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PRACTICAL GUIDE TO
ROTATIONAL MOULDING
PRACTICAL GUIDE TO
ROTATIONAL MOULDING
Third Edition
ROY J. CRAWFORD
University of Waikato, New Zealand;
Queen’s University, Belfast, United Kingdom
MARK P. KEARNS
Polymer Processing Research Centre (PPRC)
School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering
Queen’s University Belfast, Northern Ireland
Elsevier
Radarweg 29, PO Box 211, 1000 AE Amsterdam, Netherlands
The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom
50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in
evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described
herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety
and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or
editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter
of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods,
products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.
Preface ix
v
vi Contents
It continues to be very encouraging to see the way in which the first two
editions of this book have proved popular with readers throughout the world.
The practical approach, with the extensive use of photographs to illustrate
key points, has enabled a wide range of people to get access to simple and
advanced technologies available within the rotational moulding industry
today.
Since the publication of the first edition of this book almost 20 years
ago, it has been pleasing to note the continuing evolution of the industry
worldwide. New market sectors continue to be developed, new types of
products have emerged, and new and improved technologies and materials
have become available to ensure better quality products can be offered to
customers.
This third edition provides an update on the new technologies that are
continuing to be developed,and the new types of products that are becoming
available. I have also looked into the crystal ball again to predict some of the
developments that will become available in the future – for example, greater
levels of automation, increased use of robotics, etc.
I am very grateful to people throughout the global rotomoulding in-
dustry who have had input to this third edition – by providing advice,
photographs, data and encouragement. I hope that the third edition will
continue to be useful to those who are new to rotomoulding, as well as those
experienced in the industry and are striving to push back the boundaries of
this extremely versatile manufacturing technology.
Lastly, I would like to thank the family of Prof. Roy Crawford for the
opportunity, within this publication, to continue his legacy of education in
rotational moulding.
Mark Kearns
Queens University, Belfast, UK
September 2021
ix
CHAPTER ONE
Practical Guide to Rotational Moulding, Third Edition. Copyright © 2022 Elsevier Inc.
1
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-822406-9.00001-9 All rights reserved.
2 Practical guide to rotational moulding
the powder flow, melt flow and thermal stability of this material are ideally
suited to this unique process.
Rotational moulding remains a very competitive alternative to blow
moulding, thermoforming and injection moulding for the manufacture of
large and small hollow plastic products. This is because it offers designers
the opportunity to achieve the economic production of relatively stress-
free articles, with almost uniform wall thickness and potentially complex
shapes.
Typical moulded parts include bulk containers, tanks, canoes, toys, medi-
cal equipment, automotive parts and ducts, as illustrated in Figs. 1.1–1.11 and
Section 1.7.
A significant drawback of rotational moulding is that the cycle times
are relatively long compared to other plastic fabrication processes. Table 1.1
shows typical processing conditions, tooling costs and production rates
associated with blow moulding, thermoforming and rotational moulding. In
Introduction to the rotational moulding process 3
Figure 1.4 Storage case for military equipment. (Courtesy of CP Cases Ltd.)
enjoyed the fastest growth rate of any manufacturing method for plastics,
mainly because the economics are attractive to designers and as it is a low
pressure process, the moulded parts are essentially stress-free.
In Stage 2, it can be seen that the other half of the mould has been
clamped into position and the mould begins to rotate biaxially in a heated
environment. This is often a hot air convection oven, but the mould could
be heated by a variety of methods that include electricity, infrared, hot oil,
open flames or even solar.
It is important to note that the mould rotation is relatively slow–
typically less than 10 rev/min. Thus the process should not be confused with
8 Practical guide to rotational moulding
centrifugal casting in which the mould rotates at high speed and the plastic is
thrown out against the mould wall. Although it might be attractive to rotate
the mould at high speeds to increase productivity, the out-of-balance forces
caused by the complex shape and size of moulds do not permit this.
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tumblerful of home-brewed ale or a glass or two of wine daily; but, as
I before remarked, in the generality of cases, either toast and water,
or barley-water and milk, for the first week after a confinement, is
the best beverage.
607. After a week, either a tumblerful of mild home-brewed ale or
of London or Dublin porter, where it agrees, should be taken at
dinner; but if ale or porter be given, wine ought not to be allowed. It
would be well to keep either to ale or to porter, as may best agree
with the patient, and not to mix them, nor to take porter at one meal
and ale at another.
608. Barreled, in this case, is superior to bottled porter, as it
contains less fixed air. On the whole, however, I should prefer home-
brewed ale to porter. Either old, or very new, or very strong ale,
ought not, at this time, to be given.
609. Great care is required in the summer, as the warm weather is
apt to turn the beer acid. Such beer would not only disagree with the
mother, but would disorder the milk, and thus the infant. A nursing
mother sometimes endeavors to correct sour porter or beer by
putting soda in it. This plan is objectionable, as the constant taking
of soda is weakening to the stomach and impoverishing to the blood.
Moreover, it is impossible, by any artificial expedient, to make either
tart beer or porter sound and wholesome, and fit for a nursing
mother. If beer or porter be sour, it is not fit to drink, and ought
either to be thrown away or should be given to the pigs.
610. Sometimes neither wine nor malt liquor agrees; then, either
new milk and water, or equal parts of fresh milk and barley-water,
will generally be found the best beverage. If milk should also
disagree, either barley-water, or toast and water, ought to be
substituted.
CHANGE OF ROOM.
611. The period at which a lying-in woman should leave her room
will, of course, depend upon the season, and upon the state of her
health. She may, after the first fourteen days, usually change the
chamber for the drawing-room, provided it be close at hand; if it be
not, she ought, during the day, to remove—be either wheeled or
carried in a chair—from one bedroom to another, as change of
apartment will then be desirable. The windows, during her absence
from the room, ought to be thrown wide open; and the bedclothes, in
order that they may be well ventilated, should be thrown back. She
should, at the end of three weeks, take her meals with the family; but
even then she ought occasionally, during the day, to lie on the sofa to
rest her back.
613. A mother ought not, unless she intend to devote herself to her
baby, to undertake to suckle him. She must make up her mind to
forego the so-called pleasures of fashionable life. There ought, in a
case of this kind, to be no half-and-half measures; she should either
give up her helpless babe to the tender mercies of a wet-nurse, or she
must devote her whole time and energy to his welfare—to the
greatest treasure that God hath given her.
614. If a mother be blessed with health and strength, it is most
unnatural and very cruel for her not to suckle her child—
“Connubial fair! whom no fond transport warms
To lull your infant in maternal arms;
Who, blessed in vain with tumid bosoms, hear
His tender wailings with unfeeling ear;
The soothing kiss and milky rill deny
To the sweet pouting lip and glistening eye!
Ah! what avails the cradle’s damask roof,
The eider bolster, and embroidered woof!
Oft hears the gilded couch unpitied plains,
And many a tear the tasseled cushion stains!
No voice so sweet attunes his cares to rest,
So soft no pillow as his mother’s breast!—
Thus charmed to sweet repose, when twilight hours
Shed their soft influence on celestial bowers,
The cherub Innocence, with smile divine,
Shuts his white wings, and sleeps on beauty’s shrine.”[111]
615. Oh, if a mother did but know the joy that suckling her infant
imparts, she would never for one moment contemplate having a wet-
nurse to rob her of that joy—
“The starting beverage meets the thirsty lip;
’Tis joy to yield it, and ’tis joy to sip.”[112]
THE BREAST.
617. As soon as the patient has recovered from the fatigue of the
labor—that is to say, in about four or six hours—attention ought to be
paid, more especially in a first confinement, to the bosoms.
618. In a first confinement, there is, until the third day, but very
little milk; although there is usually on that day, and for two or three
days afterward, a great deal of swelling, of hardness, of distention,
and of uneasiness of the breasts, in consequence of which, in a first
confinement, both care and attention are needed.
619. If there be milk in the breast, which may be readily
ascertained by squeezing the nipple between the finger and the
thumb, the infant should, at first, be applied—not frequently, as
some do, but at considerable intervals, say until the milk be properly
secreted—every four hours; when the milk flows, the child ought to
be applied more frequently, but still at stated times.
620. To wash away any viscid mucus from the nipple, or any stale
perspiration from the bosom, let the breasts and the nipples, before
applying the baby, be first sponged with a little warm water, and then
be dried with a warm, dry, soft napkin; for some infants are so
particular that unless the breasts and the nipples be perfectly free
from mucus and from perspiration, they will not suck. If after the
above cleansing process there be any difficulty in making him take
the bosom, smear a little cream on the nipple, and then immediately
apply him to it.
621. If the breasts be full, hard, knotty, and painful, which they
generally are two or three days after a first confinement, let them be
well but tenderly rubbed every four hours, either with the best olive
oil (a little of which should, before using it, be previously warmed, by
putting a little of the oil in a teacup on the hob by the fire) or with
equal parts of olive oil and of eau de Cologne, which should be well
shaken up in a bottle every time before it be used.
622. On the third day, more especially after a first confinement,
the breasts are apt to become very much swollen, painful, and
distended. If such be the case, it might be necessary, for a few days,
to have them drawn, once or twice daily, by a woman who makes it
her business, and who is usually called either a breast-drawer, or, in
vulgar parlance, a suck-pap. A clean, sober, healthy, respectable
woman ought to be selected. There is, in nearly every large town, one
generally to be found who is at the head of her profession. Such a one
should be chosen.
623. If the bosoms be more than usually large and painful, in
addition to assiduously using the above liniment, apply to the
breasts, in the intervals, young cabbage-leaves, which should be
renewed after each rubbing. Before applying them, the “veins” of the
leaves, with a sharp knife, must be cut smooth, level with the leaf. It
will require several, as the whole of the breast ought to be covered.
The cabbage-leaves will be found both cooling and comfortable. Each
bosom should then be nicely supported with a soft folded silk
handkerchief, going under each breast and suspending it; each
handkerchief should then be tied at the back of the neck, thus acting
as a kind of sling.
624. The patient ought not, while the breasts are full and
uncomfortable, to drink much fluid, as it would only encourage a
larger secretion of milk.
625. When the milk is at “its height,” as it is called, she ought every
morning, for a couple of mornings, to take a little cooling medicine—
a Seidlitz powder—and, every four hours, the following effervescing
mixture:
Take of—Bicarbonate of Potash, one drachm and a half;
Distilled Water, eight ounces:
635. A nursing mother ought to have her dress, more especially her
stays, made loose and comfortable.
636. A gathered breast sometimes arises from the bones of the
stays pressing into the bosom; I should, therefore, recommend her to
have the bones removed.
637. If a lady be not in the habit of wearing a flannel waistcoat, she
ought at least to have her bosoms covered with flannel, taking care
that there be a piece of soft linen over the nipples.
638. I should advise a nursing mother to provide herself with a
waterproof nursing apron, which may be procured either at any
baby-linen establishment or at an india-rubber warehouse.
DIETARY.
656. Good habits are as easily formed as bad ones. A mother, when
in bed, ought always to suckle her child while she is lying down. The
sitting up in bed, during such times, is a fruitful source of
inflammation and of gathering of the breasts. Of course, during the
day the sitting-up position is the best. Let me caution her not to
nurse her baby in a half-sitting and half-lying posture; it will spoil
her figure, disturb her repose, and weaken her back.
THE TEMPER.
There is an old and a true saying, “that it is the stomach that makes
the man,” and if the man, the woman:
“Your stomach makes your fabric roll,
Just as the bias rules the bowl.”[117]
OCCUPATION.
AILMENTS, Etc.