 211.340 m
 Note- If a BS is taken on a bench mark located on the roof of a tunnel or on the

ceiling of a room with the instrument at a lower elevation, BS must be
subtracted from the elevation to get the HI.
 Similarly, if a FS is taken on appoint higher than the instrument, the FS must be
added to the HI to get the elevation of that point.
2.3. Levelling
Differential Levelling
 It is operation of levelling to determine the elevation of points at some distance apart and
usually accomplished by direct levelling.
 When two points are at such a distance from each other that they cannot both be within
range of the level at the same time, the difference in elevation is not found by single
setting but the distance between the points is divided in two stages by turning points on
which the staff is held and the difference of elevation of each of succeeding pair of such
turning points is found by separate setting up of the level.
 A & B are two points
 Distance AB divided into 3 parts
 TP1 and TP2 are turning points.
 RL of A = 240 m, HI = 242.204,
 RL of TP1 = 240.604
 RL of TP2 = 240.490 and
 B = 241.402 m
2.3. Levelling
Height of Instrument Method
 HI is calculated for each setting of instrument by adding BS to elevation of BM (first point)
 Elevation of reduced level of the turning point is the calculated by subtracting FS from HI.
 For the next setting of the instrument, the HI is obtained by adding BS taken on TP1 to its
RL.
 This process is continued till the RL of the last point (FS) is obtained bu subtracting the
staff readings from height of the last setting of the instrument.

• Line of collimation: It is a line joining the intersection of cross hairs of diaphragm to the optical center of
object glass and its continuation. It is also known line of sight.
• Height of instrumentation (H.I.): It is the elevation of line of collimation with respect to datum.
• Back sight (B.S.): It is a staff reading taken at a known elevation. It is the first staff reading taken after setup of
instrument.
• Fore sight (F.S.): It is the last staff reading taken denoting the shifting of the instrument.
• Intermediate sight (I.S.): It is staff reading taken on a point whose elevation is to be determined. All staff
reading between B.S. and F.S. are intermediate sight. (I.S.)
• Change point (C.P.): It is a point on which both fore and back sight are taken. This is a point, where a foresight
is taken from one setup and back sight from next setup. This point indicates the shifting of the instrument, so
it is called change point or turning point.
• Benchmark: It is a relatively permanent point of reference whose elevation
with respect to some assumed datum is known. It is a starting and ending point
in leveling. Fixed Reference of known elevation.
• The following four types of benchmarks are commonly used :
(i) GTS benchmarks
(ii) Permanent benchmarks
(iii) Arbitrary benchmarks, and
(iv) Temporary benchmarks
1
1
7
• GTS Benchmarks: GTS benchmark is Great Trigonometric Survey benchmark.
• They are established by national agencies such as survey of India.
• They are established with the highest accuracy at several locations all over the country,
with respect to mean sea level.
• These benchmarks are indicated on a brass plate fixed on a concrete pedestal with
well-protected wall around it.
• Their position and elevation above MSL is given in a special catalogue known as GTS
Maps ( 100 km. interval).

(ii) Permanent Bench Mark: They are fixed points of reference establish with reference to GTS Bench mark (10
km. interval). State Government agencies like public works department fix such bench marks.
iii) Arbitrary Bench Mark: These are reference points whose elevations are arbitrarily assumed. In most of
Engineering projects, the difference in elevation is more important than their reduced levels with reference to
MSL as given in a special catalogue known as GTS Maps ( 100 Km. interval).
(iv) Temporary Benchmarks: These benchmarks are established at the end of the days work, so that the work
can be continued next day from that point onward.
Principle of Direct Levelling
• In direct levelling, it is assumed that when an instrument is properly levelled,
line of sight is truly horizontal and the vertical axis is truly vertical.
• The graduated staff is held vertically on a bench mark and the reading is taken.
• This is the difference in the elevations of bench mark and the line of sight.
Hence, by adding this reading to the reduced level of benchmark, level of line of
sight is obtained.
Principle of Direct Levelling
• Then staff is moved and held at the point, the elevation of which is required
and the reading is taken from the levelling instrument without disturbing its
height of line of sight. Hence, by subtracting their reading in the level of sight,
elevation of the place where staff is held, is obtained.
• If distances are small compared to the radius of the earth, there is hardly any
difference in horizontal surface and level surface. Hence horizontal lines are
considered as level lines.
•Height of Instrument (H.I.) = R.LA + B.S.

•Elevation of point. B = H.I. – F.S.
Booking and Reducing Levels
• Can be determined By 2 methods:
1. Height of Instrument Method
2. Rise and Fall Method
1. Height of Instrument Method
Station B.S. I.S. F.S. H.I. R.L. Remarks
B.M. 2.0 102 100.0
A 2.6 102 99.4
B 3.2 102 98.8
C 0.8 3.9 98.9 98.1 CP1
D 1.4 98.9 97.5
E 2.0 98.9 96.9
F 2.8 98.9 96.1
G 3.1 2.1 99.9 96.8 CP2
H 3.0 0.9 102 99
I 2.4 1.2 103.2 100.8
J 0.8 103.2 102.4
Answer
Station B.S. I.S. F.S H.I. R.L. Remarks
.
B.M. 2.0 100+2 100.0
A 2.6 102-2.6 = 99.4
B 3.2 102-3.2 = 98.8
C 0.8 3.9 98.1 +0.8 =98.9 102-3.9 = 98.1
D 1.4 97.5
E 2.0 96.9
F 2.8 96.1
G 3.1 2.1 96.8+3.1 = 99.9 98.9-2.1 =96.8
H 3.0 0.9 99+3.0 = 102 99.0
I 2.4 1.2 100.8+2.4 = 103.2 102-1.2 =100.8
J 0.8 103.2-0.8 = 102.4
CHECK, ∑B.S. - ∑F.S. = Last R.L. – First R.L.
11.3 – 8.9 = 102.4 – 100.0 = 2.4
2.3. Levelling
Height of Instrument Method
Arithmetic Check: = Last RL- First RL
Station BS IS FS HI RL Remarks
A 0.865 561.365 560.500 BM
B 1.025 2.105 560.285 559.260
C 1.580 560.285 558.705 Platform
D 2.230 1.865 560.65 558.420
E 2.355 2.835 560.17 557.815
F 1.760 560.285 558.410
Check 6.475 8.565 558.410 Checked
6.475 560.500
2.090 2.090
Rise/Fall = Previous Reading – Next Reading (If +ve then Rise and if –ve then Fall)
R.L next = R.L. of Previous ± Rise/Fall
Station B.S. I.S. F.S. R.L. Remarks
B.M. 2.0 100.0
A 2.6
B 3.2
C 0.8 3.9
D 1.4
E 2.0
F 2.8
G 3.1 2.1
H 3.0 0.9
I 2.4 1.2
J 0.8 ?
Answer
Station B.S. I.S. F.S. Rise (+) Fall (-) R.L.
B.M. 2.0 100.0
A 2.6 2.0-2.6 = 0.6 100-0.6 =99.4
B 3.2 2.6 -3.2 = 0.6 99.4-0.6 = 98.8
C 0.8 3.9 3.2-3.9 = 0.7 98.8-0.7 = 98.1
D 1.4 0.8-1.4 = 0.6 98.1-0.6 = 97.5
E 2.0 1.4-2.0 = 0.6 97.5-0.6 =96.9
F 2.8 2.0-2.8 = 0.8 96.9 - 0.8 = 96.1
G 3.1 2.1 2.8-2.1 =0.7 96.1+0.7 = 96.8
H 3.0 0.9 3.1-0.9 =2.2 98.8+2.2 = 99.0
I 2.4 1.2 3.0-1.2 = 1.8 99.0+ 1.8 =100.8
J 0.8 2.4-0.8 = 1.6 100.8+1.6 = 102.4
CHECK, ∑B.S. - ∑F.S. = Last R.L. – First R.L.

11.3 – 8.9 = 102.4 – 100.0 = 2.4
2.3. Levelling
Rise and Fall Method
Arithmetic Check: = = Last RL- First RL
Station BS IS FS Rise Fall RL Remarks
1 2.228 432.384 BM
2 1.606 0.622 433.006
3 2.090 0.988 0.618 433.624 TP1
4 2.864 0.774 432.850
5 0.602 1.262 1.602 434.452 TP2
6 1.044 1.982 1.380 433.072 TP3
7 2.684 1.640 431.432
Check 5.964 6.916 2.842 3.794 432.384 Checked
5.964 2.842 431.432
Fall 0.952 Fall 0.952 0.952
2.3. Levelling
Ques- It was required to ascertain the elevation of two points P and Q and a line of
levels was run from P to Q. The levelling was then continued to a bench mark of 83.500,
the readings obtained being as shown below. Obtain the RL of P and Q
BS IS FS RL Remarks
1.622 P
1.874 0.354
2.032 1.780
2.362 Q
0.984 1.122
1.906 2.824
2.036 83.500 B.M.

2.3. Levelling
Sol: Station BS IS FS HI
RL Remarks
P 1.622 xx+1.622
1.874 0.354 x+3.142
x+1.268
2.032 1.780 x+3.394
x+1.362
Q 2.362 x+1.032
0.984 1.122 x+3.256 x+2.272
83.500= x+2.302
or, x=83.198 1.906 2.824 x+2.338 x+0.432
= 2.036 83.500= B.M.
Last RL- First RL x+0.302
= 0.302
= = Last RL-
8.418 8.116 First RL=
0.302

2.3. Levelling
Sol: Station BS IS FS HI RL Remarks
P 1.622 84.820 83.198
1.874 0.354 86.340 84.466
2.032 1.780 86.592 84.560
Q 2.362 84.230
83.630+
= 86.454-
0.984 1.122 2.824 =
0.984=85.470
Last RL- First RL 86.454
= 0.302 83.500 85.536-
1.906 2.824 +2.036 = 1.906=
85.536 83.630
2.036 83.500 B.M.
Last RL-
∑ 𝑩𝑺 = ∑ 𝑭𝑺=
First RL=
8.418 8.116
0.302
Solution
Station B.S. I.S. F.S. R.L. Remarks
B.M. 0.585 520.450 m
A 0.936
B 1.953
C 2.846
D 3.644
E 0.962 3.938
F 1.035
G 1.689
H 2.534 ?
I 0.956 3.844 ?
J 1.579 ?
K 3.016 ?
Difference
Collimation System/ H.I. Method Rise and Fall System
• It is rapid, involves few calculation • It is tedious, involving numerous

calculations
• There is no check on the RL of
intermediate points • There is a check on the RL of
intermediate points.
• Errors at intermediate RLs cannot be
detected • Errors in intermediate RLs can be
detected as all the points are
• There are two checks on the accuracy correlated.
of RL calculation
• There are three checks on the accuracy
• This method is suitable for longitudinal of RL calculation.
levelling where there are a number of
intermediate sights • This system is suitable for fly leveling
where there are no intermediate sights
2.3. Levelling
Balancing BS and FS
When difference in elevation between any two points is determined from a single set-up by
backsighting on one point and foresighting on the other, the error due to non-parallelism of
line of collimation axis of the bubble tube (when the bubble tube is in the centre of the run)
and also the error due to curvature and refraction may be eliminated if the length of the two
sights can be made equal.
Let line of collimation is inclined upwards by an amount ‘α’ from horizontal, when the
bubble is in the centre of its run, the level being kept exactly midway between the two
points A and B. The observed BS and FS are x1 and x2.
The correct BS on A = (x1 - y1) and correct FS on B
= (x2 – y2) ,where, y1 = D1 tan α and y1 = D2 tan α
Correct difference in level between A & B
= (x1 - y1) - (x2 – y2) = (x1 - x2) + tan α (D2 - D1)
= (x1 - x2) (if D1 = D2)

2.3. Levelling
Balancing BS and FS
Thus, if BS and FS distances are balanced, the difference in elevation between two
points can be directly calculated by taking difference of the two readings and no
correction for the inclination of the line of sight is necessary.

2.3. Levelling
Effects of curvature
 Level Surface- points lying on it are equidistant from centre of earth and has same RL
and it is in curvature form.
 Line of sight should be parallel to level surface of earth but actually it is horizontal.
Therefore, it reads the reading of levelling staff more than actual.
 Error due to curvature is positive, therefore, correction subtractive.
 When reading of staff is more because of curvature then RL of level surface is reduced
than the actual because curvature error.
Curvature error BC = e = Cc
(R + e)2 = R2 + d2
or, R2 + e2 + 2Re = R2 + d2
e= = = = 0.07849 d2

2.3. Levelling
Curvature and Refraction-
From definition of a horizontal line & a level surface, it is evident that a
horizontal line departs from the level surface because of the curvature
of the earth. Again, in the long sights, horizontal line of sight does
not remain straight but it slightly bend downwards having
concavity towards earth surface due to refraction.
AC = horizontal line which deflects upwards from the level line AB by
an amount BC. AD is the actual line of sight.
Curvature
BC = departure from the level line. Actually, staff reading should have
been taken at B where the level line cuts the staff, but since the level
provides only the horizontal line of sight (in absence of refraction), the
staff reading is taken at point C. Thus, apparent reading is more and
therefore, the object appears to be lower than it really is.
2.3. Levelling
Curvature and Refraction-
Curvature
Correction for curvature is , therefore, negative as applied to the staff
reading, its numerical value = BC
OC2 = OA2 + AC2 , angle CAO = 90⁰
Let BC = Cc = correction for curvature, AB = d = horizontal distance
between A and B, AO = R = radius of earth same unit as of d
(R + Cc)2 = R2 + d2 or, R2 + Cc2 + 2RCc = R2 + d2
Cc = = = (neglecting Cc in comparison to R and D = diameter)

R = 6370 km
Cc = 0.07849 d2 metres where d is to be substituted in km

2.3. Levelling
Effects of refraction
 Line of sight does not remain horizontal due to refraction from densities of
different layers of atmosphere and temperature. Therefore, it reads the reading of
levelling staff less than actual.
 Error due to refraction is negative, therefore, correction additive.
 RL of points on earth is more than the actual.
Refraction error BC = e = Cr
Cr = = = = 0.07849 d2

2.3. Levelling
Refraction – light deviating from straight lines when passing from
denser to rarer and vice versa
The effect of refraction is same as if the line of sight was curved
downwards, or concave towards the earth’s surface and hence the rod
reading is decreased. Therefore, the effect of refraction is to make the
object appear higher than they really are. The correction as applied to staff
readings is positive. The refraction curve is irregular because of varying
atmosphere conditions temperature, but for average conditions, it is
assumed to have a diameter about seven times that of the earth.
Correction for refraction, Cr = (+ve) = 0.01121 d2 metres where d is in

km
Combined correction = (subtractive) = 0.06728 d2 metres where d is in

km
2.3. Levelling
Error due to curvature of earth eliminated by equalising BS and FS distances
Correct difference in elevation between A & B, H = Ha - Hb = (ha – hb) –(ha’– hb’)
If AC is not equal to BC, true difference in elevation H cannot be found unless ha’ and hb’ are
numerically found. If AC = BC then H = (ha – hb) – 0 = (ha – hb)
Thus, if BS and FS distances are balanced,
the difference in elevation between two
points is equal to the difference between the
rod readings taken to the two pints and no
correction for curvature and refraction is
necessary.

2.3. Levelling
Distance to the visible horizon
Let P be the point of observation, its height being equal to C and let A
be the point on the horizon i.e., a point where the tangent from P
meets the level line. If d is the distance to the visible horizon, it is
given by
= 3.8553 km where C is in metres

.
(Taking both curvature and refraction into account)

2.3. Levelling
Ques- In order to find the difference in elevation between two points P and Q, a level
was set upon the line PQ, 60 m from P and 1280 m from Q. The readings obtained on
staff kept at P and Q were respectively 0.545 m and 3.920 m . Find the true difference in
elevation between P and Q.
Sol:
Since distance of P from instrument is small, correction for curvature is negligible.
Combined correction for Q = 0.06728 d2 metres = 0.110 m (subtractive)
Combined correction at Q = 3.920 – 0.110 = 3.810 m
Difference in elevation between P and Q = 3.810 – 0.545 = 3.265 m (Q being lower)

2.3. Levelling
Ques- An observer standing on the deck of a ship just sees a light-house. The top of the
light-house is 42 m above the sea level and the height of the observer’s eye is 6 m
above the sea level. Find the distance of the observer from the light house.
Sol: Let A be the position of the top of light-house and B
be the position of observer’s eye. Let AB be tangential to
water surface at O.
d1 = 3.8553 km = 24.985 km and d2= 9.444 km
Distance between A and B = d1 + d2 = 34.429 km

2.3. Levelling
Reciprocal Levelling
When it is necessary to carry levelling across a river, ravine or any obstacle requiring a long
sight between two points so situated that no place for the level can be found from which the
lengths of FS and BS will be even approximately equal, special method i.e., reciprocal levelling
must be used to obtain accuracy and to eliminate the error in instrument’s adjustment,
combined effect of curvature and refraction of atmosphere and variation in average refraction

2.3. Levelling
Let ‘A’ and ‘B’ be the points and observations be
made with a level, the line of sight which is inclined
upwards when the bubble is in the centre of its run.
Level is set near A and reading staff reading is
taken on ‘A’ and ‘B’ with the bubble in the centre of
its run. Since BM ‘A’ is near to the level instrument
so no error due to curvature, refracture and
collimation will be introduced in the staff readings at
‘A’ but there will be an error ‘e’ in the staff readings
on B. The level is then shifted to the other bank, on
a point very near BM B and the reading are taken
on staff held at B and A. Since ‘B’ is near so no error
but staff reading on ‘A’ will have an error ‘e’

2.3. Levelling
Let ha and hb be the corresponding staff readings on
A and B for the first set of the level and ha’ and hb’
be the readings for the second set.
For first set of the level, correct staff readings will
be
On A : ha ; On B : hb – e
True difference in elevation = H = ha - (hb – e)
For second set of the level, correct staff readings
will be
On B : hb’ ; On A : ha’ - e
True difference in elevation = H = (ha’ – e) - hb’
Taking average: H = 0.5 [(ha - hb) + (ha’ - hb’)]

2.3. Levelling
Ques- The following notes refer to reciprocal levels taken with one level:
Find (a) true RL of Q (b) combined correction for curvature and refraction and (c) the
angular error in the collimation adjustment of instrument. What will be the difference in
answers of (a) and (c) if observed staff readings were 2.748 on P and 1.824 on Q, the
instrument being at P; and 1.606 on P and 0.928 on Q, the instrument being at Q.
Staff readings on
Instrument at Remarks
P Q
P 1.824 2.748 Distance PQ =1010 m
Q 0.928 1.606 RL of P = 126.386
Sol: Difference at P = 2.748 – 1.824 = 0.924 and at Q = 1.606 – 0.928 = 0.678

. .
(a) True difference = = 0.801 m and P being higher
True elevation of Q = 126.386 – 0.801 = 125.585 m
(b) Combined correction for curvature and refraction = 0.06728 d2 = 0.069 m
Q appears to be lower further by 0.069 m due to this
2.3. Levelling
Sol: (c) When level at P, apparent difference in elevation = 0.924 m
Difference in elevation = 0.801 m,
Error = 0.123 = curvature + refraction + collimation
Curvature and refraction error = + 0.069 m
Collimation error = 0.123 – 0.069 = 0.054
.
tan α = = 0.0000535 or, α = 11” (upwards)

2.3. Levelling
Sol: If staff readings are interchanged then
(a) True difference = 0.801 m but elevation of Q = 126.86 + 0.801 = 127.187 m (Q being
higher)
(c) When instrument is at P, apparent difference in elevation = 0.924 m, Q being higher
Q higher by an amount 0.123 m
Error = 0.123 = curvature + refraction + collimation
Curvature and refraction error = 0.069 m
Collimation error = 0.123 + 0.069 = 0.192
.
tan α = = 0.0002909 or, α = 39” (downwards)
Staff readings on
Instrument at Remarks
P Q
P 2.748 1.824 Distance PQ =1010 m
Q 1.606 0.928 RL of P = 126.386
2.3. Levelling
Profile Levelling or Longitudinal sectioning
It is process of determining the elevations of points at short measured intervals along a fixed
line such as the centre line of a railway, highway, canal or sewer. The fixed line may be a single
straight line or it may be composed of a succession of straight lines or of a series of straight
lines connected by curves. By means of such sections the engineer is enabled to study the
relationship between the existing ground surface and the levels of the proposed construction in
the direction of its length. Procedures similar to differential levelling
Cross-Sectioning
It runs at right angles to the longitudinal profile and on either side of it for the purpose of lateral
outline of the ground surface. They provide the data for estimating quantities of earth work and
for other purposes.

2.3. Levelling

2.3. Levelling
Station Distance BS IS FS HI RL Remarks
BM 2.045 212.500 210.455
1 0 2.680 209.820
2 10 2.860 209.640
3 20 2.120 210.380
4 35 2.975 209.525
TP 1 1.005 2.860 210.645 209.640
5 45 2.810 207.835
6 63 2.905 207.740
7 80 2.530 208.115
8 98 1.875 208.770
9 115 1.925 208.720
TP 2 2.160 2.995 209.810 207.650
10 125 0.825 208.985
11 145 1.020 208.790
12 162 1.625 208.185
13 180 2.080 207.730
TP 3 2.985 206.825
8.840 210.455
Check 5.210 5.210 206.825
3.630 3.630
2.3. Levelling
Plotting of Profile Levelling or Longitudinal sectioning

2.3. Levelling
Plotting of Profile Levelling or Longitudinal sectioning

2.3. Levelling
Levelling Problems
 Levelling on steep slope
 Levelling on summits and hollows
 Taking level of an overhead point
 Levelling lakes and ponds too wide to be sighted across
 Levelling across river
 Levelling past high wall

2.3. Levelling
Errors in levelling
Instrumental
 Imperfect adjustment, Sluggish bubble, Movement of objective side, Rod length non-
standard, Defective joint
Natural
 Earth’s curvature, Atmospheric refraction, Variations in temperature, Wind vibrations,
Settlement of tripod or turning points
Personal
 Manipulation, rod handling, reading the rod, sighting and recording

Levelling

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2.1.

Linear Measurements – Chain Surveying

Department of Mining Engineering, IIT(ISM) Dhanbad

Department of Mining Engineering, IIT(ISM) Dhanbad

Department of Mining Engineering, IIT(ISM) Dhanbad

Department of Mining Engineering, IIT(ISM) Dhanbad

Department of Mining Engineering, IIT(ISM) Dhanbad

Department of Mining Engineering, IIT(ISM) Dhanbad

Department of Mining Engineering, IIT(ISM) Dhanbad

Booking field notes

Department of Mining Engineering, IIT(ISM) Dhanbad

Department of Mining Engineering, IIT(ISM) Dhanbad

Chain survey- Steps

Department of Mining Engineering, IIT(ISM) Dhanbad

Department of Mining Engineering, IIT(ISM) Dhanbad

Department of Mining Engineering, IIT(ISM) Dhanbad

Prism square- works on same principle as that of optical

Site square- to set straight lines and offset line at 90⁰,

Department of Mining Engineering, IIT(ISM) Dhanbad

But when the area to be surveyed is Large,

 Compass Surveying is used

• The magnetic North and South

• The Geographic North Pole is

• Generally compass is used to establish traverse in the field

A C CHAIN SURVEY TRAVERSE SURVEY

Only Linear Linear and Angular

 In traversing, the direction of the survey line is measured

• The direction of a line is defined by a horizontal angle with respect to a

The bearing of point Q is 300º which is the number of degrees in the

• Whole circle bearing

• In Figure, The whole circle bearing

• It is measured in clockwise or anti-clockwise

• Thus, reduced bearing of a line is designated by

Fore Bearing of a line

Internal/ External Angle (θ) = | FB – BB | A FB

• Find the FB from back bearing for the following lines

Clock wise Anti Clock wise

Department of Mining Engineering, IIT(ISM) Dhanbad

• AOB = Bearing of OB – bearing of OA

Department of Mining Engineering, IIT(ISM) Dhanbad

In a closed traverse, clockwise angles

FB of CD = BB of BC + exterior ∠C While traversing, If the included

Lines F.B. B.B.

Angles Calculated Corrected Corrected

Calculate the interior angles of the traverse.

Bearing of DC = Bearing of AD + 69⁰ 20’ - 180⁰ = 89⁰ 30’ or,

Bearing of CB = Bearing of DC + 60⁰ 22’ + 180⁰ = 329⁰ 52’

Bearing of BA = Bearing of CB + 90⁰ 8’ - 180⁰ = 240⁰ or,

Department of Mining Engineering, IIT(ISM) Dhanbad

Department of Mining Engineering, IIT(ISM) Dhanbad

Department of Mining Engineering, IIT(ISM) Dhanbad

Numerical: On an old map a line was drawn to a magnetic

The prismatic compass The surveyor’s compass

• There is a prism at viewing end

Field procedure of observing Bearing from Compass

1. How to measure Included Angle from Bearing of the Survey Line ?

2. How to measure Bearing from Included Angle of the Survey Line ?

• For example, consider the case when

Department of Mining Engineering, IIT(ISM) Dhanbad

Department of Mining Engineering, IIT(ISM) Dhanbad

(b) The observed FB of BC is also correct.

(c) Correct FB of CD = 215°15′ + 2°30′ = 217°45′

Department of Mining Engineering, IIT(ISM) Dhanbad

Department of Mining Engineering, IIT(ISM) Dhanbad