Unit 1 Basics of Computer | Computer Memory

Basics of Computer
A computer is a programmable machine designed to perform arithmetic and logical
operations automatically and sequentially on the input given by the user and gives the
desired output after processing. Computer components are divided into two major
categories namely hardware and software. Hardware is the machine itself and its connected
devices such as monitor, keyboard, mouse etc. Software are the set of programs that make
use of hardware for performing various functions.

Characteristics of computer

Computer is an electronic device that is designed to work with Information. The

term computer is derived from the Latin term ‘computare’, this means to calculate or
programmable machine. Computer can not do anything without a Program. It
represents the decimal numbers through a string of binary digits. The Word
‘Computer’ usually refers to the Center Processor Unit plus Internal memory.

Charles Babbage is called the “Grand Father” of the computer. The First mechanical
computer designed by Charles Babbage was called Analytical Engine. It uses read-
only memory in the form of punch cards.

Computer is an advanced electronic device that takes raw data as input from the
user and processes these data under the control of set of instructions (called
program) and gives the result (output) and saves output for the future use. It can
process both numerical and non-numerical (arithmetic and logical) calculations.

Basic characteristics about computer are:

Speed
you know computer can work very fast. It takes only few seconds for calculations
that we take hours to complete. You will be surprised to know that computer can
perform millions (1,000,000) of instructions and even more per second.

Therefore, we determine the speed of computer in terms of microsecond (10-6 part

of a second) or nanosecond (10 to the power -9 part of a second). From this you can
imagine how fast your computer performs work.

Accuracy

The degree of accuracy of computer is very high and every calculation is performed
with the same accuracy. The accuracy level is 7
Diligence

computer is free from tiredness, lack of concentration, fatigue, etc. It can work for
hours without creating any error. If millions of calculations are to be performed, a
computer will perform every calculation with the same accuracy. Due to this
capability it overpowers human being in routine type of work.

Versatility

It means the capacity to perform completely different type of work. You may use
your computer to prepare payroll slips. Next moment you may use it for inventory
management or to prepare electric bills.

Power of Remembering

Computer has the power of storing any amount of information or data. Any
information can be stored and recalled as long as you require it, for any numbers of
years. It depends entirely upon you how much data you want to store in a computer
and when to lose or retrieve these data.

No IQ

Computer is a dumb machine and it cannot do any work without instruction from the
user. It performs the instructions at tremendous speed and with accuracy. It is you to
decide what you want to do and in what sequence. So a computer cannot take its
own decision as you can.

No Feeling

It does not have feelings or emotion, taste, knowledge and experience. Thus it does
not get tired even after long hours of work. It does not distinguish between users.

Storage

The Computer has an in-built memory where it can store a large amount of data.
You can also store data in secondary storage devices such as floppies, which can
be kept outside your computer and can be carried to other computers.

Input-Output devices (Hardware, Software, Human ware and Firmware)

An input device is any hardware device that sends data to a computer, allowing
you to interact with and control it. The picture shows a Logitech trackball
mouse, which is an example of an input device.

The most commonly used or primary input devices on a computer are the
keyboard and mouse. However, there are dozens of other devices that can also
be used to input data into the computer.

Some of the popular input devices are:

Keyboard

The keyboard is a basic input device that is used to enter data into a computer
or any other electronic device by pressing keys. It has different sets of keys for
letters, numbers, characters, and functions. Keyboards are connected to a
computer through USB or a Bluetooth device for wireless communication.

Mouse

The mouse is a hand-held input device which is used to move cursor or pointer
across the screen. It is designed to be used on a flat surface and generally has
left and right button and a scroll wheel between them. Laptop computers come
with a touchpad that works as a mouse. It lets you control the movement of
cursor or pointer by moving your finger over the touchpad. Some mouse comes
with integrated features such as extra buttons to perform different buttons.

The mouse was invented by Douglas C. Engelbart in 1963. Early mouse had a
roller ball integrated as a movement sensor underneath the device. Modern
mouse devices come with optical technology that controls cursor movements
by a visible or invisible light beam. A mouse is connected to a computer through
different ports depending on the type of computer and type of a mouse.

Scanner

The scanner uses the pictures and pages of text as input. It scans the picture or
a document. The scanned picture or document then converted into a digital
format or file and is displayed on the screen as an output. It uses optical
character recognition techniques to convert images into digital ones.

Joystick
A joystick is also a pointing input device like a mouse. It is made up of a stick
with a spherical base. The base is fitted in a socket that allows free movement of
the stick. The movement of stick controls the cursor or pointer on the screen.

The first joystick was invented by C. B. Mirick at the U.S. Naval Research
Laboratory. A joystick can be of different types such as displacement joysticks,
finger-operated joysticks, hand-operated, isometric joystick, and more. In
joystick, the cursor keeps moving in the direction of the joystick unless it is
upright, whereas, in mouse, the cursor moves only when the mouse moves.

Light Pen

A light pen is a computer input device that looks like a pen. The tip of the light
pen contains a light-sensitive detector that enables the user to point to or
select objects on the display screen. Its light sensitive tip detects the object
location and sends the corresponding signals to the CPU. It is not compatible
with LCD screens, so it is not in use today. It also helps you draw on the screen if
needed. The first light pen was invented around 1955 as a part of the Whirlwind
project at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT).

Digitizer

Digitizer is a computer input device that has a flat surface and usually comes
with a stylus. It enables the user to draw images and graphics using the stylus
as we draw on paper with a pencil. The images or graphics drawn on the digitizer
appear on the computer monitor or display screen. The software converts the
touch inputs into lines and can also convert handwritten text to typewritten
words.

It can be used to capture handwritten signatures and data or images from taped
papers. Furthermore, it is also used to receive information in the form of
drawings and send output to a CAD (Computer-aided design) application and
software like AutoCAD. Thus, it allows you to convert hand-drawn images into a
format suitable for computer processing.

Microphone

The microphone is a computer input device that is used to input the sound. It
receives the sound vibrations and converts them into audio signals or sends to a
recording medium. The audio signals are converted into digital data and stored
in the computer. The microphone also enables the user to telecommunicate
with others. It is also used to add sound to presentations and with webcams for
video conferencing.

Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)

MICR computer input device is designed to read the text printed with magnetic
ink. MICR is a character recognition technology that makes use of special
magnetized ink which is sensitive to magnetic fields. It is widely used in banks to
process the cheques and other organizations where security is a major concern.
It can process three hundred cheques in a minute with hundred-percent
accuracy. The details on the bottom of the cheque (MICR No.) are written with
magnetic ink. A laser printer with MICR toner can be used to print the magnetic
ink.

The device reads the details and sends to a computer for processing. A
document printed in magnetic ink is required to pass through a machine which
magnetizes the ink, and the magnetic information is then translated into
characters.

Optical Character Reader (OCR)

OCR computer input device is designed to convert the scanned images of

handwritten, typed or printed text into digital text. It is widely used in offices
and libraries to convert documents and books into electronic files.

It processes and copies the physical form of a document using a scanner. After
copying the documents, the OCR software converts the documents into a two-
color (black and white), version called bitmap. Then it is analyzed for light and
dark areas, where the dark areas are selected as characters, and the light area is
identified as background. It is widely used to convert hard copy legal or historic
documents into PDFs. The converted documents can be edited if required like
we edit documents created in ms word.

Output Device

An output device is any device used to send data from a computer to another
device or user. Most computer data output that is meant for humans is in the
form of audio or video. Thus, most output devices used by humans are in these
categories. Examples include monitors, projectors, speakers, headphones and
printers.
Following are some of the important output devices used in a computer.

Monitors

Monitors, commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU), are the main output
device of a computer. It forms images from tiny dots, called pixels that are
arranged in a rectangular form. The sharpness of the image depends upon the
number of pixels.

There are two kinds of viewing screen used for monitors.

Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)

Flat-Panel Display

Printer

A printer produces hard copies of the processed data. It enables the user, to
print images, text or any other information onto the paper.

Based on the printing mechanism, the printers are of two types: Impact Printers
and Non-impact Printers.

(a) Impact Printers: They are of two types:

(i) Character Printers

Dot Matrix printers

Daisy Wheel printers

(ii) Line printers

Drum printers

Chain printers

(b) Non-impact printers: They are of two types:

Laser printers

Inkjet printers

Projector
A projector is an output device that enables the user to project the output onto
a large surface such as a big screen or wall. It can be connected to a computer
and similar devices to project their output onto a screen. It uses light and lenses
to produce magnified texts, images, and videos. So, it is an ideal output device
to give presentations or to teach a large number of people.

Modern projects (digital projectors) come with multiple input sources such as
HDMI ports for newer equipment and VGA ports that support older devices.
Some projectors are designed to support Wi-Fi and Bluetooth as well. They can
be fixed onto the ceiling, placed on a stand, and more and are frequently used
for classroom teaching, giving presentations, home cinemas, etc.

A digital projector can be of two types:

(i) Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) digital projector: This type of digital
projectors are very popular as they are lightweight and provide crisp output. An
LCD projector uses transmissive technology to produce output. It allows the
light source, which is a standard lamp, to pass through the three colored liquid
crystal light panels. Some colors pass through the panels and some are blocked
by the panels and thus images are on the screen.

(ii) Digital Light Processing (DLP) digital projector: It has a set of tiny
mirrors, a separate mirror for each pixel of the image and thus provide high-
quality images. These projectors are mostly used in theatres as they fulfill the
requirement of high-quality video output.

Hardware (H/W)
Hardware (H/W), in the context of technology refers to the physical elements
that make up a computer or electronic system and everything else involved that
is physically tangible. This includes the monitor, hard drive, memory and the
CPU. Hardware works hand-in-hand with firmware and software to make a
computer function.

Hardware is an encompassing term that refers to all the physical parts that
make up a computer. The internal hardware devices that make up the computer
and ensure that it is functional are called components, while external hardware
devices that are not essential to a computer’s functions are called peripherals.

Hardware is only one part of a computer system; there is also firmware, which is
embedded into the hardware and directly controls it. There is also software,
which runs on top of the hardware and makes use of the firmware to interface
with the hardware.

Software
Computer software, or simply software, is a collection of data or computer
instructions that tell the computer how to work. This is in contrast to physical
hardware, from which the system is built and actually performs the work. In
computer science and software engineering, computer software is all
information processed by computer systems, programs and data. Computer
software includes computer programs, libraries and related non-executable
data, such as online documentation or digital media. Computer hardware and
software require each other and neither can be realistically used on its own.

The theory of the software was first proposed by Alan Turing in 1935 in his essay
“Computable numbers with an application to the Entscheidungsproblem.”
However, the word software was coined by mathematician and statistician
John Tukey in a 1958 issue of American Mathematical Monthly in which he
discussed electronic calculators’ programs.

Software is often divided into three categories:

System software serves as a base for application software. System software

includes device drivers, operating systems (OSs), compilers, disk formatters,
text editors and utilities helping the computer to operate more efficiently. It is
also responsible for managing hardware components and providing basic non-
task-specific functions. The system software is usually written in C
programming language.

Programming software is a set of tools to aid developers in writing programs.

The various tools available are compilers, linkers, debuggers, interpreters and
text editors.

Application software is intended to perform certain tasks. Examples of

application software include office suites, gaming applications, database
systems and educational software. Application software can be a single
program or a collection of small programs. This type of software is what
consumers most typically think of as “software.”

Humanware
Humanware is hardware and software that emphasizes user capability and
empowerment and the design of the user interface. The process of building
humanware generally consists of these steps:

Define users (age, mindset, environmental context, previous product experience

and expectations, and so forth) and what they really want to do.
Identify tasks they will need to do or capabilities they will want.

Specify usability objectives (if possible, these should be measurable, such as

how long to do something or how many mouse clicks to get to a specified task
point) for each task or capability.

Build a prototype of the user interface (it can be a paper or simulated prototype
if time is short).

Test and verify or correct the prototype.

Provide the prototype and usability objectives to the program designers and
coders.

Test the code against the prototype and objectives and, if necessary, redesign
or recode the software.

Test the product with users or valid test subjects and revise as necessary.

Get feedback from users and continually improve the product.

Firmware
Firmware is a software program or set of instructions programmed on a
hardware device. It provides the necessary instructions for how the device
communicates with the other computer hardware. Firmware is typically stored
in the flash ROM of a hardware device. While ROM is “read-only memory,” flash
ROM can be erased and rewritten because it is actually a type of flash memory.

Firmware can be thought of as “semi-permanent” since it remains the same

unless it is updated by a firmware updater. You may need to update the
firmware of certain devices, such as hard drives and video cards in order for
them to work with a new operating system. CD and DVD drive manufacturers
often make firmware updates available that allow the drives to read faster
media. Sometimes manufacturers release firmware updates that simply make
their devices work more efficiently.

You can usually find firmware updates by going to the “Support” or “Downloads”
area of a manufacturer’s website. Keeping your firmware up-to-date is often not
necessary, but it is still a good idea. Just make sure that once you start a
firmware updater, you let the update finish, because most devices will not
function if their firmware is not recognized.

Functions of different units of computer

FUNCTIONAL UNITS
In order to carry out the operations mentioned in the previous section the
computer allocates the task between its various functional units. The computer
system is divided into three separate units for its operation. They are

1) Arithmetic logical unit

2) Control unit.

3) Central processing unit.

An arithmetic logic unit (ALU)

An arithmetic logic unit (ALU) is a major component of the central processing
unit of a computer system. It does all processes related to arithmetic and logic
operations that need to be done on instruction words. In some microprocessor
architectures, the ALU is divided into the arithmetic unit (AU) and the logic unit
(LU).

An ALU can be designed by engineers to calculate any operation. As the

operations become more complex, the ALU also becomes more expensive, takes
up more space in the CPU and dissipates more heat. That is why engineers make
the ALU powerful enough to ensure that the CPU is also powerful and fast, but
not so complex as to become prohibitive in terms of cost and other
disadvantages.

The arithmetic logic unit is that part of the CPU that handles all the calculations
the CPU may need. Most of these operations are logical in nature. Depending on
how the ALU is designed, it can make the CPU more powerful, but it also
consumes more energy and creates more heat. Therefore, there must be a
balance between how powerful and complex the ALU is and how expensive the
whole unit becomes. This is why faster CPUs are more expensive, consume
more power and dissipate more heat.

The main functions of the ALU are to do arithmetic and logic operations,
including bit shifting operations. These are essential processes that need to be
done on almost any data that is being processed by the CPU.

ALUs routinely perform the following operations:

(i) Logical Operations: These include AND, OR, NOT, XOR, NOR, NAND, etc.

(ii) Bit-Shifting Operations: This pertains to shifting the positions of the bits
by a certain number of places to the right or left, which is considered a
multiplication operation.

(iii) Arithmetic Operations: This refers to bit addition and subtraction.

Although multiplication and division are sometimes used, these operations are
more expensive to make. Addition can be used to substitute for multiplication
and subtraction for division.

An arithmetic logic unit is also known as an integer unit (IU).

Control Unit (CU)

A control unit (CU) handles all processor control signals. It directs all input and
output flow, fetches code for instructions from microprograms and directs
other units and models by providing control and timing signals. A CU
component is considered the processor brain because it issues orders to just
about everything and ensures correct instruction execution.

A CU takes its input from the instruction and status registers. Its rules of
operation, or microprogram, are encoded in a programmable logic array (PLA),
random logic or read-only memory (ROM).

CU functions are as follows:

Controls sequential instruction execution

Interprets instructions

Guides data flow through different computer areas

Regulates and controls processor timing

Sends and receives control signals from other computer devices

Handles multiple tasks, such as fetching, decoding, execution handling and

storing results

CUs are designed in two ways:

(i) Hardwired control: Design is based on a fixed architecture. The CU is made

up of flip-flops, logic gates, digital circuits and encoder and decoder circuits
that are wired in a specific and fixed way. When instruction set changes are
required, wiring and circuit changes must be made. This is preferred in a
reduced instruction set computing (RISC) architecture, which only has a small
number of instructions.

(ii) Microprogram control: Microprograms are stored in a special control

memory and are based on flowcharts. They are replaceable and ideal because of
their simplicity.

Central processing unit (CPU)

The central processing unit (CPU) is the unit which performs most of the
processing inside a computer. To control instructions and data flow to and from
other parts of the computer, the CPU relies heavily on a chipset, which is a
group of microchips located on the motherboard.

The CPU has two components:

Control Unit: extracts instructions from memory and decodes and executes
them

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): handles arithmetic and logical operations

To function properly, the CPU relies on the system clock, memory, secondary
storage, and data and address buses.

This term is also known as a central processor, microprocessor or chip.

The CPU is the heart and brain of a computer. It receives data input, executes
instructions, and processes information. It communicates with input/output
(I/O) devices, which send and receive data to and from the CPU. Additionally,
the CPU has an internal bus for communication with the internal cache memory,
called the backside bus. The main bus for data transfer to and from the CPU,
memory, chipset, and AGP socket is called the front-side bus.

The CPU contains internal memory units, which are called registers. These
registers contain data, instructions, counters and addresses used in the ALU’s
information processing.

Some computers utilize two or more processors. These consist of separate

physical CPUs located side by side on the same board or on separate boards.
Each CPU has an independent interface, separate cache, and individual paths to
the system front-side bus. Multiple processors are ideal for intensive parallel
tasks requiring multitasking. Multicore CPUs are also common, in which a single
chip contains multiple CPUs.

Classification of computers

Analog Computers

Analog computers are used to process continuous data. Analog computers

represent variables by physical quantities. Thus any computer which solve
problem by translating physical conditions such as flow, temperature,
pressure, angular position or voltage into related mechanical or electrical
related circuits as an analog for the physical phenomenon being investigated
in general it is a computer which uses an analog quantity and produces
analog values as output. Thus an analog computer measures continuously.
Analog computers are very much speedy. They produce their results very
fast. But their results are approximately correct. All the analog computers
are special purpose computers.

Digital Computers

Digital computer represents physical quantities with the help of digits or

numbers. These numbers are used to perform Arithmetic calculations and
also make logical decision to reach a conclusion, depending on, the data they
receive from the user.

Hybrid Computers

Various specifically designed computers are with both digital and analog
characteristics combining the advantages of analog and digital computers
when working as a system. Hybrid computers are being used extensively in
process control system where it is necessary to have a close representation
with the physical world. The hybrid system provides the good precision that
can be attained with analog computers and the greater control that is
possible with digital computers, plus the ability to accept the input data in
either form.

Classification of Computers According to Size

Super Computers

Large scientific and research laboratories as well as the government

organizations have extra ordinary demand for processing data which
required tremendous processing speed, memory and other services which
may not be provided with any other category to meet their needs. Therefore
very large computers used are called Super Computers. These computers are
extremely expensive and the speed is measured in billions of instructions per
seconds.

Main Frame Computers

The most expensive, largest and the most quickest or speedy computer are
called mainframe computers. These computers are used in large companies,
factories, organizations etc. the mainframe computers are the most
expensive computers, they cost more than 20 million rupees. In this
computers 150 users are able to work on one C.P.U. The mainframes are able
to process 1 to 8 bits at a time. They have several hundreds of megabytes of
primary storage and operate at a speed measured in nano second.
Mini Computers

Mini computers are smaller than mainframes, both in size and other facilities
such as speed, storage capacity and other services. They are versatile that
they can be fitted where ever they are needed. Their speeds are rated
between one and fifty million instructions per second (MIPS). They have
primary storage in hundred to three hundred megabytes range with direct
access storage device.

Micro Computers

These are the smallest range of computers. They were introduced in the
early 70’s having less storing space and processing speed. Micro computers
of todays are equivalent to the mini computers of yesterday in terms of
performing and processing. They are also called “computer of a chip”
because its entire circuitry is contained in one tiny chip. The micro
computers have a wide range of applications including uses as portable
computer that can be plugged into any wall.

Laptop Computers

The smallest computer in size has been developed. This type of small
computers look like an office brief case and called “LAPTOP” computer. The
laptops are also termed as “PORTABLE COMPUTERS.” Due to the small size
and light weight, they become popular among the computer users. The
businessmen found laptop very useful, during traveling and when they are
far away frm their desktop computers. A typical laptop computer has all the
facilities available in microcomputer. The smallest laptops are called
“PALMTOP”.

Physical Size

Computers range in size and capability. At one end of the scale are
supercomputers, very large computers with thousands of linked
microprocessors that perform extremely complex calculations. At the other
end are tiny computers embedded in cars, TVs, stereo systems, calculators,
and appliances. These computers are built to perform a limited number of
tasks.

The personal computer, or PC, is designed to be used by one person at a

time. This section describes the various kinds of personal computers:
desktops, laptops, handheld computers, and Tablet PCs.

Desktop computers
 Desktop computers are designed for use at a desk or table. They are typically
larger and more powerful than other types of personal computers. Desktop
computers are made up of separate components. The main component,
called the system unit, is usually a rectangular case that sits on or
underneath a desk. Other components, such as the monitor, mouse, and
keyboard, connect to the system unit.

Laptop computers

Laptop computers are lightweight mobile PCs with a thin screen. They are
often called notebook computers because of their small size. Laptops can
operate on batteries, so you can take them anywhere. Unlike desktops,
laptops combine the CPU, screen, and keyboard in a single case. The screen
folds down onto the keyboard when not in use.

Handheld computers

Handheld computers, also called personal digital assistants (PDAs), are

battery-powered computers small enough to carry almost anywhere.
Although not as powerful as desktops or laptops, handhelds are useful for
scheduling appointments, storing addresses and phone numbers, and
playing games. Some have more advanced capabilities, such as making
telephone calls or accessing the Internet. Instead of keyboards, handhelds
have touch screens that you use with your finger or a stylus (a pen-shaped
pointing tool).

Tablet PCs

Tablet PCs are mobile PCs that combine features of laptops and handhelds.
Like laptops, they’re powerful and have a built-in screen. Like handhelds,
they allow you to write notes or draw pictures on the screen, usually with a
tablet pen instead of a stylus. They can also convert your handwriting into
typed text. Some Tablet PCs are “convertibles” with a screen that swivels
and unfolds to reveal a keyboard underneath.

Computer Memory
A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instructions.
Computer memory is the storage space in the computer, where data is to be
processed and instructions required for processing are stored. The memory is
divided into large number of small parts called cells. Each location or cell has a
unique address, which varies from zero to memory size minus one. For example, if
the computer has 64k words, then this memory unit has 64 * 1024 = 65536 memory
locations. The address of these locations varies from 0 to 65535.
Memory is primarily of three types −

 Cache Memory
 Primary Memory/Main Memory
 Secondary Memory

Primary memory (ROM and RAM)

Memory is the storage place where data and instructions are stored. They can be retrieved
from memory whenever required. Every computer comes with a certain amount of physical
memory, usually referred to as Main Memory or RAM. You can think of main memory as an array
of cells, each cell holding a single bit of information. This means a computer with 1MB of
memory can hold about 1 million bytes of information.

Memory is the most essential element of a computing system because without it computer
can’t perform simple tasks. Computer memory is of two basic type – Primary memory / Volatile
memory and Secondary memory / non-volatile memory. Random Access Memory (RAM) is
volatile memory and Read Only Memory (ROM) is non-volatile memory.

Random Access Memory (RAM)

It is a read/write (R/W) memory which is volatile. This means when power is turned off, all
the contents are destroyed. This is memory that can be accessed randomly that is, any byte
of memory can be accessed without touching the preceding bytes. RAM is synonymous
with main memory, the memory avaialble to programs. RAm is the most common type of
memory found in computers and other devices such as printers. There are two basic types
of RAM: Dynamic RAM (DRAM) and Static RAM(SRAM)

(i) DRAM (Dynamic RAM)

Dynamic RAM is a more common type. Dynamic RAM needs to be refreshed thousands of
times per second. DRAM stores a bit of data using a transistor and capacitor pair, which
together comprise a memory cell. The capacitor holds a high or low charge (1 or 0,
respectively), and the transistor acts as a switch that lets the control circuitry on the chip
read the capacitor’s state of charge or change it. As this form of memory is less expensive
to produce than static RAM, it is the predominant form of computer memory used in
modern computers.

(ii) SRAM (StaticRAM)

Static RAM does not need to be refreshed, which makes it faster, but it is more expensive
than dynamic RAM. In static RAM, a bit of data is stored using the state of a flip-flop. This
form of RAM is more expensive to produce, but is generally faster and requires less power
than DRAM and, in modern computers, is often used as cache memory for the CPU.

Read Only Memory (ROM)

 ROM is non-volatile which menas it retains the stored information even if power is turned
off. this memory is used to store programs that boot the computer and perform diagnostics.
therefore, we can also call ROM as the read-only RAM.

ROM is of four types:

Masked ROM: In this ROM a bit pattern is permanently recorded by a marking and
metallization process, which is an expensive and specialized one. Memory
manufacturers are generally equipped to undertake this process.

PROM (Programmable ROM): A PROM is a memory chip on which data can be

written onto only once. Once a program is written onto a PROM chip, it remains there
forever. Unlike RAM, PROM retains its contents when the computer is turned off. The
difference between a PROM and a ROM is that a PROM is manufactured as blank
memory and programmed later with a special device called PROM programmer or the
PROM burner, whereas the ROM is programmed during manufacturing process. The
process of programming a PROM is sometimes called burning a PROM.

EPROM (Erasable Programmable ROM): An EPROM is a special type of PROM that

can be erased by exposing it to ultraviolet light. Once erased, it can be
reprogrammed. An EPROM is similar to a PROM except that it requires ultravilolet
radiation to be erased.

EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM): EEPROM is a special type of

PROM that can be erased by exposing it to an electrical charge. Like other types of
PROM, EEPROM retains its contents even when the power is turned off. Also, like
other types of ROM, EEPROM is not as fast as RAM. EEPROM is similar to Flash
Memory (sometimes called flash EEPROM). The principal difference is that EEPROM
requires data to be written or erased one byte at a time whereas flash memory
allows data to be written or erased in blocks.

Cache Memory:
The speed of the CPU is extremely high as compared to the access time of main memory.
the slowness of main memory inhibits the performance of CPU. To decrease the mismatch
in operating speed, a small memory chip is attached between the CPU and the main
memory, whose access time is close to the processing speed of the CPU. It is called cache
memory. Cache memory is accessed more quickly than conventional RAM. It is used to store
programs or data currently being executed or temporary data frequently used by the CPU.

It is also called as read write memory or the main memory or the primary memory.

The programs and data that the CPU requires during execution of a program are stored in
this memory.

It is a volatile memory as the data loses when the power is turned off.

RAM is further classified into two types- SRAM (Static Random Access Memory) and DRAM
(Dynamic Random Access Memory).

Secondary memory (Hard disk, Optical disk)

 You know that processor memory, also known as primary memory, is
expensive as well as limited. The faster primary memory is also volatile. If we
need to store large amount of data or programs permanently, we need a
cheaper and permanent memory. Such memory is called secondary memory.
Here we will discuss secondary memory devices that can be used to store
large amount of data, audio, video and multimedia files.

Characteristics of Secondary Memory

These are some characteristics of secondary memory, which distinguish it
from primary memory:

It is non-volatile, i.e. it retains data when power is switched off

It is large capacities to the tune of terabytes

It is cheaper as compared to primary memory

Depending on whether secondary memory device is part of CPU or not, there

are two types of secondary memory – fixed and removable.

Hard Disk Drive

Hard disk drive is made up of a series of circular disks called platters arranged
one over the other almost ½ inches apart around a spindle. Disks are made of
non-magnetic material like aluminum alloy and coated with 10-20 nm of
magnetic material.

Standard diameter of these disks is 14 inches and they rotate with speeds
varying from 4200 rpm (rotations per minute) for personal computers to 15000
rpm for servers. Data is stored by magnetizing or demagnetizing the magnetic
coating. A magnetic reader arm is used to read data from and write data to the
disks. A typical modern HDD has capacity in terabytes (TB).

CD Drive

CD stands for Compact Disk. CDs are circular disks that use optical rays, usually
lasers, to read and write data. They are very cheap as you can get 700 MB of
storage space for less than a dollar. CDs are inserted in CD drives built into CPU
cabinet. They are portable as you can eject the drive, remove the CD and carry it
with you. There are three types of CDs ?
CD-ROM (Compact Disk – Read Only Memory) ? The data on these CDs are recorded by
the manufacturer. Proprietary Software, audio or video are released on CD-ROMs.

CD-R (Compact Disk – Recordable) ? Data can be written by the user once on the CD-R. It
cannot be deleted or modified later.

CD-RW (Compact Disk – Rewritable) ? Data can be written and deleted on these optical
disks again and again.

DVD Drive

DVD stands for Digital Video Display. DVD is optical devices that can store 15
times the data held by CDs. They are usually used to store rich multimedia files
that need high storage capacity. DVDs also come in three varieties – read only,
recordable and rewritable.

Pen Drive

Pen drive is a portable memory device that uses solid state memory rather than
magnetic fields or lasers to record data. It uses a technology similar to RAM,
except that it is nonvolatile. It is also called USB drive, key drive or flash
memory.

Blu Ray Disk

Blu Ray Disk (BD) is an optical storage media used to store high definition (HD)
video and other multimedia filed. BD uses shorter wavelength laser as compared
to CD/DVD. This enables writing arm to focus more tightly on the disk and hence
pack in more data. BDs can store up to 128 GB data.

Optical Disk

An optical disk is any computer disk that uses optical storage techniques and
technology to read and write data. It is a computer storage disk that stores data
digitally and uses laser beams (transmitted from a laser head mounted on an
optical disk drive) to read and write data.

An optical disk is primarily used as a portable and secondary storage device. It

can store more data than the previous generation of magnetic storage media,
and has a relatively longer lifespan. Compact disks (CD), digital versatile/video
disks (DVD) and Blu-ray disks are currently the most commonly used forms of
optical disks. These disks are generally used to:

 Distribute software to customers

 Store large amounts of data such as music, images and videos
 Transfer data to different computers or devices
 Back up data from a local machine