Classification

Grouping organisms on the basis of the features they have in common and the
signs of life they show (Nutrition, Respiration, Movement, Excretion, Growth,
Reproduction, Irritability)
Species: A group of animals that can (potentially interbreed) reproduce to
produce (viable) fertile offspring.
It is the smallest natural group of organisms. Closely related species are
grouped into a genus (plural: genera)
Binomial system: The internationally agreed system in which the scientific
(Latin) name of an organism is made up of two parts showing the genus and
species.
Binomial means ‘two names’ the first gives the genus (biological name; capital)
and the second gives the species (specific character; small).
Dichotomous Key: A scientific tool used to identify different unfamiliar
organisms, based on their observable traits (characteristics)
Dichotomous means ‘two branches’ it will present two choices based on the
key characteristics of the organism in each step. They consist of a series of
statements in each step that will lead users to the correct identification.
The five-kingdom scheme;
The kingdom is the largest group or category of organisms recognized by
biologists. Each group is called a phylum (plural; phyla), divided into classes
and subclasses.
The Prokaryote (Monera) kingdom: Bacteria and Cyanobacteria [blue-green
algae]
1. They consist of single cells (unicellular).
2. Both heterotrophic and autotrophic.
3. Their chromosomes are not organized into a nucleus (non-existent
nuclear membrane and organelles)
4. Cell wall made of peptidoglycan or murein.
The Protoctist Kingdom: Amoeba and Algae [Aquatic] (Eukaryotes)
1. They are mainly single-celled (unicellular) organisms.
2. Both heterotrophic (take in and digest solid food internally) and
autotrophic.
3. Have their chromosomes enclosed in a nuclear membrane to form the
nucleus.
The Fungi Kingdom: Mushrooms, Toadstools, Puffballs, Bracket (parasitic),
Mold or Yeast Fungi etc. (Eukaryotes)
1. They are multicellular.
2. Heterotrophic.
3. Most fungi are made up of thread-like hyphae branching from a
mycelium rather than cells, many nuclei are scattered throughout the
cytoplasm in it.
4. Hyphae wall is made of chitin.
5. A parasite is an organism living on another organism (the host) gaining
food and shelter from it.
The Plant(ae) kingdom: Flowering Plants, Ferns, Moss etc. (Eukaryotes)
 Plants are made up of many cells - they are multicellular.
 Members of the Plantae kingdom contain cells with chloroplasts
consisting of photosynthetic pigments (e.g. chlorophyll). Autotrophic.
 Plant cells have an external wall made of cellulose.
Ferns: (Bracken, Polypody, Spleenwort, Harts tongue, Male Fern etc.)
1. Ferns are land plants with well-developed structures.
2. Their stems, leaves and roots are very similar to those of the flowering
plants.
3. The stem is usually completely below ground. In bracken, the stem
grows horizontally below ground, seeding up leaves at intervals.
4. The stem and leaves have sieve tubes and water conducting cells like
those in the xylem and phloem of a flowering plant. Roots grow directly
from the stem.
5. The leaves of ferns vary from one species to another, but they are all
several cells thick. Most of them have an upper and lower epidermis, a
layer of palisade cells and a spongy mesophyll, like the leaves of the
flowering plants.
 6. Reproduction; Ferns produce gametes but no seeds. The zygote gives
rise to the fern plant, which then produces single-celled spores from
many sporangia (spore capsule) on its leaves. The sporangia are formed
on the lower side of the leaf, but their position depends on the species
of fern. The sporangia are usually arranged in compact groups.
Flowering plants: (Monocotyledon and Dicotyledons etc.)
 Flowering plants reproduce by seeds that are formed in flowers. The
seeds are enclosed in an ovary.
Flowering plants are divided into two subclasses:
 A cotyledon is an embryonic leaf which often contains food stores.
Monocotyledons (Monocots)
 Have only one cotyledon in their seeds.
 Most, but not all, monocots also have long, narrow leaves with parallel
leaf veins. (e.g. grasses, daffodils, bluebells).
 Multiples of 3 or 4 petals, sepals and carpels.
Dicotyledons (Dicots)
 Have two cotyledons in their seeds.
 Their leaves are usually broad, and the leaf veins form a branching
network. (e.g. fruits and vegetables)
 Multiples of 5 or 6 floral parts.
The Animal(ia) kingdom: Vertebrates and Invertebrates (Eukaryotes)
 Animals are multicellular. Heterotrophic
Invertebrates/Arthropods:
 They include all invertebrates.
 The name arthropod means ‘jointed limb’ and this a feature common to
them all.
 They also have a firm, hard external skeleton, called cuticle which
encloses their bodies.
 Their bodies are segmented (made up of several sections) and, between
the segments, there are flexible joints which allow movement.
  In most arthropods, the segments are grouped together to form distinct
regions, the head, thorax (the middle section) and abdomen (the part of
the body behind the thorax).
Crustacea: (Marine Carb, Prawn, Lobster, Barnacles; Freshwater Shrimp and
Water Fleas; Land-dwelling Woodlice etc.)
1. Like all arthropods custacea have a (rigid) exoskeleton and jointed legs.
2. They also have 2 pairs of antennae (long thin feelers attached to the
head; featherlike or clubbed) which are sensitive to the touch and to
chemicals (smell).
3. Compound eyes are made up of tens or hundreds of separate lenses
with light-sensitive cells underneath. They can form a simple image and
are very sensitive to movement.
4. Most crustaceans have a pair of jointed limbs on each segment of the
body, but those on the head segments are modified to form antennae or
specialized mouth-parts for feeding.
Insects: (Wasps, Dragonflies, Butterflies, Mosquitoes, Houseflies, Earwigs,
Beetles etc.)
1. Insects form the very large class of arthropods.
2. Insects have segmented bodies with a firm exoskeleton, 3 pairs of
jointed legs, compound eyes, 1 pair of antennae and usually 2 pairs of
wings.
3. The segments are grouped into distinct head, thorax and abdomen
regions. There are no limbs on the abdominal regions.
4. One reason for their success is that their cuticle prevents water loss
from inside the body and stops water entering the body. So the body of
an insect is prevented from drying out even in very hot, dry climates.
Arachnids: (Spiders, Scorpions, Mites, Ticks etc.)
1. Their bodies are divided into two regions, a combined head and thorax
region, called the cephalothorax, and the abdomen. They have 4 pairs of
limbs on their cephalothorax.
2. In addition, there are 2 pairs of pedipalps. One pair is used in
reproduction; the other is used to pierce their prey and paralyze it with
poison secreted by a gland at the base.
3. There are usually several pairs of simple eyes.
Myriapods: (Centipedes and Millipedes.)
1. They have a head and a segmented body that is not clearly divided into
thorax and abdomen.
2. There is a pair of legs on each body segment but in the millipede the
abdominal regions are merged together in pairs and it looks as if it has 2
pairs of legs per segment. As the myriapod grows, extra segments are
formed.
3. Myriapods have 1 pair of antennae and simple eyes. Respiratory
exchange occurs through a tracheal system.
4. Centipedes are carnivores but millipedes are herbivores.

Insects Arachnids Crustaceans Myriapod

Three pairs of Four pairs of legs Five or more 10 or more pairs
legs pairs of legsof legs usually
one pair per
segment
Body divided into Body divided into Body divided into Body not
head, thorax and cephalothorax combined head obviously divided
abdomen and abdomen an thorax and into thorax and
abdomen abdomen
One pair of No antennae Two pairs of One pair of
antennae antennae antennae
One pair of Several pairs of One pair of Simple eyes
compound eyes simple eyes compound eyes
Usually have two Pair of pedipalps Exoskeleton
pairs of wings adapted for often forms a
biting and hard covering
poisoning prey over most of the
body

Vertebrates:
 Are animals which have a vertebral column and consists of a chain of
cylindrical bones (vertebrae) joined end to end.
 Each vertebra carries an arch of bone on its dorsal (upper) surface. This
protects the spinal cord, which runs the length of spinal column.
 The front end of the spinal cord is expanded to form a brain, which is
enclosed and guarded by the skull.
Body temperature:
Cold-blooded:
 The point is that these animals have a variable body temperature that,
to some extent, depends on the temperature of their surroundings.
 There is no internal mechanism for temperature control. The animal’s
body movements may become slow if the surrounding temperature falls
(speed and reaction to predators and prey affected by low
temperatures)
Warm-blooded:
 Warm-blooded animals usually have a body temperature that is higher
than their surroundings.
 The main difference, however, is that these temperatures are kept
mainly constant despite any variation in external temperature.
 There are internal regulatory mechanisms that keep the body
temperature within narrow limits.
Fish: (Trout, Rohu, Sharks etc.)
1. Fish are cold-blooded vertebrates.
2. Many of them have a smooth, streamlined shape that allows them to
move through the water easily.
3. Their bodies are covered with overlapping scales and they have fins,
which are important in movement.
4. Fish have filamentous gills to breathe. The gills are protected by a bony
plate called the operculum.
5. Fish reproduce sexually but fertilization usually takes place externally;
the female lays eggs and male sheds sperms on them after they have
been laid.
Amphibia: (Frogs, Toads, Newts etc.)
1. Amphibia are cold blooded vertebrates with 4 limbs and no scales.
2. The name, amphibian, means ‘double life’ and refers to the fact that the
organism spends part of its life in water and part on the land.
3. Most amphibians spend their life on the land where it is moist and
return to water only to lay eggs.
4. Amphibia have moist skin with a good supply of capillaries, which can
exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide with the air or water.
 5. They also have lungs that can be inflated by a kind of swallowing action.
They do not have a diaphragm or ribs.
6. They migrate to ponds where males and females pair up. The male
climbs on the females back and grips firmly with his front legs. When the
female lays eggs, the male immediately releases sperms over them.
7. Fertilization, therefore, is external even though the frogs are in close
contact for the event.
Reptiles: (Lizards, Snakes, Turtles, Tortoises, Crocodiles etc.)
1. Reptiles are land-living vertebrates.
2. Their skins are dry and the outer layer of epidermis forms a pattern of
scales, it helps prevent water loss.
3. Also, the egg of most species have tough, paper-like shell. So, reptiles
are not limited to damp habitats (no water to breed)
4. Reptiles are cold-blooded, but they try to regulate their temperature,
by lying in the sun until their bodies heat up. They can move about
rapidly to chase insects and other prey.
5. Reptiles mainly have 4 limbs, each with 5 toes.
6. Male and female reptiles mate, and sperms are passed into the
female’s body. So, the eggs are fertilized internally being laid. In some
species, the females keeps the eggs in the body until they are ready
to hatch.
7. Instead, reptiles breathe air only through their lungs which are more
efficient for gaseous exchange than amphibians.
Birds: (Sparrow, Pigeon etc.)
1. Birds are warm-blooded vertebrates.
2. The vertebral column in the neck is flexible but rest is merged to form a
rigid structure. As the powerful wings muscles need a frame to work
against.
3. The epidermis over most of the body produces a covering of feathers
but, the legs and toes, the epidermis forms scales.
4. There are several kinds; the fully down feather form an insulating layer
close to the skin, the contour feathers cover the body and give the bird
its shape and coloration, the large quill feathers on the wing are vital for
flight.
5. Birds have 4 limbs, but the forelimbs are modified to form wings.
 6. The feet have 4 toes with claws, which help the bird catch prey, scratch
for seeds or capture prey.
7. The upper and lower jaws are extended to from a beak, which is used for
feeding in various ways.
8. In birds, fertilization is internal and the female lays hard-shelled eggs in a
nest where she incubates (warm and safe) them.
Mammals: (Mouse, striped hyena etc.)
1. Warm-blooded vertebrates with 4 limbs. They have hair or fur.
2. Unlike other vertebrates, they have a diaphragm, which plays a part in
breathing.
3. They also have mammary glands and suckle their young on milk, it
contains all the nutrients that the offspring need for the first few weeks
or months, depending on species.
4. All mammals give birth to fully formed young instead of laying eggs. The
eggs are fertilized internally and go through a period of development in
the uterus.
5. A four-chamber heart.

Vertebrate Fish Amphibia Reptiles Birds Mammals

class
Body Scales Moist skin Dry skin Feathers, Fur
Covering with scales with
scales on
legs
Movement Fins (also used 4 limbs, 4 legs 2 wings 4 limbs
for balance) back feet (apart from and 2 legs
are often snakes)
webbed
to make
swimming
more
efficient
Sense Eyes; no ears; Eyes; ears Eyes; ears Eyes; ears Eyes; ear
organs lateral line with pinna
along body for (external
detecting flap) [3
vibrations in middle ear
water bones]
Reproducti Produce jelly- Produce Produce Produce Produce
on covered eggs in jelly- eggs with a eggs with live young
water covered rubbery a hard
eggs in water- shell; laid
water proof shell; on land
laid on land
Other Cold-blooded; Cold- Cold- Warm- Warm-
details gills for blooded; blooded; blooded; blooded;
breathing lungs and lungs for lungs for lungs for
skin for breathing breathing; breathing;
breathing beak four types
of
specialized
teeth

Viruses:
1. A virus is an infectious agent that can only replicate within a host
organism, they can contaminate a variety of living organisms. So, they
are not cells.
2. Viruses are so small that a microscope is necessary to visualize them,
and they have a very simple structure.
3. Most complete virus particles, called virions, have a central core
containing nucleic acid coiled in either DNA (double-stranded) or RNA
(single-stranded) surrounded by a protective protein coat (capsid).
4. They are produced from identical protein subunits called capsomeres
enclosing the genetic material.
5. Viruses have no nucleus, cytoplasm, organelles and cell membrane.
Though, some forms have a membrane outside the protein coat.