Solid State Materials Engineering

Magnetic Properties of Materials

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Pic source: wikipedia

 Magnet and Magnetic Properties

• Explain the origin of magnetism in materials

• Classify and explain the types of magnetism in
materials
• Explain the differences and usefulness of soft and hard
magnet
• Origin of superconductivity
• Superconducting properties of materials
 Magnetic Properties

• Magnet and Magnetic Properties

[Chap 5: J.D Livingston]

• Superconductor and
superconducting magnets
[Chap 6: J.D Livingston]

Additional reference: Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth

Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 History
• Ancient times: lodestones (or magnetite) naturally magnetized pieces of iron ore.

• The word magnet was adopted from Latin magnetum "lodestone",Greek meaning
"[stone] from Magnesia", a part of ancient Greece where lodestones were found.
• Roughly 4,000 years ago, a Greek shepherd named Magnes is said to have been
tending his sheep in a region of northern Greece called Magnesia.
• Lodestones first magnetic compasses.
• Use in Greece, India, and China around 2500 years ago

Chinese Portuguese
lodestones
Compass Compass

“magnetite,” probably named after Magnes or Magnesia.

 Magnetic Materials

Magnetite Fe3O4 is an iron oxide. Chrome is Nickel is

Magnetite is ferrimagnetic antiferromagnetic ferromagnetic

• Iron is ferromagnetic
• Sulfur and pyrite are diamagnetic
• Magnetite is ferrimagnetic
• Oxygen is paramagnetic
What do these mean?
 Magnetic Materials
Cubic FeS2, iron sulfide, or pyrite, crystals. The
crystals look brass-like yellow (“fool’s gold”).
FeS2 is diamagnetic

Pyrite powder Iron powder Sulfur powder Mixture of iron and sulfur
(diamagnetic) (ferromagnetic) (diamagnetic)

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Definition of Magnetic Field B

This is the
magnitude and
direction of the
magnetic field

A moving charge +q in a magnetic field B experiences a Lorentz force F given by

F = qv × B
Force This is the
Charge magnitude and
direction of the
Velocity magnetic field

Magnetic field = Magnetic flux density

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Definition of a Magnetic Dipole Moment

Definition of a magnetic dipole moment.

μ m = IAu n
Unit vector normal to the surface
Magnetic moment Current
Area circled by current

Fig 8.1 From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Magnetic moment experiences a torque in a magnetic field

A magnetic dipole moment in an external field experiences a torque.

Fig 8.2
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Magnetic moment behaves like a magnet

A magnetic dipole moment puts out a magnetic field just like bar magnet. The field
B depends on µm.

Fig 8.3
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
Orbital angular momentum and magnetic moment

An orbiting electron is equivalent to a magnetic dipole moment µorb.

Fig 8.4
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Spin angular momentum and magnetic moment

The spin magnetic moment processes about an external magnetic field along z and has
an average value of µz along z.
Fig 8.5
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Atomic Magnetic Moments

Orbital magnetic moment of the electron

e
µ orb =− L
2me Orbital angular momentum

Spin magnetic moment of the electron

e
µspin =− S
me Intrinsic angular momentum
(spin)

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Atomic Magnetic Moments

Magnetic moment along the field

e e e
µ z = − S z = − (ms  ) = =β
me me 2me
e
The quantity β= is called the Bohr magneton and has the
2me
value 9.27x10-24 A m2 or J T-1.

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Magnetization
Free space field inside a solenoid

Bo = µ o nI = µ o I ′
where I ′ is the current per unit length of the solenoid, that is I ′ = nI
and μo is the absolute permeability of free space in henries per meter, H m-1.

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Magnetization M

A material medium inserted into the solenoid develops a magnetization M

Magnetization M = Total magnetic moment per unit volume
Number of atoms in ∆V
Average magnetic
moment per atom

1 N
M=
∆V
∑μi =1
mi = nat μ av
Atoms per unit volume
Small volume of magnetic material Magnetic moment of atom i

where nat is the number of atoms per unit volume and av is the average magnetic
moment per atom. There are N atoms in the small volume ∆V
Fig 8.6
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
Magnetization and Surface Currents
Surface currents

Im Im

Surface currents

Total magnetic moment = (Total current) x (Cross-sectional area) = Im ℓ A

Equating the two total magnetic moments, we find

M = Im
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Magnetization and Surface Currents

B = Bo + μoM

The field B in the material inside the solenoid is due to the conduction current I through the
Wires and the magnetization current Im on the surface of the magnetized medium, or

B = Bo + μoM
Fig 8.8
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Magnetizing Field or Magnetic Field Intensity H

Magnetic field in a magnetized medium

B = B o + µo M
Definition of the magnetizing field

1 1
H= B−M or H= Bo
µo µo
 Magnetic Permeability

Definition of magnetic permeability

Magnetic field

B
µ=
H
Definition of relative permeability Magnetizing field

B B
µr = =
Bo µ o H
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Magnetic Susceptibility

Definition of magnetic susceptibility

M = χmH
Relative permeability and susceptibility

µr = 1 + χ m
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Ampere’s Law

Ampere’s circuital law

Fig 8.9
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Magnetic Field in a Toroidal Coil

A toroidal with N turns

Fig 8.10
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 A toroidal coil with N turns

 >> radius (a)

µ o µ r NI µo µr N A 2
B≈ L≈
 
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Ampere’s Law and the Inductance of a Toroidal Coil

Ampere’s law

∫ H dl = I
c
t

Magnetic field inside toroidal coil

µ o µ r NI
B = µo µr H =

Inductance of toroidal coil

Total flux threaded NΦ µ o µ r N 2 A

L= = =
Current I 
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Energy is stored in a magnetic field

Energy required to magnetize a toroidal coil

We slowly increase the current i and change the magnetic field inside
the toroid core from B1 to B2. Energy stored per unit volume in the
magnetic field is Evol

Generally valid

Fig 8.11
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
Electrostatic and Magnetostatic Energy
 Magnetostatic Energy
Work done per unit volume during magnetization
B2
Evol = ∫ HdB
B1

Energy density of a magnetic field

2
1 B
Evol = µ r µo H 2 =
2 2µ r µo
Magnetostatic energy density in free space
1 B2
Evol (air ) = µ o H =
2

2 2µo
Magnetostatic energy in a linear magnetic medium
1
Evol = HB
2

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
Classification of Magnetic Materials
 Diamagnetic Materials

A diamagnetic material placed in a non-uniform magnetic field experiences a force

towards smaller fields. This repels the diamagnetic material away from a permanent
magnet.
Fig 8.12
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Diamagnetic Materials

• Diamagnetic substances are composed of atoms which have no net

magnetic moments (ie., all the orbital shells are filled and there are no
unpaired electrons).
• However, when exposed to a field, a negative magnetization is
produced and thus the susceptibility is negative
• susceptibility is temperature independent
 Paramagnetic Materials

(a) In a paramagnetic material each individual atom possesses a permanent magnetic moment
due to thermal agitation there is no average moment per atom and M = 0.
(b) In the presence of an applied field, individual magnetic moments take alignments along
the applied field and M is finite and along B.
Fig 8.13
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
A paramagnetic material placed in a non-uniform magnetic field experiences a force towards
greater fields. This attracts the paramagnetic material (e.g. liquid oxygen) towards a
permanent magnet.
Fig 8.14
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Paramagnetic Materials

• some of the atoms or ions in the material

have a net magnetic moment due to unpaired
electrons in partially filled orbitals.
 Ferromagnetic Materials

In a magnetized region of a ferromagnetic material such as iron all the magnetic moments
are spontaneously aligned in the same direction.
There is a strong magnetization vector M
even in the absence of an applied field

Fig 8.15
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Ferromagnetic Materials

The Curie temperature of iron is about 1043 K

Two distinct characteristics of ferromagnetic materials are their

(1) spontaneous magnetization and the existence of
(2) magnetic ordering temperature
 Antiferromagnetic Materials

In this antiferromagnetic BCC crystal (Cr) the magnetic moment of the center atom is
cancelled by the magnetic moments of the corner atoms.
Note: An eighth of the corner atom
belongs to the unit cell
Fig 8.16
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Antiferromagnetic Materials

χm = M/H

• The Néel temperature or magnetic ordering temperature, TN, is the

temperature above which an antiferromagnetic material
becomes paramagnetic
• Louis Néel (1904–2000), who received the 1970 Nobel Prize in Physics

• Above TN, the susceptibility obeys the Curie-Weiss law for paramagnets
but with a negative intercept indicating negative exchange interactions.
 Ferrimagnetic Materials

Illustration of magnetic ordering in a ferrimagnetic crystal. All A-atoms have

their spins aligned in one direction an all B-atoms have their spins aligned in
the opposite direction. As the magnetic moment of an A-atom is greater than
that of a B-atom, there is net magnetization M in the crystal

Fig 8.17
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Ferrimagnetic Materials

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 The isolated Fe atom has a spin magnetic moment of 4β

The isolated Fe atom has 4 unpaired spins and a spin magnetic moment of 4β

Fig 8.18
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Hund’s Rule

Hund’s rule for an atom with many electrons is based on the exchange interaction

Fig 8.19
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 The Exchange Integral

The exchange integral as a function of r/rd, where r is the interatomic distance and
rd the radius of the d-orbit (or the average d-subshell radius. Cr to Ni are transition
metals. For Gd, the x-axis is r/rf where rf is the radius of the f-orbit.
Fig 8.20
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Curie Temperature

Normalized saturated magnetization vs. reduced temperature T/TC where TC is the Curie
temperature (1043 K).
Fig 8.21
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Magnetic susceptibility, quantitative measure of
the extent to which a material may be magnetized in
relation to a given applied magnetic field.
χm = M/H
https://www.tcd.ie/Physics
 Ferromagnets and Magnetic Domains

(a) Magnetized bar of ferromagnet in which there is only one domain and hence an
external magnetic field.
(b) Formation of tow domains with opposite magnetizations reduces the external
field.
There are, however, field lines at the ends.
(c) Domains of closure fitting at the ends eliminates the external fields at the ends.
(d) A speciment with several domains and closure domains. There is not external
Magnetic field and the specimen appear unmagnetized.

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Domain Wall Migration
under an Applied Field

(a) An unmagnetized crystal of iron in the absence of an applied magnetic field. Domains
A and B are the same size and have opposite magnetizations.
(b) When an external field is applied the domain wall migrates into domain B which enlarges
A and shrinks B. The result is that the specimen now acquires net magnetization.
Fig 8.23
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Magnetocrystalline Anisotropy

Magnetocrystalline anisotropy in a single iron crystal. M versus H depends on the crystal on the
crystal direction and is easiest along [100] and hardest along [111]
Fig 8.24
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
Magnetocrystalline Anisotropy
Table 8.4
Exchange interaction, magnetocrystalline anisotropy energy K, and saturation magnetostriction
coefficient λsat
Material Crystal Eex ≈ kTC Easy Hard K λsat
(meV) (mJ cm−3) (× 10−6 )

Fe BCC 90 <100>; cube <111>; cube 48 20 [100]

edge diagonal
−20 [111]

Co HCP 120 // to c axis ⊥ to c axis 450

Ni FCC 50 <111>; cube <100>; cube 5 −46 [100]
diagonal edge
−24 [111]
NOTE: K is the magnitude of what is called the first anisotropy constant (K1) and is approximately the magnitude of the anisotropy
energy. Eex is an estimate from kTC, where TC is the Curie temperature. All approximate values are from various sources. (Further
data can be found in Jiles, D., Introduction to Magnetism and Magnetic Materials, London, England: Chapman and Hall, 1991.)

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
M vs H Behavior

M vs. H behavior of a previously unmagnetized polycrystalline iron specimen. An example grain in the unmagnetized
specimen is that at O. (a) Under very small fields the domain boundary motion is reversible. (b) The boundary
motions are irreversible and occur in sudden jerks. (c) Nearly all the grains are single domains with saturation
magnetizations in the easy directions. (d) Magnetizations in individual grains have to be rotated to align with the field,
H. (e) When the field is removed the specimen returns along d to e. (f) To demagnetize the specimen we have to apply
a magnetizing field of Hc in the reverse direction. Fig 8.31
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Typical M vs H and B vs H Hysteresis Curves

(a) (b)

(a) A typical M vs. H hysterisis curve

(b) The corresponding B vs. H hysterisis curve. The yellow area inside the hysterisis loop
is the energy loss per unit volume per cycle.
Fig 8.32
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 B vs H Hysteresis Curve

The B vs. H hysterisis loop depends on the magnitude of the applied field in addition to the
Material and sample and size.
Fig 8.33
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Demagnetization

A magnetized specimen can be demagnetized by cycling the field intensity with a decreasing
magnitude, i.e. tracing out smaller and smaller B-H loops until the origin is reached, H = 0.
Fig 8.35
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
Soft and Hard Magnetic Materials
Coercivity of Magnetic Materials
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Inductors use soft magnetic materials

0.3 mH (0.41 Ω) 0.51 mH (6.5 Ω) 12.5 mH (14 Ω)

0.01 mH
(3 Ω)

10 mH (23.2 Ω)

L (r)
Photo by SK

Inductance, L Resistance, r
Resistance of windings and
ferrite losses
Simplest equivalent circuit with losses
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Neodymiun Magnets

© Peter Sobolev/Shutterstock RF.

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Rare-Earth Magnets

Rare-earth magnet based DC motor. Neodymium magnet based speakers.

Courtesy of Maxon Precision Motors, Inc. Courtesy of Eminence Speaker, LLC.

Neodymium magnet based earphones

Photo by S. Kasap

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Actuator arm
Actuator axis

Neodymium
Magnets
Actuator coil

Neodymium magnet

The actuator has Neodymium magnets

(Photos by S. Kasap)

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Superconductivity

• discovered in1911 by dutch

physicist Heike Kamerlingh
Onnes
• Test of resistance of
solid mercury at low T, (liquid
helium).
• At T=4.2 K, the resistance
abruptly disappeared

A superconductor such as lead evinces a transition to zero resistivity at a critical temperature Tc (7.2 K for Pb).
A normal conductor such as silver exhibits residual resistivity at the lowest temperatures.

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 High temperature superconductivity
era started in 1986

The Nobel Prize in Physics 1987 was awarded jointly

to J. Georg Bednorz and K. Alexander Müller
"for their important break-through in the discovery of
superconductivity in ceramic materials"
https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1987/

In 1986 J. George Bednorz (right) and K. Alex

Müller, at IBM Research Laboratories in Zurich, discovered
that a copper oxide based ceramic type compound (La-Ba-
Cu-O) which normally has high resistivity becomes
superconducting when cooled below 35 K. This Nobel prize
winning discovery opened a new era of high temperature-
superconductivity research; now there are various ceramic
compounds that are superconducting above the liquid
nitrogen (an inexpensive cryogen) temperature (77 K).
© Emilio Segre Visual Archives/American
Institute of Physics/Science Source.
 Meissner Effect

The Meissner effect.

A superconductor cooled below its critical temperature expels all magnetic field lines
from the bulk by setting up a surface current. A perfect conductor (σ = ∞) shows no
Meissner effect.
Fig 8.57
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Meissner Effect and Magnetic Levitation

Left: A magnet over a superconductor becomes levitated. The superconductor is a perfect

diamagnet which means that there can be no magnetic field inside the superconductor.
Right: Photograph of a magnet levitating above a superconductor immersed in liquid
nitrogen (77 K). This is the Meissner effect.
Photo courtesy of Professor Paul C. W. Chu, University of Houston
Fig 8.58
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Critical Current

The Meissner effect

Diamagnetism
 Type I Superconductor

The critical field versus temperature in Type I superconductors.

Fig 8.59
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Type I Superconductor

The critical field versus temperature in three examples of Type I superconductors.

Fig 8.60
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Type I and Type II superconductors

Characteristics of Type I and Type II superconductors. B = µoH is the applied field and M is
the overall magnetization of the sample. Field inside the sample, Binside = µoH + µoM, which is
zero only for B < Bc (Type I) and B < Bc1 (Type II).

Fig 8.61
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Type I and Type II superconductors

Characteristics of Type I and Type II superconductors. B = µoH is the

applied field and M is the overall magnetization of the sample. Field inside the sample,
Binside = µoH + µoM, which is zero only for B < Bc (Type I) and B < Bc1 (Type II).
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Type II Superconductor

The mixed or vortex state in a Type II superconductor.

Fig 8.62
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Type II Superconductor

Temperature dependence of Bc1 and Bc2.

Fig 8.63
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Type II Superconductor

The critical surface for a niobium-tin alloy, which is a Type II superconductor.

Fig 8.64
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 A Copper Pair

A pictorial and intuitive view of an indirect attraction between two oppositely

traveling electrons via a lattice distortion and vibration.

Fig 8.66
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Nobel Prize in 1972
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1972 was awarded jointly to John Bardeen,
Leon Neil Cooper and John Robert Schrieffer
"for their jointly developed theory of superconductivity, usually called the
BCS-theory".

Fig 8.66
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fourth Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill Education, 2018)
 Timeline of superconducting materials

• In 2020, a room-temperature superconductor made from hydrogen, carbon and sulfur

under pressures of around 270 gigapascals was described in a paper in Nature.
• This is currently the highest temperature at which any material has shown
superconductivity

https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-020-2801-z DOI:10.6084/m9.figshare.2075680.v2
Superconducting applications