BIOLOGY 1210 Week 10

• Study Units
• Reproduction in Animals
• Animal Development
• Genetic Basis of Development

Lab
• Invertebrate Embryology
• Plant Growth
 Reproduction in Animals - Objectives
1. Describe the variations in patterns of sexual reproduction.

2. Discuss sexual selection, mating systems and mate choice.

3. Contrast external and internal fertilization, and relate the mode of

fertilization and egg development to animal habitat and lifestyle.

4. Describe components of the male and female reproductive system.

Key Concepts

• Both asexual and sexual reproduction occur in the animal

kingdom.

• Fertilization depends on mechanisms that bring together

sperm and eggs of the same species.

• Reproductive organs produce and transport gametes.

Objective 1
• Describe the variations in patterns of sexual
reproduction.

• Animals often have seasonal reproductive activities.

• Some animals reproduce both asexually and sexually.
• Some animals are hermaphrodites.
• Some hermaphrodites are sequential hermaphrodites.
 Reproductive Cycles are often seasonal
• Most animals exhibit reproductive cycles is related to changing seasons.
• This conserves resources and ensures reproduction with sufficient energy
stores or food resources.

• It also enables better offspring survival (e.g., with warmer temperatures).

• Reproductive cycles are controlled by hormones and environmental cues e.g.,

day length, temperature, rainfall, lunar cycle.
Concept 46.1: Both asexual and sexual reproduction occur in
the animal kingdom

• Sexual reproduction is the creation of offspring by fusion of a male

gamete (sperm) and female gamete (egg) to form a zygote.

• Asexual reproduction is creation of offspring without the fusion of egg

and sperm. (Review examples discussed in Week 9 course material).
 Mechanisms of Asexual Reproduction in Animals
• Parthenogenesis –
• diploid egg develops into new individual.
• Fragmentation and regeneration -
• a piece breaks off from adult and with regeneration there is
replacement of the adult part lost.
• Budding is a simple form of asexual reproduction found only among
invertebrates -
• new individuals arise from outgrowths of existing ones.
• Fission
• separation of a parent into two or more individuals of about the
same size.

Figure 46.2 Asexual reproduction of a sea anemone (Anthopleura elegantissima).

Variation in Patterns of Sexual Reproduction
• For many animals, finding a partner for sexual reproduction may be
challenging.
• One solution is hermaphroditism, in which each individual has male and
female reproductive systems at the same time.
• Two hermaphrodites can mate, and some hermaphrodites can self-
fertilize.
• The animals below are hermaphrodites.
• Each one produces both sperm and eggs.
• New organisms will hatch from fertilized eggs from both individuals

Figure 46.1 How can each of these

Figure 46.3 Hermaphroditic banana slugs.
earthworms be both male and female?
 Sequential
Hermaphroditism:
individuals of some
species undergo sex
reversals.

Caribbean blue head wrasse.

All individuals are born female, but the
oldest and largest becomes male.
 Sequential
hermaphroditism

Slipper limpet (Phylum Mollusca).

All individuals are born male, but the oldest, and
bottom-most, becomes female.
Some animals reproduce sexually and
asexually e.g., Daphnia (water-flea).
Asexual Sexual

• When does this occur? • When does this occur?

• Advantages? • Advantages?
• Disadvantages? • Disadvantages?
• Mechanisms?

https://www.nature.com/articles/srep34241/figures/1
Sexual Reproduction: An Evolutionary Enigma
• Sex enhance reproductive success.
• Sexual females have half as many daughters as asexual females.
• This is the “twofold cost” of sexual reproduction.
• Despite this, almost all eukaryotic species reproduce sexually.

Figure 46.6
The “reproductive
handicap” of sex.
Objective 2.
Discuss sexual selection, mating systems and mate
choice.
Sexual Selection
• Sexual selection is natural selection for mating success.

• It can result in sexual dimorphism, marked differences between the

sexes in secondary sexual characteristics.

• Reproductive success acts on characteristics associated with

acquiring mates (e.g., secondary sexual characteristics).

Figure 23.14 Sexual dimorphism and sexual selection.

Sexual Selection
• Intrasexual selection is direct competition among individuals
of one sex for mates of the opposite sex (often males).

• Intersexual selection, often called mate choice, occurs when

individuals of one sex (usually females) are choosy in mate
selection.

• Male showiness due to mate choice increases male’s chances

of attracting a female, while decreasing his chances of survival.
Mating behavior and mate choice
• Play roles in determining reproductive success.

• Mating behavior includes:

• seeking and attracting mates.
• choosing among potential mates.
• competing for mates.
• caring for offspring.
Mating systems
These vary among different species and can be:

• Promiscuous (no strong pair-bonds).

• Monogamous (one male and one female).

• Polygamous
• Polygyny (single male and many females).
• Polyandry (single female and many males).
 Sexual Dimorphism

• Extent to which males and females of a particular

species differ in appearance.

• With monogamy – sexes are often alike (monomorphic).

• With polygyny – males often more ornate.

dimorphic
• With polyandry – females more ornate.
Mating Systems and Sexual Dimorphism
• Males and females with monogamous mating systems have
similar external morphologies e.g., western gulls.

Figure 51.14a Relationship between mating system and male and female forms.
Mating Systems and Sexual Dimorphism
• In polygyny, one male mates with many females e.g., elk.
• Males usually more showy and larger than females.

Figure 51.14b Elk

Mating Systems and Sexual Dimorphism
• In polyandry, one female mates with many males (e.g., red-
neck phalaropes).
• In this case, the females are often more showy than males.

Figure 51.14c Relationship between mating system and male and female forms. Wilson’s Phalaropes
Mate choice
• Usually females choose amongst potential mates.

• Females usually have a higher investment in

reproduction.

• This is shown through – larger gamete (ovum),

fewer ova over lifespan, gestation, parental care.
Mate Choice by Females
• Female choice is a type of intersexual selection.

• Females can drive sexual selection by choosing males with

specific behaviours or features of anatomy.

• Female stalk-eyed flies choose males with relatively long eyestalks.

• Ornaments like long eyestalks, often correlate with health and vitality.

Figure 51.16 Male stalk-eyed flies.

Goal of mate choice
• Selection of mate of highest genetic quality.

• Informed through:

• Showy traits of significant physiological cost often

assoc. with lowest parasite loads.

• Expensive traits – brightly colored feathers, body

symmetry, nuptial gifts, best territories.
 Male Competition for Mates

• Male competition for mates is a

source of sexual selection that can
reduce variation among males.

• Such competition may involve

agonistic behaviour, an often
ritualized contest that determines
which competitor gains access to a
resource.

Figure 51.20 Agonistic interaction.

Mating Systems and Parental Care
• Needs of the young are an important factor constraining
evolution of mating systems.

• Consider bird species where chicks need a continuous supply

of food.
• A male maximizes his reproductive success by staying with his mate
and caring for his chicks (monogamy).

• Consider bird species where chicks are soon able to feed and
care for themselves.
• A male maximizes his reproductive success by seeking additional
mates (polygyny).
 Mating Systems and Parental Care –
Certainty of Paternity
• Certainty of paternity influences parental care and mating behavior.

• Females can be certain that eggs laid or young born contain her
genes; however, paternal certainty depends on mating behavior.

• Paternal certainty is relatively low in species with internal

fertilization because mating and birth are separated over time.
Mating Systems and Parental Care –
Certainty of Paternity
• Certainty of paternity is much higher when egg laying and
mating occur together, as in external fertilization.

• In species with external fertilization, parental care is at least as

likely to be by males as by females.

Figure 51.15 Paternal care by a male jawfish.

Applying Game Theory
• In some species, sexual selection has driven evolution of
alternative mating behaviour and morphology in males.

• Fitness of a particular phenotype (behaviour or morphology)

depends on phenotypes of other individuals.

• Game theory evaluates alternative strategies where the

outcome depends on each individual’s strategy and the
strategy of other individuals.
 Applying Game Theory
• For example, each side-blotched
lizard has orange, blue, or yellow
throat.

• Strategy for obtaining mates:

• Orange-throat males - most
aggressive and defend large
territories.

• Blue-throats- defend small

territories.

• Yellow-throats - nonterritorial,
mimic females, and use
“sneaky” strategies to mate.
Applying Game Theory
• Like rock-paper-scissors, each strategy will
outcompete one strategy but be outcompeted by
another strategy.

• Success of each strategy depends on frequency of

all of strategies.

• This drives frequency-dependent selection.

Objective 3
Contrast external and internal fertilization, and
relate the mode of fertilization and egg development
to the habitat and lifestyle of the animal.
Concept 46.2: Fertilization depends on mechanisms that
bring together sperm and eggs of the same species
• In external fertilization, eggs shed by the female are fertilized by sperm
in the external environment.

• A moist environment is required for external fertilization. Why?

Spawning - individuals cluster in the

same area to release their gametes
into the water at the same time.

In some cases, chemical signals

trigger spawning; in others,
environmental cues are responsible.

Figure 46.7 External fertilization.

Internal Fertilization
• Internal fertilization - sperm are deposited in or near female
reproductive tract, and fertilization occurs within the tract.

• Internal fertilization requires behavioural interactions and compatible

copulatory organs.

• All fertilization requires critical timing, often mediated by

environmental cues, pheromones, and/or courtship behaviour.

• Internal fertilization is typically associated with production of fewer

gametes but the survival of a higher fraction of zygotes.

• It is also often associated with mechanisms to provide protection of

embryos and parental care of young.
Ensuring the Survival of Offspring
• Embryos of some terrestrial animals develop in eggs with calcium- and
protein-containing shells and several internal membranes.

• Other animals retain the embryo, which develops inside the female.

• In many animals, parental care helps ensure survival of offspring.

Figure 46.8 Parental care in an

invertebrate.
Giant water bug.
After internal fertilization the
female glues fertilized eggs to
males who carry them for days
often fanning them to keep them
aerated and parasite free.
Oviparous
• Eggs shed, deposited or
laid directly into the
environment.

• Embryonic development
occurs outside the
mother’s body.

• Examples: most
invertebrates, fish,
amphibians
(salamanders), reptiles, Chicken Animal Egg - Bing images
birds, some mammals
(duck-billed platypus).
 Ovoviviparous
• Eggs develop and hatch
within mother’s body,
but she does not
provide nourishment to
developing embryo.

• Examples: freshwater
clams, oysters, some
crustaceans, sea horses,
lizards, a few snakes.

https://blogs.ubc.ca/mrpletsch/2017/02/02/class-
osteichthyes/
 Viviparous
• Fertilized egg remains inside the
mother’s body, and she also provides
nutrients to the developing fetus until
birth.

• Examples: placental mammals,

marsupial mammals, some sharks like
hammerheads and blue sharks.

• Also seen in some invertebrates – some

scorpions, an annelid genus, a few
insects.
https://t2.ea.ltmcdn.com/en/posts/8/4/5/principal_characteristics_2548_0_orig.jpg
Objective 4
Describe components of the male and female
reproductive system.
Gamete Production and Delivery

• To reproduce sexually, animals must produce gametes.

• In most species individuals have gonads, organs that

produce gametes.

• Some simple systems do not have gonads, but gametes form

from undifferentiated tissue.

• Others include sets of accessory tubes and glands that carry,

nourish, and protect gametes and developing embryos.
Gamete Production and Delivery

• Most insects have separate sexes with

complex reproductive systems.
• In many, the female has a
spermathecae in which sperm is
stored during copulation.

Figure 46.9 An example of insect reproductive anatomy.

 Gamete Production and Delivery
• The reproductive tract of vertebrates releases sperm, ova and
offspring through an opening.

• Non-mammalian vertebrates have a common opening called a

cloaca to the external environment and the digestive, excretory,
and reproductive systems.

• Note: duck-billed platypus is a simple mammal (Monotreme)

with a cloaca.

• Other mammals (eutherians and marsupials) usually have a

separate opening to the digestive tract.
 Reproductive anatomy of the human male

Gonads – testes
(gamete and sex hormone production)​.

Ducts – epididymis, vas deferens, ejaculatory

duct, urethra
(transport of gametes)​.

Accessory glands – seminal vesicles,

prostate, bulbourethral gland
(secretions required for sperm movement).

External genitalia – scrotum, penis​.

Figure 46.11 Reproductive anatomy of the human male.

 Reproductive anatomy of the human female

Gonads – ovaries​.

Ducts – Fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina

(transport of gametes/site
of implantation(uterus)).

Accessory glands – Bartholin’s gland.

External genitalia – vulva​.

Figure 46.12 Reproductive anatomy of the human female.

 Animal Development - Objectives

1. Describe the events and the significance of fertilization in

development.

2. Describe the stages of development which follow fertilization.

3. Describe the role and mechanism of changes in cell shape and

position during morphogenesis.
 Key Concepts
• Fertilization and cleavage initiate embryonic development.

• Morphogenesis in animals involves specific changes in cell

shape, position, and survival.

• Cytoplasmic determinants and inductive signals contribute to

cell fate specification.
Objective 1.
• Describe the events and the significance of
fertilization in development.
Concept 47.1: Fertilization and cleavage initiate
embryonic development
• Fertilization is the formation of a diploid zygote from a haploid
egg and sperm.

• Molecules and events at the egg surface play a crucial role in

each step of fertilization.
• Sperm penetrate the protective layer around the egg.

• Receptors on the egg surface bind to molecules on the

sperm surface.

• Changes at the egg surface prevent polyspermy, the entry

of multiple sperm nuclei into the egg.
The Acrosomal Reaction
The acrosomal reaction is triggered when the sperm meets the egg.

The acrosome at the tip of the sperm releases hydrolytic enzymes that digest
material surrounding egg.

Gamete contact and/or fusion depolarizes the egg cell membrane and sets up
a fast block to polyspermy.

Figure 47.3 The acrosomal and cortical reactions during sea urchin fertilization.
The Cortical Reaction
• Fusion of egg and sperm also initiates the cortical reaction.

• Seconds after the sperm binds to the egg, vesicles just beneath
egg plasma membrane release their contents and form a
fertilization envelope.

• The cortical reaction requires a high concentration of Ca2+ in

the egg.

• The reaction is triggered by a change in Ca2+ concentration.

• Ca2+ spread across the egg correlates with the appearance of

the fertilization envelope.
Inquiry: Does the distribution of Ca2+ in an egg correlate
with formation of the fertilization envelope?

Figure 47.4 Inquiry Does the distribution of Ca2+ in an egg correlate with formation of the fertilization
envelope?
Egg Activation
• The rise in Ca2+ in the cytosol increases the rates of cellular
respiration and protein synthesis by the egg cell.

• With these rapid changes in metabolism, the egg is said to be

activated.

• The proteins and mRNAs needed for activation are already

present in egg.

• The sperm nucleus merges with the egg nucleus and cell
division begins.
 Fertilization in Mammals
• Events ensure only one sperm enters egg.

A sperm must travel through a layer of

follicle cells to reach the zona pellucida, or
extracellular matrix.

Sperm binding to a receptor in the zona

pellucida triggers a cortical reaction which
leads to changes in the zona pellucida
causing slow block to polyspermy.

There is no known fast block to polyspermy

in mammals.

In mammals, the first cell division occurs

12−36 hours after sperm binding.

Figure 47.5 Fertilization in mammals.

Objective 2.
Describe the stages of development which follow
fertilization.

Figure 47.2 Developmental events in the life cycle of a frog.

 Cleavage
• Fertilization is followed by
cleavage, a period of rapid cell
division without growth (recall
cell cycle).

• Cleavage partitions the

cytoplasm of one large cell into
many smaller cells called
blastomeres.

• The blastula is a ball of cells

with a fluid-filled cavity called a
blastocoel.

Figure 47.6 Cleavage in an echinoderm embryo.

Cleavage Patterns in • In frogs and many other land animals,
frogs cleavage is asymmetric due to the
distribution of yolk (stored nutrients).

• The vegetal pole has more yolk; the

animal pole has less yolk.

• Difference in yolk distribution results in

animal and vegetal hemispheres that
differ in appearance.

• The first two cleavage furrows in the

frog form four equally sized
blastomeres.

• The third cleavage is asymmetric,

forming unequally sized blastomeres.
• This is due to the yolk in the
vegetal hemisphere.
Cleavage Patterns in other animals
• Holoblastic cleavage:
• complete division of the egg.
• occurs in species whose eggs have little or moderate
amounts of yolk.
• e.g., sea urchins and frogs, echinoderms, mammals, and
annelids.

• Meroblastic cleavage:
• incomplete division of the egg.
• occurs in species with yolk-rich eggs.
• e.g., reptiles and birds.
Concept 47.2: Morphogenesis in animals involves
specific changes in cell shape, position, and survival
• After cleavage, the rate of cell division slows, and the normal
cell cycle is restored.

• Morphogenesis, the process by which cells occupy their

appropriate locations, involves:

• Gastrulation, the movement of cells from the blastula

surface to the interior of the embryo.

• Organogenesis, the formation of organs.

Gastrulation
Rearranges the cells of a blastula into a three-layered embryo, called a gastrula.

Figure 47.8 Visualizing Gastrulation

Gastrulation
The three layers produced by gastrulation are called embryonic germ layers.
The ectoderm forms the outer layer.

The endoderm lines the digestive tract.

The mesoderm partly fills the space between the endoderm and ectoderm.

Figure 47.8 Forming the primary cell layers of the animal body.
Gastrulation
Figure 47.9 Major derivatives of the three embryonic germ layers in vertebrates.
Organogenesis

• During organogenesis, various regions of the germ layers

develop into rudimentary organs.

• Early in vertebrate organogenesis, the notochord forms from

the dorsal mesoderm.

• Signalling molecules secreted by the notochord and other

mesodermal cells induce the neural plate to form from the
ectoderm.
 Neurulation in a frog embryo
The neural plate soon curves
inward, forming the neural tube.

The neural tube will become the

central nervous system (brain and
spinal cord).

The notochord disappears before

birth, but contributes to parts of
the discs between vertebrae.

Neural crest cells develop along

the neural tube of vertebrates and
migrate in the body, eventually
forming various parts of the
embryo (nerves, parts of teeth,
skull bones, etc.)
Figure 47.14 Neurulation in a frog embryo.
Objective 3.
• Describe the role and mechanism of changes in cell
shape and position during morphogenesis.
The Cytoskeleton in Morphogenesis
• The cytoskeleton also promotes elongation of the archenteron in sea urchin
embryos.

• This is convergent extension, rearrangement of cells of a tissue that

cause it to become narrower (converge) and longer (extend).

Figure 47.17 Convergent extension of a sheet of cells.

Cell Migration

• The cytoskeleton also directs cell migration.

• Transmembrane glycoproteins called cell adhesion
molecules play a key role in migration.

• Migration also involves the extracellular matrix, a meshwork of

secreted glycoproteins and other molecules lying outside the
plasma membrane of cells.
Genetic Basis of Development - Objectives

1. Describe the processes involved in the embryonic development of

multicellular organisms.

2. Discuss the methods of organismal cloning and their potential

practical applications.

3. Describe the molecular basis of determination which leads to

differentiation.

4. Describe, in general terms, the factors that direct transcriptional

regulation during development.
 Concept 18.4: A Program of Differential
Gene Expression Leads to The Different Cell
Types in a Multicellular Organism

◼ During embryonic development, a fertilized egg gives

rise to many different cell types.

◼ Cell types are organized successively into tissues,

organs, organ systems, and whole organism.

◼ Gene expression orchestrates the developmental

programs of animals.
 A Genetic Program for Embryonic Development

◼ The transformation from zygote to adult results from cell division,

cell differentiation, and morphogenesis.

Figure 18.16 From fertilized egg to animal: what a difference four days makes.
 Genetic Program for Embryonic Development

◼ Cell differentiation is the process by which cells become

specialized.

◼ Physical processes giving an organism its shape constitute

morphogenesis, the development of an organism’s form and
structures.

◼ Differential gene expression results from genes being regulated

differently in each cell type.

◼ Materials in the egg can set up gene regulation that is carried out as
cells divide.
 Cytoplasmic Determinants and
Inductive Signals
◼ An egg’s cytoplasm contains RNA, proteins, and other substances
that are distributed unevenly in unfertilized egg.

◼ These maternal substances in the egg are called cytoplasmic

determinants that influence early development.
◼ Early cell divisions in the zygote result in differential distribution

of these cytoplasmic determinants, resulting in the expression of

a different set of genes in different cells.
 Sources of Developmental Information for The Early Embryo

Figure 18.17a Sources of developmental information for the early embryo.

Cytoplasmic Determinants and Inductive
Signals
◼ Another important source of developmental
information is the environment around the cell,
especially signals from nearby embryonic cells.

◼ Induction is the process by which signal molecules

from embryonic cells cause transcriptional changes in
nearby target cells.

◼ Thus, interactions between cells induce differentiation

of specialized cell types.
 Sources of Developmental Information for The Early Embryo

Figure 18.17b Sources of developmental information for the early embryo.

Concept 20.3: Cloned Organisms and Stem Cells are
Useful for Basic Research and Other Applications

• Organismal cloning produces one or more organisms genetically

identical to the “parent” that donated single cell.

• A stem cell is a relatively unspecialized cell that can reproduce itself

indefinitely, or under certain conditions can differentiate into one or
more types of specialized cells.

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Cloning Plants: Single-Cell Cultures
• In plants, cells can de-differentiate and then give rise to all the
specialized cell types of the organism.

• These are totipotent cells, which can generate a complete new

organism.

• Plant cloning is used extensively in agriculture.

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Inquiry: Can the Nucleus from Differentiated Animal Cell Direct
Development of Organism?

Nuclear transplantation:
the nucleus of an unfertilized
egg cell or zygote is replaced
with the nucleus of a
differentiated cell.

Figure 20.16 Inquiry Can the nucleus from a differentiated animal cell direct development of an organism?
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Inquiry: Can the Nucleus from Differentiated Animal Cell Direct
Development of Organism?

Figure 20.16 Inquiry Can the nucleus from a differentiated animal cell direct development of an organism?
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 Reproductive Cloning of Mammals
• In 1997, Scottish researchers
announced birth of Dolly, a lamb
cloned from an adult sheep by nuclear
transplantation from a differentiated
mammary cell.

• Dolly’s premature death in 2003, as

well as her arthritis, led to speculation
that her cells were not as healthy as
those of a normal sheep.
– Possibly a reflection of incomplete
reprogramming of the original
transplanted nucleus.

Figure 20.17 Reproductive cloning of a mammal by nuclear transfer.

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 Reproductive Cloning of Mammals

• CC (for Carbon Copy) was the first cat

cloned; however, CC differed in
appearance from her female “parent”.

• Cloned animals do not always look or

behave exactly the same.

Figure 20.18 CC (“Carbon Copy”), the first cloned

cat, and her single parent.

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Sequential Regulation of Gene Expression
During Cellular Differentiation

• Determination irreversibly commits a cell to its final fate.

• Determination precedes cell differentiation.

• Cell differentiation is marked by production of tissue-

specific proteins.

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Determination and Differentiation of Muscle Cells

Figure 18.18 Determination and differentiation of muscle cells.

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Stem Cells of Animals
• Stem cells are relatively unspecialized cells that can reproduce
indefinitely and, under certain conditions, differentiate into one or more
specialized types of cells.

Figure 20.20 How stem cells maintain their own population and generate differentiated cells.

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Working with Stem Cells
Figure 20.21 Working with stem cells.

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BIOL 1210 Week 10 Summary
• Study Units
• Reproduction in Animals
• Animal Development
• Genetic Basis of Development

Lab
• Invertebrate Embryology
• Plant Growth