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CHEMISTRY 2012 STUDENT EDITION (HARI
08—12—18 U

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Wilbraham Staley Matta Waterman

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8) Staley e Michael S. Matta « Edward L. Waterman

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tion for Supervision of Curriculum Development (ASCD). ASCD claims exclusive trademark rights in the terms “Under-
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ISBN-13: 978-0-13-252576-3
PEARSON ISBN-10: 0-13-252576-3
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Dennis Staley
earned a Master of
Science in chemistry
at Southern Illinois
University Edwardsville.
As an Instructor in the
Department of Chemistry
and the Office of Science
and Math Education at
Southern Illinois University
Edwardsville, he taught
high school and college-
level chemistry and also
led teacher workshops. Mr. Staley has been writing
high school and college-level chemistry textbooks
for over 30 years. He currently enjoys gardening,
bicycling, sharing hands-on science with kids, and
traveling to visit his grandchildren.
Michael Matta
earned a Bachelor of
Science in chemistry at the
University of Dayton and
a Doctor of Philosophy
in chemistry at Indiana
University. He spent
most of his career at
Southern Illinois University
Edwardsville, where
he was most recently
an Emeritus Professor. Dr.
Matta developed and
wrote high school and college-level chemistry textbooks
and related ancillaries for over 30 years and published
extensively in scientific journals. He was a member
of several professional societies. In his spare time,
he enjoyed woodworking, watercolor painting, and
playing with his six grandchildren.
Michael Matta died shortly after the onset of this
program. While he is greatly missed by his many
friends throughout the chemistry community, his
coauthors remain inspired by his visionary dedication
to education, and they are committed to searching for
even better ways to engage students in the wonders
of chemistry.
__ About the Authors
Antony Wilbraham
spent the majority of his
career at Southern Illinois
University Edwardsville,
where he currently holds
the position of Emeritus
Professor of Chemistry.
He is a member of several
professional societies.
For more than 30 years,
he has been writing high
school and college-level
chemistry textbooks and
has published extensively in scientific journals. Professor
Wilbraham enjoys traveling, woodworking, gardening,
and making toys for his granddaughters.
Edward Waterman
taught chemistry and
advanced placement
chemistry from 1976 to
2007 at Rocky Mountain
High School in Fort
Collins, Colorado. He
now conducts workshops
for teachers on inquiry,
differentiation, small-
scale chemistry, AP
chemistry and virtual
chemistry laboratory. He
also presents photo-essay lectures about the natural
history of molecules, engaging the general public in the
appreciation for and understanding of chemistry.
Mr. Waterman holds a Bachelor of Science degree in
chemistry from Montana State University and a Master
of Science degree in chemistry from Colorado State
University. In his free time, he enjoys exploring wild
places in the Rocky Mountains and on the Colorado
Plateau by hiking, kayaking, and cross-country skiing.
 Consulta nts/T ceviewers
Grant Wiggins, Ed.D. Stephanie C. LeGrone Mark E. Welker, Ph.D.
Dr. Wiggins is a coau- Mary G. Montgomery High School Department of Chemistry
thor of Understanding Semmes, Alabama Wake Forest University
by Design®, a philosophy Winston-Salem, North Carolina
Christopher Schrempp
of instructional design.
Los Osos High School
The Understanding by
Rancho Cucamonga, California Teacher Reviewers
Design methodology
is a disciplined way of thinking about Jeff Bilyeu
curriculum design, assessment, and Content Reviewers West Linn High School
instruction that moves teaching from West Linn, Oregon
Matthew Asplund, Ph.D.
covering the content to ensuring Department of Chemistry Mary Chuboff
understanding. and Biochemistry Athens Academy
BIGIDEA Big Ideas are one of the Brigham Young University Athens, Georgia
core components of the Understand- Provo, Utah
Linda Dearth-Monroe
ing by Design methodology in Pearson Regina M. Barrier Warren Central High School
Chemistry. These Big Ideas, such as Western Outreach Coordinator Indianapolis, Indiana
The Mole and Quantifying Matter, The Science House
establish a conceptual framework for Jason Gilley
North Carolina State University
the program. Look for opportunities Cypress Creek High School
Lenoir, North Carolina
throughout each chapter to link back Orlando, Florida
J. Phillip Bowen, Ph.D.
to the Big Ideas. Stella Glogover
Department of Chemistry
The Association for Supervision of Head-Royce School
and Biochemistry
Curriculum Development (ASCD),
Oakland, California
University of North Carolina
publisher of the “Understanding by Greensboro, North Carolina Paul Holloman
Design Handbook” co-authored by Rocky Mount High School
Alison J. Frontier, Ph.D.
Grant Wiggins and registered owner Rocky Mount, North Carolina
of the trademark “Understanding by Department of Chemistry
Design’, has not authorized, approved
University of Rochester Laura McGregor
or sponsored this work and is in no way Rochester, New York Marist School
affliated with Pearson or its products. Atlanta, Georgia
David J. Merkler, Ph.D.
Department of Chemistry Nancy Monson
Teacher Advisory Board University of South Florida West Linn High School
Tampa, Florida West Linn, Oregon
Linda Dearth-Monroe
Warren Central High School Gregory S. Owens, Ph.D. Daniel R. Mullaney
Indianapolis, Indiana Department of Chemistry Walpole High School
University of Utah Walpole, Massachusetts
Jason Gilley
Salt Lake City, Utah
Cypress Creek High School Michael Roadruck, Ph.D.
Orlando, Florida Eric T. Sevy, Ph.D. Department of Chemistry
Department of Chemistry University of Toledo
Kenneth A. Greathouse
and Biochemistry Toledo, Ohio
Parkway Central High School
Brigham Young University
Chesterfield, Missouri Michelle Tindall
Provo, Utah
Birmingham Groves High School
Paul Holloman
William H. Steinecker, Ph.D. Beverly Hills, Michigan
Rocky Mount High School
Miami University
Rocky Mount, North Carolina
Oxford, Ohio Safety Consultant
George “Rod” Larsen
Harry A. Stern, Ph.D. Kenneth R. Roy, Ph.D.
West Orange High School
Department of Chemistry Director of Science and Safety
Winter Garden, Florida
University of Rochester Glastonbury Public Schools
Rochester, New York Glastonbury, Connecticut
 ents tor Success
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The new Pearson Chemistry program combines proven content with

cutting-edge digital support and a variety of lab investigations to help
ensure your success in chemistry.
In your new program, you'll find:
e Personalize 1g opportunities to support your unique
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ns fo the rec 1 relate abstract concepts and
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¢ Cutting-edge technology that is integrated throughout the
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icn 1S and study support provide numerous
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In the following pages, you'll see just a few of the elements contained in
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Ideas ensure that the lesson is

3 | ganised creurel the mest important
| concepts of each chapter. Essential | CARBON CHEMISTRY
Questions that support the Big Idea Essential Questions:

™ organize and set the focus for the chapter. en ssa mee
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mini- mysteries that take the NATIONAL SCIENCE EDUCATION STANDARDS

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| mystery and understand how
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 Personalized Learnin
Each student approaches learning in a variety of ways.
Pearson Chemistry provides all the tools to support your
unique style to help you build the skills you need to
succeed. Sample chemistry problems and math support are
just a few examples.

Math Tune-Up pages at the end

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way to review before a test!

Sample Problems guide you step-by-step

through complicated chemistry problems.
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 Chemistry connections are all around you. Pearson Chemistry provides
examples of chemistry in daily life, connecting content to familiar examples
and experiences in your world.

—_——_

( Chemistry & You intros begin each lesson

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with an engaging question to help spark your

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fuels contain mixtures of compounds called hydrocar-
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chemistry in technology,
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numerous careers.
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 Pearson Chemistry comes alive online with numerous ways to practice, tutors to step
through chemistry and math problems, online labs, interactive art, animations and
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text direct you to exciting and helpful online activities on PearsonChem.com.

44 Concepts in Action Math Tutorial animations

animations provide an review key math skills that
overview of a key chapter are needed to solve the
concept using real-world chapter problems you'll see
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PURPOSE their conductivity in

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square 2 cm . Test each solid
in the indicated places re for conductivity. Be
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chapter labs, ’ quick |abs, small scale labs, and
probeware labs.

Aqueous Systems 397

Chapter 15 Water and

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Elements and Compounds st. «tater aan eeeere oer 42
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Using and Expressing Measurements .............. 62
Units ob} Meastrementzy amc... neat anaes ene gene 74
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CHEM S rE x _) Just Give Me A Sign

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BIGIDEA ELECTRONS AND THE STRUCTURE OF ATOMS

Delining te Aton gar atemen errarw al’ etal folk Seer 102
Siructure.onine: Nuciecdne Atoms. so...
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Distinguishing AMmOngeAlOMS! 5.40.50.
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BIGIDEA ELECTRONS AND THE STRUCTURE OF ATOMS

Revising the Atomic Model ...............0005. 128
Electron Arrangement in Atoms ..............05. 134
Atomic Emission Spectra and
the Quantum Mechanical Model ................ 138
CHEM\: . Now You See It...Now You Don’t
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BIGIDEAS ELECTRO NS AND THE STRUCTURE OF ATOMS;

BONDING AND INTERACTIONS
Yo) aaliate Slo)aGy tee Sacer Rene Ree cate Ome caer 264
Naming and Writing Formulas for lonic Compounds. . . 271
Naming and Writing Formulas for Molecular
GOMPOUNCS eaclre suse hens 5 snlornce innit etetaie 195.8 280
Naming and Writing Formulas for Acids and Bases . . . 285
The Laws Governing How Compounds Form........ 289

10
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MeMICO CLIC eA

BIGIDEA THE MOLE AND QUANTIFYING MATTER

10.1 The Mole: A Measurement of Matter..............
10.2 Mole—Mass and Mole-Volume Relationships ........
10:3 Percent Composition and Chemical Formulas... .....
=) A Formula for Cheating
BIGIDEA REACTIONS
Describing: Chemical Reactions: cet ixeeinbeitare
atcee 346
Types-ot Chemical Reactonsmans ct kame ann 2 eae 350
Reactions invAqueous Solutionis.a. tten ere a= ee 369

(CHEMYS ERY)Order in the Lab

el eh tie! ie) Je [eth ‘ove: 6)" fe; 1'e 70 Xe Fer te. ie: “Ye: iene! \¢ \onen ie): er ae ee

The Arithmetictot Equations 2. 21. 200. seencee 384

ChemicaliGalculationstet-...c.mu sea ean eee eee 390
Limiting Reagent and Percent Yield. .............. 400

e oe eo et or Korte Me: eerie We er ie) le ie =e en wens

ThelNatireiohtGases 1c... Sethe eee ee 420

The Nature :ofslLiquicssagts ety .7 Jo. Sipe eee ae 425
The:Nature:ohSolids.......1....- eee | eee eae 431
Changes of Statesnz..car bane mee cee Nar ieee A436

(CHEMY|!°°) Foggy Car Windows

BIGIDEA KINETIC THEORY

BIOPSIES CIGOSES, oct. crate a wen clas een eer 450
TherGasilawsten ton) hoot, oat ee oe Lee 456
ldealGases te 2) SET Ne) SY Cie EOE ee 464
Gases; Mixtures and Movements ...............s 469

Water andlisiProperties ss.ccra.

oc uamcran eee 488
Homogeneous Aqueous Systems ................ A494
Heterogeneous Aqueous Systems................ 504
(CHEM < [ YY ) Coming Clean
 BIGIDEA THE MOLE AND QUANTIFYING MATTER
Or WarEnGperties OF. SolUtiONS a...peep eed weer
oer hl
(OZ ueEConcentrations of Solutionsaa sams kee RNs cs . Set:
16.3. Colligative Properties of Solutions................
16.4 Calculations Involving Colligative Properties.........

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17.2 Measuring and Expressing Enthalpy Changes .......
UWaeeerecaiim. Changes oholate.....A0im Sone! | ae
17437 Calculating) mlealssorikeaction sam. sine hake.
on

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«a BIGIDEAS REACTIONS; MATTER AND ENERGY

18g Rates OL REGctiOnNeae yas oie) ol WAU oe
18.2 The Progress of Chemical Reactions ..............
18.3 Reversible Reactions and Equilibrium. .............
13-4 aeSOW DiI. EG@UIOmUM ee a <<. loc sev drone tn ee.
TOro® bree Ener yaad entOpy, «eters mace l wepemchen
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TOs wAcIC-Base- Theories scs.:.5 ssn caases sn HOE ec
19-2 ydrogen.lons:andsAcidity men ain ee wes. fe
19°35 Strengths of Acids and Bases... 5. ...80m...°©
IOAS NeutrclizationyRedchonsen.c...s0cees Aes) sem
1225 a SalisaimeSOlutiCnice whe. guessed 1 ee eed cee,Rael, contd
(CHEMYSTERY )Paper Trail

2 O BIGIDEA REACTIONS
20.1 The Meaning of Oxidation and Reduction..........
202 4dation, INumpers.2b.... Ser ermmars.WOM ry. bac.
20132 Descrilbitig: Recox, Equations... anes. WE MNeLy, 5.6:
Y-)Tarnished Treasure

Contents xiii
 MLS oy oe So 726
BIGIDEA \MATTER AND ENERGY
ElectrochemicaliGells sr seeese iio: tobeeenee 728
Hal&Gells.and Gell. Potentials oe anes alnee
eee 37,
Z palel, Cells.met lete. eum shee Ae 745
(CHEM S|-2Y ) Trash or Treasure?

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BIGIDEA CARBON CHEMISTRY

Hydrocarbons: ol aenan alas ae k Sal P ask ae 762
Unsaturatedahydrocarbons, ... seewetramsects eee eee 772
Isomers Hendin tein molest ete rn cetera go 77S
Hydrocarbon Rings... age teenie em a 779
pat lealedHom Eorth@: Grustarceset carlin aroeeren
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(CHEMYS1ERY ) Nose for Hire

BIGIDEAS CARBON CHEMISTRY; REACTIONS

22.) Introduction: to Functional Groupsaiieper
w eam ae 798
23:2 Aleohols; EthersaancdyAmingsn= x. cto ee ee 804
2353 Goarbony|:Compoundsas Sine ees ee ee 812
23:4. POlyMetsiycadhesealc.>2 2...c>.0 eeu ird eeneeerae ae 822
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, BIGIDEA CCHEMISTRY AS THE CENTRAL SCIENCE

24.) -A’basisiforlite: |. 3.0. geo tee ae Ree cee 838
PAD “Carbohydrates. skoda seimerienicess ete. Gee 841
Z4:3 “AminovAcids and) TheimPolymersin s2eie.aeewe ee 844
2A Ax lipids?) 2 uk = Cee, ee Ee A See ee 850
2A:5*. Nucleic’ Acids: «<3 0:0, s 2a ee ee a 854
ZAG... Metal olistiin aac.te carcass ae ene Oe ee 862

(CHEMYSTERY) Phenyl-wha?
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Nuclear Radicition hit NN. co ooh Bae 876

Nuclear Transformations... .<..caseumuel ane: ene 880
Fission nd FUSION .. . @rnitoereeeoen aleaeeere eee 888
ROGIGHON in=YOUr Liteuet a. =s2: abeta enh teerneeinnne
reay 894

(CHEMY 5/2.) An Ice-Age Baby

XiV
 AbdendiaAsrlementstriahdbook: 2’: Sn sen een ea eee Rl
Appendix Bakeference lables...) . 0. udbssuas
ee haere RA2
Appendix C: Safety in the Chemistry lab ................. R49
Appendix Ds Problem Bank ....ye)). vga ws are, Sens 4 eee R51
PODENCDCEstoe lOCteC. OO UNONS ac see ert sen oe ee Re ace R73
English/Spanish GlOsscry asic <isedaew
ho eee oo R118
INDEX tices crs ae Oe rat & 4: tyee R143
Credits es ctd. a SAP eas BOS pe eeieed ee ote eee R156

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| by exploring a chemical — 2 Which One Is Not Like the Others? ..................ccseeceeeeeeees 30
mystery that connects fo _
each chapter's BigIdea. SalUstiGive Me. A’ SiGttis.: cca nutes eaer es cee ee ee eer 6]
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Sav hatsithatAlarmnencey.co seers ee eee 22)
JaCucumbenBlunder tse as ee ee 263
1OWAC Formulation Gheating 2.5..3:74
teen a 305
1] -Orde? intthe labs. cn eae ee ee a 345
IZ C Cokie Crumbles te crue mucenunteoh
eee eae eee eee 383
13, FoggyiGar Windows:. esi aere ie ie AW enno oe ome 419
TA RW incletPressute:.«. 0%... 5.0,-sssckanusasn
cece eee ee 449
15@oming Glectiie:<.: saceetteieyccce
Oa he,beerereemer maaan ae 487
16vilhat Sinking Feeling’: ..cccn ie ese ene nn ene D7
WZ Fighting TOStec treme cert cee orate ne Cmte me meee hls
ISS EXDlosivetSUGO Teens Manners? ctl ener es tn a aeletee ane a8
TOS PODS Gee men aan re care cns iA a eR a eee 645
ZOMGunhished NreGsUre Coy aienakirccrenl
pike MOR A 691
ZW CasirOlMlecdsUler re Mary are hl anne ene tee V2
DAMN OSG aiCUA GING ox cove is. anee hl ah stapeaae seis eae ec me tae 761
ZS minecleotnpaste Terror... 2). nes meaee eee 797
AN SISy IEVVIICHSeana nso? circle Act ac eae erates eens nee 837
DOM TAGE AGE BODY mi scisncce ro Res toree rene ecti Acie Coe 875

XV
_ PearsonChem.com

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CHAPTER 1 CHAPTER 5
Concepts in Action Areas of Chemistry ................005- 2 Kinetic Art Atomic Orbitals:)2,,25.2.even eee 13]
Kinetic Art Scientific Models..........0....cccccccceeeeeee 16 Concepts in Action Atomic Structure ..............0068 132
Virtual Lab Laboratory Safety............00:cceeeeeeeeteeee 20 Chem Tutor Writing Electron Configurations........... 136
Chem Tutor Estimating Walking Time.................00 24 Chem Tutor Calculating the Wavelength of Light.... 141
Online Problems Introduction to Chemistry .............. 28 Virtual/LabsFlameilesiss: 25.17 eee 142
Kinetic Art The Hydrogen Emission Spectrum ........ 145
CHAPTER 2
Math Tutor Converting Units................::cccceeeeeees (64
Kinetic Art States of Matter .............:cccsscccccseentseees 36
Online Problems Electrons in Atoms ............0000006 £52
Kinetic Art Fractional Distillation ................:cccee AO
Concepts in Action Distinguishing Between CHAPTER 6
Chemical and Physical Changes ..............0000cece8 49 Concepts in Action Organizing Information .......... 161
Virtual Lab Chemical Reactions ..............:c00cescee 5] Virtual Lab Properties of Metals.............000.00008 165
Online Problems Matter and Change.................66. 55 Kinetic Art The Periodic Table....................c:ccceee 168
CHAPTER 3 Chem Tutor Using Energy Sublevels to Write
Electron Confiqurationsm:.ssmeem eee cets sa, We
Kinetic Art Measuring Using Significant Figures ...... 66
Kinetic Art Trends in the Periodic Table ................ 175
Chem Tutor Significant Figures in Multiplication
GUIGADIVISION aati tamewntanr utp ssstuel vas unease nee 7 Online Problems The Periodic Table ..................... 186
Concepts in Action Using SI Units... eee 74, CHAPTER 7
Chem Tutor Converting Between Temperature Virtual Lab Formation of lonic Compounds .......... 200
SSIES 5go See cee aR Ne re et a A A 79 Chem Tutor Predicting Formulas of
Virtual Lab The Density of Solids and Liquids .......... 8] lonigiCompounds™ iy hcc:...cce eae vee eee 203
Kinetic Art Conversion Factors..............ccceeeeeeeeeees 85 Concepts in Action Properties of lonic
Chem Tutor Using Dimensional Analysis.................. 87 Compounds. «.ci.reneSacauerwosta seen ee eee 204
Chem Tutor Using Density as a Conversion Factor....89 Kinetic Art Crystalline Solids ..........00..0c0cccceeeeeeeee 205
Chem Tutor Converting Ratios of Units................66 9] Kinetic Art Properties of Metals ................c00cceeee 209
Math Tutor Scientific Notation ...........cccccceeeeeeeees 94 Online Problems lonic and Metallic Bonding......... 214
Online Problems Scientific Measurement ...............- 95
CHAPTER 8
CHAPTER 4 Kinetic Art Single Covalent Bonds................000000 227,
Concepts in Action The Size of an Atom............004- 104 Chem Tutor Drawing Electron Dot Structures...229, 233
Kinetic Art Cathode-Ray Tubes ...........::::cceeeeeee 106 Concepts in Action Oxygen and Ozone................ 2o7,
Virtual Lab Rutherford’s Gold Foil Experiment........ 108 Chem Tutor Identifying Bond Type .............00:.c0000 249
Kinetic Art Rutherford’s Gold Foil Experiment ........ 108 Kinetic Art Polar Molecules ...............:ccccccceeeeeeeees 250
Chem Tutor Determining the Composition Virtual Lab Polar and Nonpolar Molecules ........... 250
feeS LOT Places Me 8 eR OO Fo ne PRS SO Ws Online Problems Covalent Bonding...................60. 256
Chem Tutor Calculating Atomic Mass.............60606 114
Online Problems Atomic Structure ......0.......ccc0000e 122

Xvi
CHAPTER 9
Chem Tutor Writing Formulas for Binary
HONIG COMPOUnCsau dea: Ite aun Suetsae 273
Concepts in Action Everyday Chemical Names......274
Virtual Lab Naming lonic Compounds...............5+. 276
Kinetic Art The Law of Multiple Proportions ........... 290
Chem Tutor Calculating Mass Ratios .........0.0008 291
Kinetic Art Naming Compounds ..............:::::008 293
Online Problems Chemical Names and Formulas...298
CHAPTER 10
Chem Tutor Converting Between Moles
and WNumberrofAtomsseietesc.dee. a-cscceets oh 309, 311
Kinene Art Molar Mass xs8aisit i ca etiiedl. texts nn314
Chem Tutor Finding the Molar Mass
TIAGO OLIN OUIN ated ns ames tnSy Ae te eh 315
Chem Tutor Converting Between Moles
CNG IVIGSS eee eee cl ten an ee ee 318, 319
Kinetic Art The Mole Road Map ............::00eeeereees 323
Virtual Lab Counting Atoms by Measuring Mass ...324
Concepts in Action Percent Composition................ S27)
Chem Tutor Calculating Percent Composition
From Mass Data or From a Formula........... 626,327,
Chem Tutor Determining Empirical Formulas.......... 33]
Math Tutor Unit Conversions ...........::0:ccceceeeeeees 337
Online Problems Chemical Quantities ................ 338
CHAPTER 11
Kinetic Art Balancing Equations...............ceeeee
Chem Tutor Balancing Chemical Equations ...........
Chem Tutor Writing Equations for
Double-Replacement Reactions............00:seeeeeeees
Concepts in Action Combustion Reactions .............
Kinetic Art Types of Reactions ..........:cceeeseeeenereeees
Chem Tutor Writing and Balancing
INGHIOMC EQUONONS rate arcen oc 6557 Soonsa emaataniancs:371
Virtual Lab Identification of Cations in Solution......372
Online Problems Chemical Reactions ...............0 377,
CHAPTER 12
Chem Tutor Using a Balanced Equation
CISCRRGC IDE Ramee a teemnet aaeuatacacsers
etc e cs385
Concepts in Action Stoichiometry .............00c eee386
Kinetic Art Interpreting Balanced Equations........... 389
Chem Tutor Calculating the Mass of a Product....... 393
Virtual Lab Analysis of Baking Soda ..............0:26+. 399
Kinetic Art Limiting Reactants................cceceeeeeeeeees 401
Chem Tutor Determining the Limiting Reagent........ 402
Chem Tutor Calculating the Theoretical
and Percent Yield of a Reaction.............06.. 406, 408
Math Tutor Limiting Factors ............::ccccceeeseeeerees 410
Online Problems Stoichiometry ............0::00eee All
CHAPTER 13
Chem Tutor Converting Between Units of Pressure ..422
Kinetic Art. Evaporation mas,2ete aie: 2.cents 426
Concepts in Action Properties of Solids ................. 433
Kinetic Art Changes of State ............cccccceeeeeeeee 438
Virtual Lab The Effect of Salts on the Boiling Point
and Freezing Point of Water ...........:::0ecceeeeeceee A438
Online Problems States of Matter...........:0:c:0 443
CHAPTER 14
Concepts in Action Properties of Gases............00+++ 45]
Chem Tutor Using the Gas Laws ........... 457, 459, 461
Kinetic’ Art Charles's law ea eo. c.cen ane ae 458
Chem Tutor Using the Combined Gas Law............ 462
Chem Tutor Using the Ideal Gas Law............ 465, 466
Virtual Lab Comparing Real and Ideal Gases ....... 468
Kinetic Art Partial Pressures of Gases ...........00:006- 470
Chem Tutor Using Dalton’s Law of
Partial Pressuresintaien ciuac ornate ee eee 47]
Math Tutor Direct and Inverse Relationships........... 479
Math Tutor Rational Equations .............0:ceeeeeeeeees 479
Online Problems The Behavior of Gases............... 480
CHAPTER 15
Kinetic Art Hydrogen Bonding .............::::000eeee 489
Kinetic Art Solvation of an lonic Solid .................. A495
Chem Tutor Finding the Percent by Mass of
Waterin-a@ Hydrates sane: orice: eee oe 500
351 Concepts in Action Emulsions...........0...:::c:cccceee 507
B52 Virtual Lab Conductivity of Electrolyte Solutions.....508
Online Problems Water and Aqueous Systems ...... 510
363
364 CHAPTER 16
366 Kinetic Art Saturated Solutions .................000eseeeees 520
Chem Tutor Using Henry's Law .............cc0ceceeeeeeees 524
Chem Tutor Calculating Molarity ...............cccc0008 526
Chem Tutor Preparing a Dilute Solution................ 529
Kinetic Art Vapor Pressure of Solutions ................. 534
Concepts in Action Freezing-Point Depression ........ 536
Virtual Lab Changing Boiling and
Freezing Points of Solutions. sauce ee 542
Chem Tutor Calculating Freezing-Point
DEDreSSION) coin, a cnworsse tention aren eee eon 543
Math Tutor Converting Units...........0...c.ccccceeeeee 547
Math Tutor Solving Equations ..............ccccceeeeeees 547
Online Problems Solutions ................cccccccceseeees 548
Xvil
 CHAPTER 17 CHAPTER 21
Concepts in Action Temperature and Hedt............. 557 Kinetic Art How Voltaic Cells Work..............000006 73]
Chem Tutor Calculating Specific Heat .................. 56] Concepts in Action Chemical Energy Sources ........ TS 2
Kinetic Art Using a Bomb Calorimeter .................. 563 Chem Tutor Writing the Cell Reaction................0 742
Chem Tutor Enthalpy Change in a Calorimetry Virtual Lab Electrochemistry .............000ccceeceeeeeeeees 743
Expehimenitwe aue-aedl rcrsten nc ccn- tte eR vas eat he 564 Chem Tutor Calculating the Standard
Chem Tutor Phase-Change Calculations........ 5707573 Cell Potential :....emien erated eee suerte eee 743
Kinetic Art Applying Hess's Law ...............:::ccceees O77 Kinetic Art Comparing Voltaic and
Chem Tutor Calculating the Standard Electrolytic: Cellsinaasuviientenn sere 746
ecteOMREGCHOM acne We memtive cyt cikiaosSchucdyoteees 581 Online Problems Electrochemistry ...............00000e 754
Virtual Lab Measuring Heat of Combustion........... 583
CHAPTER 22
Math Tutor Solving Multistep Equations ................ 585
Concepts in Action Hydrocarbons used as fuels .....764
Online Problems Thermochemistry ..............0:::0- 586
Chem Tutor Naming Branched-Chain Alkanes....... 770
CHAPTER 18 Virtual Lab Saturation of Hydrocarbons.............0. Tie
Kinetic Art Collision Theory.............cccccceceeeceeeeeees 596 Kinetic Art Asymmetric Carbon .................cec00008+ 776
Kinetic Art Reversible Reactions ...............:::c00008 609 Chem Tutor Identifying Asymmetric
Chem Tutor Expressing and Calculating Keg .......--. 617 Carbon AlOms is... Aw.leere eee Rae 777.
Chem Tutor Finding lon Concentrations in Kinetic Art Fractional Distillation of
GmSolurdiecsoo WtOnie neta bey teria sees 623 Elydrocdrbons.s:2sta. «nae LDC meant 783
Chem Tutor Finding Equilibrium lon Concentrations Online Problems Hydrocarbon Compounds .......... 790
in the Presence of a Common lon .............60000 625
CHAPTER 23
Concepts in Action Entropy.............
ee eerenrees 630
Concepts in Action Organic Compound................ 798
Virtual Lab Enthalpy and Entropy ..........0:::ceee 635
Kinetic Art Hydration and Hydrogenation
Online Problems Reaction Rates and Equilibrium....638 REGCHONS Abs. sige Men Sacchi aan aOR ements 809
CHAPTER 19 Virtual Lab Comparing Properties of Organic
Kinetic Art Dissociation of Acids and Bases... 647, 649 Moléctiles 25.05 Ue eine anaien eee 814
Chem Tutor Calculating pH............:0cccceeees 657,099 Kinetic Art Redox Reactions Involving
Organic:Compounds#e.. 816
Chem Tutor Calculating a Dissociation Constant ....667
Online Problems Functional Groups .............000.060 830
Concepts in Action Acid-Base Reactions ............... 672
Chem Tutor Determining the Concentration CHAPTER 24
OMCMPACIOY NitratiOnensatasseasynaaes. ter arene. 675 Concepts in Action A Basis for Life .............000006 840
Kinetic Art Acid-Base Titrations ............000cccccceeee 677 Kinetic Art Peptide Structure..............:00ccccesseeeees 846
Wirtuaulap vAcids'and Bases =) ..255...th ccuensn-ateee: 677 Kinetic Art The Nitrogen Cycle ..........0.ccccccccsseees 865
Chem Tutor Describing Buffer Systems.................. 680 Virtual Lab Calorimetry of Food Compounds ........ 866
Math Tutor Logarithmic Scale ..............00cccceeeeees 683 Online Problems The Chemistry of Life.................. 869
Online Problems Acids, Bases, and Salts .............. 684
CHAPTER 25
CHAPTER 20 Kinetic Art Radioactive Decay ...........0..cc:ccceeeeeees 877
Kinetic Art The Oxidation of Methane.................. 692 Virtual Lab: Rodiction<.....1.as. eee ee 879
Chem Tutor Identifying Oxidized and Concepts in Action Half-Life .........0....ccccceeceeeees 883
RecUoed Recetanits::.mav dal dade dee atcanauteekparvees 695
Chem Tutor Using Half-Lives in Calculations .......... 884
KinehicvArt (Corrosion: feted | inten cesta: 697
Kinetic Art How a Nuclear Reactor Works............ 889
Concepts in Action Corrosion ..........:::ccececeeseeeeee 698 Math Tutor Exponential Decay ............00.:cccceeeee 899
Chem Tutor Assigning Oxidation Numbers............ 703 Online Problems Nuclear Chemistry.................0.- 900
Chem Tutor Balancing Redox Equations
by Oxidation-Number Change .........::::c0ceeeee Aull
Virtual Lab Redox Titrations::...005.0.0c0cssnxrderensare TAs
Math Tutor Balanced Equations ..............0:cccccccees 719
Online Problems Oxidation-Reduction Reactions...

xviii
Small. Scale |
Parnes me
Paper Chromatography
inp evele BAL 0 re een
Dissociation Constants of
Wwedk ACIOSe.e. 2 2.2n...5:
mobs 670
Use pes arene Names and Formulas for Hal-Reactionsees. 4 TNT
materials and easy lonic Compounds.............
Electrolysis of Water........... Te
_ procedures to produce Counting by Measuring
_ reliable lab results. Hydrocarbon Isomers ......... VAST,
IWOSS ie cetire eee eon Ae
ROIWMel sass
teesaeh cena tease 828
Precipitation Reactions:
Formation of Solids .......... The Egg: A Biochemical
Laboratory Safety..............6. 20 Storehouse ee 849
Analysis of Baking Soda...
(AeA
Sie DLAGI ritea 5] Radioactivity and
The Behavior of Liquids
Halblives* 05 Jiro. emer 887
Now What Do | Do? ............ 92 CHGNSONCS a ee hee eee
The Atomic Mass of DittUsiOnweee teen
A@heiate Meee mee ne ee ae 120
ElecirOlVieSta. auras
Atomic Emission Spectra..... 149
Making a Solution............
Periodicity in
Heat of Combustion of
Three Dimensions..............- 184
Candles ener ae
Electron Configurations
CHROMIS ont Pee AG eo 200

Making lonic Compounds ...

|
_ Apply aCscuich concepts
__and skills with these quick, Percent Composition..........
effective hands-on Removing Silver Tarnish .....
opportunities.
Limiting Reagents ..............
Sublimation wc new eee
Bin bles meters. cst, i Carbon Dioxide From
Separating Mixtures ............. 37 Antacid Tablets .................

Accuracy and Precision ........ LP Surface Tension....en cass

Using Inference: Solutions and Colloids .......

Tie: :Black Boxee as seeks 109 Heat of Fusion of Ice......... Isomers of Heptane ............ 778
Rlcme l@siS: senaean ten 142 Does Steel Burnevaniw. «ce .. 600 Testing for an Aldehyde ...... 818
Periodic Trends in Indicators from Natural A Model of DNA ............05: 856
[OWICIROCI es ercete
ca mane. 180 SOURCES tte eA eae
Inverse-Square
Solutions Containing Bleach It! Oxidize the Reletionsiipomecn eveesrieeee 896
Vs iniich sic: veda enc ciace eeeeOeere 207, GOOG AWOY <.rex mpsegetary.
Strengths of Electrochemical Analysis
Covalent: Bonds ies u.cunie: 238 Bells: miei cual

Probe or sensor versions available in the Probeware Lab Manual.

xix
| InterpretG raphs ) e From the Id
eal
| Gases Deviat
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Real Gases Deviate From CHy (200°C)

|Visualize chemical data in the:ldedlh anteee 468
~ graphical form and improve
_ your critical-thinking skills. Solubility Varies With
Temperatures, ...ee seme Sal
Vapor Pressure vs.
Plastics Packaging in Temperature (Water)........... 542
DEORE VOStC metre iisscus morc 8 Heating Curve for Water.....572 ob 99,000 rine om
Atomic Radius vs. Atomic
Energy Changes in
INGIMDEKS ser. cee ces cnc. 175 REOCHONS Mama. atone ae Bo;
First lonization Energy vs. The Effect of a Catalyst on
Atomic Number ................. 178 Activation Energy............... 601 Acid-Base Titrations ............ 677
Distribution of Molecular Firs-Order Reaction............ 605 Melting and Boiling Points
Kinetic ENC yates cant A423 of StraightChain Alkanes.... 765
Energy Changes for a
Vapor Pressure vs. Multistep Reaction.............. 607 Boiling Points of Homologous
Temperature Hy drocarbonse cai. Udi
(Four Substances) ............... 429 Establishing Equilibrium ...... 610
Ratio of Neutrons to
Phase Diagram of Water..... 438 Color Ranges of Acid-Base Number of Protons for
Inclicatonst sires: etn oan 660 Stable’ Nucletsav. neuen 881
BOVIG SMOWae she tcees tees reces 456
Dissociation of a Strong Decay Curve for a
Roles SLOW 5 hats
g ated 458 Acid and a Weak Acid....... 665 Radioactive Element ........... 882

‘Inter retData |
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Mass Ratios of Carbon
! Organize and inet! dota Atoms to Hydrogen Atoms... 312
| ie building critical-thinking
skills. Comparison of Empirical
and Molecular Formulas ..... 332
Vapor Pressure of Three
Physical Properties of Substances at Different
Some SUbsidncesuse.. ee 5 TeMpelrchores merece. ace 427

Densities of Some Composition of Dry Air....... 469

Gommon,:Materialse. .220.e 81
Specific Heats of Some
Natural Percent Abundance Common Substances .......... 559
of Stable Isotopes Activity Series of Metals...... 729
of Some Elements............... 116
Some Organic
lonization Energies of Compounds with
First 2 Elements:..c-..2..2.-.-- V7
Three Carbons iicais eae 814
 CHEMISTRY/<;YOU ISM ryVik te oe
: Technology Accidental Chemist
p oe ae 12
Green Chemistry Recycled Mixtures .........0:.:::::cceecee 52
Feature Pages 3 Everyday Matter Watch What You Measure ............+: 7
aH more about how chemistry Green Chemistry Carbon Footprints............:::00e 83
applies to real-world situations. , 1]
Tai fllCeceeeee et ee Technology Electron Microscopy .............::00eseseeeeeeeees 0
environmental impact of chemical 5 History Development of Atomic Models San ousocnsouscadooss 133

technologies, and survey some Technology Light Emitting Diodes iariateraietaiotsioteistsyetoteicieo/ sisters olen 146

interesting careers that apply 6 Everyday Matter “Elemental” Trivia ........0ccccceeees 163
ae Some features include Everyday Matter Elements of Life ...............0:eeeeeeeee 183
Puen ade: ys peviesltice 7 Everyday Matter lonic Crystals .......0......
cecceeeeeeees 208
on your own or with classmates.
Technology Powder Coating..............::sseeeeeeeerereeeees 239
Green Chemistry Algal Blooms ............::::::sseseeeeeeeees 270
Careers Sports Nutrition AdVisor..........:::00s:sceeeeeeeeees 284
— SHERRY YOU; SEE Everyday Matter How Big Is a Mole? ............0:.eeee 316
\ : Technology lon Mobility Spectrometry ..............0:.08 334
, ; : : Everyday Matter Kitchen Chemistry............:0::eeeeece 359
~—~Satbon Footprint ( wr } History The History of Dynamite................00 eee 368
_ Technology Stoichiometric Safety ...........:.c:cceeeeeeees 397
Everyday Matter Success Stats ............0:00cceeeeeeeeeeeees 407
Green Chemistry Plasma Waste Converter ................ 440
Careers Atmospheric Chemist ................:ceceeeeeeeeeeeees 455
Technology Natural Gas Vehicles..............::::0cccceceees 476
Technology Reverse Osmosis Desalination................. 502
Everyday Matter Art of the Pickle............0. eee 532
Green Chemistry Geothermal Energy .................0:0065 576
Technology Catalytic Converters ...........0:cccccceeeeeeees 602
Careers Chemical Engineer ................0:::cseeeeeeeeeeeeees 620
Careers AGronomist cach tataca: .6c eee eee: 663
Everyday Matter Stone Erosion .............:0cceeeeeeeeeeeees 671
Green Chemistry Ocean Buffers.............00000000esseeeees 681
Technology, Fireworks <2), vsccssecceeeces
sek seers ee 700
Everyday Matter Mineral Colors ........0......c:cccccseseees 716
History;Alesscindro. Voltas. coset ates host ae de ee 736
Everyday Matter A Lemon Battery...............c00cceeeeeeee 744
Careers Arson Investigator « cav:.c.saaaehdod
tend geokdoageonns 774
: Technology Bioremediation .............cccccccccessseeeeeeeeees 784
So Green Chemistry PCBs: A Persistent Pollutant ............. 803
= Sheri Everyday Matter Scratch and Sniff Stickers ............... 821
MK Gareers Biochemists timc: bth ote eae edn dees 853
Technology DNA Testing..............00c0cccccccssssceeeetseeees 867
Technology Small-Scale Nuclear Power .................06. 892

uss\t Further
ibe Oneo « found in gasoline ea for : a sg
SampleProblem)
| Take advantage of these
__ stepped-out problems to
_ guide your solving process.
1 Wavelength of Light............ 14]
Estimating Walking Time....... 24
Scheduling Classes............... 26
2 6
Separating a Heterogeneous
NAS CNUITae ep ac SORC a eee ee 4]
Classifying Materials ............ 45
3 Calculating Percent Composition
Using Scientific Notation....... 63
Calculating Percent Error....... 65
Counting Significant Figures
in Measurements.............0066+ 68
Rounding Measurements ....... 69
Significant Figures in Addition
EINGOUDIMACHON dice cceccsaecerscs: 70
Significant Figures in
Multiplication and Division.... 71
Converting Between
Temperature Scales .............. 79
Calculating Density .............. 82
Using Dimensional
FRAC YSIS pete Ne kt, 86, 87
Converting Between
WWACHICUEI NES ee ree eccen, cee 88
Using Density as a
@onversion: Factor ’t.227. 2.22. 89
Converting Between
NAGI CcUIMIS Ue westac area e 70)
Converting Ratios of Units .....9]
4 Net lonic Equations....371, 373
Understanding Atomic
INUDe ihe. ren teetaen
te.nc thls:
Determining the Composition
ORM ALOMMen cece ne cm: 114
Writing Chemical Symbols
fOr SOLO DES iaca cme Lec taran ia! 115
XxXil
Understanding Relative
Abundance of Isotopes ....... 118
Converting Number of
AlomsttorMoles.=.anaeee 309
Calculating Atomic Mass .... Converting Moles to Number
of Aloisi. .6 wean aeeeees Sai)
5
Writing Electron Finding the Molar Mass
Conliguiaihonse =e 136 offa,Compounditacets eee 31/5
Calculating the Converting Moles to Mass... 318
Converting Mass to Moles... 319
Calculating the Energy Calculating Gas Quantities
Ola Photonteu ae nnercs. 144 Gh Se went eee eee oY
Calculating the Molar Mass
Using Energy Sublevels of a. Gas.cliSlPa es eee g22
to Write Electron
Gontiguichonsmape ae \73 Calculating Percent Composition
FromiMdss. Datd....7 ase 326
yf
Predicting Formulas of lonic
FrOnc EOrmU| Cleaes eaa tea S27,
Compoundsatseuuesrca tee 203 Calculating the Mass of
an Element in a Compound
8 Using Percent Composition.. 329
Drawing an Electron
Dot SMUCHUG ae cata oars. 229, Determining the Empirical
Formula of a Compound..... 331
Drawing the Electron Dot
Structure ofa Polyatomiclon.. 233 Finding the Molecular Formula
Oa Compound. eee oe
Identifying Bond Type......... 249
11
9
Writing a Skeleton Equation.. 349
Naming Cations and
PONS: ARIE,
SIN ee 2267 Balancing a Chemical
Equations. seer Joe soO8
Writing Formulas for Binary
lonic: Compounds eae aes 273 Writing Equations for
Combination and
Naming Binary lonic
Decomposition Reactions .... 359
COMooUnC See eee 275
Writing Equations for Single-
Writing Formulas for
Replacement Reactions ....... 361
Compounds With
Polyatomic lonSiceawsccerec 277. Writing Equations for Double-
Replacement Reactions ....... 363
Naming Compounds With
Polvatoimic lons.ereg ee. me.un 278 Writing Equations for
Combustion Reactions......... 365
Naming Binary Molecular
COMDOUNCSY eNom em cee 282 Writing and Balancing
Writing Formulas for Binary
Molecular Compound......... 283 12
Naming Acids ................06. 287 Using a Balanced Equation
Gs d Recipe sirrecs. eee 385
INGMINGUDGSes «see.
me aeGiar 288
Interpreting a Balanced
Calculating Mass Ratios...... 29 Chemical Equation............. 388
10 Calculating Moles of
Finding Mass From a Count.. 307 Gi PrOGUGI ia, sremeeeenee 391
Calculating the Mass of
CEO CHI oe ate en 393
Calculating Molecules of a
Produce eee ee 395
Volume-Volume Stoichiometric
Calculations: ac.2.. ecto 396
Finding the Volume of a Gas
Needed for a Reaction ....... 398
Determining the Limiting
Reagent in a Reaction......... A402
Using a Limiting Reagent to
Find the Quantity of
CERROCUCH Inte) orl case ccnz i: 403
Calculating the Theoretical
Yield of a Reaction............. 406
Calculating the Percent
Yield of a Reaction............. A408
13
Converting Between Units
OR BRESSULC Es eane ache ren A422
14
Using Boyle’s Law...........05 AZ,
Using Charles’s Law ........... 459
Using Gay-Lussac’s Law....... 461
Using the Combined
CAs eee: Seren comer 462
Using the Ideal
GASUOW wees sce 465, 466
Using Dalton’s Law of
Portal Pressures 2....css1.05.053s 47|
Comparing Effusion Rates ... 474
15
Finding the Percent by Mass
of Water in a Hydrate ........ 500
16
Using Henry’s Law ............. 524
Calculating Molarity........... 526
Calculating the Moles of
Solute in a Solution ............ O27,
Preparing a Dilute Solution.. 529
Calculating Percent by
Une ee reece
See 7010)
Using Percent by Mass as a
Gonversion fFactOre.. acs. a3;
UsitigViOlautyesee
eac.ce-0 0:22S57
Calculating Mole Fractions.. 541
Calculating the Freezing-Point
Depression of a Solution ..... 543
Calculating the Boiling
Point of a Solution.............. 544
17
Recognizing Exothermic and
Endothermic Processes........ 558
Calculating the Specific Heat
OLGRoUbsiance wei ater 561
Enthalpy Change in a
Calorimetry Experiment....... 564
Using the Heat of Reaction to
Calculate Enthalpy Change .. 567
Using the Heat of Fusion
in Phase-Change
@aiculations uma...) 1a 570
Using the Heat of —
Vaporization in Phase-
Change Calculations........... D148
Calculating the Enthalpy Change
in Solution Formation.......... SHS
Calculating the Standard
Heat of Reaction ................ 581
18
Finding the Order of a Reaction
From Experimental Data...... 606
Applying Le Chatelier’s
Princ!lewis et \tsccaen meee OlS
Expressing and
Calculating Kaaeere-ss.<-..ccm 617
Finding the Equilibrium
GGHStOtian castefen 618
Finding Concentrations at
EGUIIOMUTI NC.ste eee 619
Finding the lon Concentrations
in a Saturated Solution ....... 623
Finding Equilibrium lon
Concentrations in the Presence
Shaeommeonlonie.....0nee 625
19
Identifying Lewis Acids
GIGS OSaha hees maceoc teed es 652
Using the lon-Product
Gonstont tor vVatens es 655
Calculating pH from [H*].... 657
Calculating [H*] from pH.... 658
Calculating pH from [OH ].. 659
Calculating a
Dissociation Constant ......... 667
Finding the Moles Needed
for Neutralization............... 673
Determining Concentration
by .littentonaer. she seenene
ries 675
Describing Buffer Systems.... 680
20
Identifying Oxidized and
Reduced Reactants ............. 695
Assigning Oxidation
Numbers to Atoms ............. 703
Identifying Oxidized
and Reduced Atoms... 705, 706
Identifying Redox
RECICTIONS dtenee wees oe 709
Balancing Redox Equations by
Oxidation-Number Change.. 71 1
Balancing Redox Equations
by Half-Reactions .............. TNA
21
Determining Reaction
SPOMtanelivess....0. seem er 74\
Writing the Cell Reaction .... 742
Calculating the Standard
Gell Potential.....7. eee 743
22
Drawing Structural Formulas
for AlKGnes..ane.ctesme
entee eee 7C7,
Naming Branched-Chain
Alkanes s.r shes coaeas eee 770
Drawing Structural Formulas for
Branched-Chain Alkanes...... 77]
Identifying Asymmetric
GarbencAloms: ues. cee Ih
25
Using Half-Lives in
Galevlations vee 884
xxiii
© 1.1 The Scope of Chemistry ~
e 1.2 Chemistry and You _ 2 ie: < — ist

e 1.3 Thinking Like a Scientist

¢ 1.4 Problem Solving in Chemistry
‘IsBio Better?
_ You are preparing for a
picnic with your friends and
need to shop for supplies, includ-
- ing cups and utensils. At the store
you notice that there are options
other than the usual disposable
_ plastic picnicware that you typi-
~ cally find. Some of the items are
labeled as being made of “bioplas-
_ tic.” The packaging advertises that these
_ products are “Eco Friendly,” “Compostable,”
and “Made From Renewable Resources.”
All these product labels leave you per-
plexed. What is this new material? Is it better
for the environment than common plastic?
You decide to find out more about bioplastic
before making your purchase. What fac-
tors should you consider in order to make
an informed decision when you return to
the store to make your purchase?
> Connect to the BIGIDEA As you read
about the skills and methods used in chem-
istry, think about how they can apply to your
everyday decision making.

NATIONAL SCIENCE EDUCATION STANDARDS

Del Pod, 2k, FO) 18-2, G3
 Q: Why might this creature interest you ifyou were a chemist? Fugu, also
known as puffer fish, is a sushi delicacy that can also be lethal. Puffer fish
contain a powerful toxin that can kill an adult a few hours after ingestion.
Sushi chefs who prepare fugu must be specially trained because any contami-
nation of the toxin-free areas of the fish can be deadly. Recently this toxin has
been put to good use, as scientists have discovered that a purified form of it
can treat severe pain in cancer patients.

Key Questions
Why is the scope of
chemistry so vast?
What Is Chemistry?
Why is the scope of chemistry so vast?
What are five traditional
areas of study in chemistry? Look around you. This book you are reading, the chair you sit in, and the
computer you use are all made of matter. Matter is the general term for all the
What are the central themes things that can be described as materials, or “stuff.” Matter is anything that
of chemistry?
has mass and occupies space. The trees, the water, and the buildings you see
Vocabulary in Figure 1.1 are all examples of matter. However, you don't have to be able to
© matter
see something for it to qualify as matter. The air you breathe is an example of
chemistry matter that you cannot see with the naked eye.
organic chemistry Have you ever wondered how some creatures can survive deep in the
inorganic chemistry ocean where there is no light? Why some foods taste sweet and some taste bit-
biochemistry ter? Chemistry answers these questions and the many other questions you
analytical chemistry may have about the world you live in. Chemistry is the study of the composi-
© physical chemistry tion of matter and the changes that matter undergoes. Chemistry affects
® pure chemistry all aspects of life and most natural events because all living and nonliving
© applied chemistry things are made of matter. Chemistry is also known as the central science,
because it is fundamental to the understanding of the other sciences.

Figure 1.1 Matter Around You

Everything around you is made
of matter. Chemistry is the study
of matter and the changes that
matter undergoes.
Infer What changes in matter
do you think are happening in
this photo?
Areas of Study
What are five traditional areas of study in chemistry?
The scope of chemistry is vast, so individual chemists tend to focus on
one area of study. Five traditional areas of study are organic chem-
istry, inorganic chemistry, biochemistry, analytical chemistry, and
physical chemistry.

, Learn more about the

areas of chemistry online.
Actos

2 Chapter 1 @ Lesson |
 Most chemicals found in organisms contain carbon. Therefore, organic CL STRY/ 2“
chemistry was originally defined as the study of the carbon-based chemicals | ce
found in organisms. Today, with few exceptions, organic chemistry is defined Q: Why would you study a
as the study of all chemicals containing carbon. The study of chemicals that, puffer fish ifyou were a bio-
chemist? Ifyou were an organic
in general, do not contain carbon is called inorganic chemistry. Many inor-
chemist?
ganic chemicals are found in non-living things, such as rocks. The study of
processes that take place in living organisms is biochemistry. These processes
include muscle contraction and digestion. The area of study that focuses on : <
the composition of matter is analytical chemistry. A task that would fall into Analytical Chemistry
this area of chemistry is measuring the level of carbon dioxide in the atmo- ginSiepad ail ng
sphere. Physical chemistry is the area that deals with the mechanism, rate, eae 1s eee pees
and energy transfer that occurs when matter undergoes a change.
The boundaries between the five areas are not firm. A chemist is likely to
be working in more than one area of chemistry at any given time. For exam-
ple, an organic chemist uses analytical chemistry to determine the com-
position of an organic chemical. Figure 1.1 shows examples of the types of
research different chemists do.
Some chemists do research on fundamental aspects of chemistry. This
type of research is sometimes called pure chemistry. Pure chemistry is the
pursuit of chemical knowledge for its own sake. The chemist doesn’t expect
that there will be any immediate practical use for the knowledge. However,
most chemists do research that is designed to answer a specific ques-
tion. Applied chemistry is research that is directed toward a practical goal
or application. In practice, pure chemistry and applied chemistry are often
linked. Pure research can lead directly to an application, but an application
can exist before research is done to explain how it works.

Physical Chemistry
~ Apbhysical chemist might study
#., factors that affect the rate of Inorganic Chemistry
~~ photosynthesis in trees. z a An inorganic chemist might
© 4 develop metal materials that
-_ provide strong structural parts
for buildings.
—

Biochemistry
A biochemist might study
how the energy used for
the contraction of muscles
is produced and stored.
% Y. oa:
Baty

é © | Organic Chemistry
c £ € ws An organic chemist might
| develop new lightweight plastics
© for flying disks.

Introduction to Chemistry. 3.

Figure 1.2 Big Ideas
The big ideas in chemistry can help you
understand the world around you. For
example, all matter is made up of atoms,
which are held together in compounds
by chemical bonds. The fire is a result of
a chemical reaction between the carbon-
containing compounds in the wood and
the oxygen in the air. The fire gives off
energy in the form of heat and light. The
gas particles in the air around the fire
begin to move faster as the air heats up.
Predict Marshmallows are made up
of mostly sugar, a carbon-containing
compound. What do you think happens
when the sugar is heated by the fire?
A Chapter 1 ¢ lesson]
Cee What are the central themes of chemistry?
This book contains many ideas in the science of chemistry. One of the
goals of your course in chemistry is to help you understand these ideas
so you can use them to explain real situations that you may encoun-
ter in your life, such as the one shown in Figure 1.2. Fortunately, most
of the topics of interest in chemistry are connected by a relatively few
organizing principles, or “big ideas.” Caaad Some of chemistry’s big
ideas are as follows: chemistry as the central science, electrons and
the structure of atoms, bonding and interactions, reactions, kinetic
theory, the mole and quantifying matter, matter and energy, and
carbon chemistry.
IDEA Chemistry As the Central Science Chemistry overlaps
with all of the other sciences. Many physicists, biologists, astrono-
mers, geologists, environmental scientists, and others use chemistry
in their work.
IDEA Electrons and the Structure of Atoms Carbon, oxy-
gen, and copper are all examples of elements. Elements are composed
of particles called atoms, and every atom contains a nucleus and one
or more electrons. The type of products obtained in a chemical reac-
tion is largely determined by the electrons in the reacting chemicals.
IDEA Bonding and Interactions Most elements exist in
chemical compounds, which are collections of two or more elements
held together by relatively strong attractive forces. These forces, called
chemical bonds, greatly influence the properties of compounds.
Weak bonds between the particles of an element or compound can
also contribute to the properties of the material.
BIGIDEA Reactions Chemical reactions involve processes in which
reactants produce products. When you strike a match, the compounds in
the head of the match combine with oxygen in the air to produce a flame.
New compounds, along with light and heat, are formed. The compounds in
the match head and oxygen are the reactants, and the new compounds are
the products. Chemical reactions are important to the chemistry of living
and nonliving things.
BIGIDEA Kinetic Theory The particles in matter are in constant
motion. The ways in which these motions vary with changes in temperature
and pressure determine whether a substance will be a solid, liquid, or gas.
BIGIDEA The Mole and Quantifying Matter In many aspects of
chemistry, it is vital to know the amount of material with which you are
dealing. In conducting a chemical reaction, you would want to use just
the right amount of the reacting material so none is wasted. This
measurement is possible using the mole, the chemist’s invaluable unit
for specifying the amount of material. Other concepts in chemistry
also rely on the mole unit.
BIGIDEA Matter and Energy Every chemical process uses or
produces energy, often in the form of heat. The heat changes
that occur in chemical reactions are easy to measure.
Changes in a quantity called free energy allow you to
predict whether a reaction will actually occur under the
given conditions.
BIGIDEA Carbon Chemistry There are about
10 million carbon-containing compounds, with new
ones being prepared each day. Many of these compounds,
including plastics and synthetic fibers, are produced from
petroleum. Carbon compounds are the basis of life in all
living organisms.

1. Explain Why does chemistry
affect all aspects of life and most
natural events?
2. List Name the five traditional areas
into which chemistry can be divided.
3. Cad Review What are the “big ideas” of
chemistry?
4. Describe What is the relationship
between pure and applied chemistry?
5. Infer Why might a geologist ask an
analytical chemist to help identify the
minerals in a rock?
6. Apply Concepts Workers digging a tunnel through a
city find some ancient pots decorated with geometric
designs. Which of the following tasks might they ask a
CLOUD ODE STONE
a. Determine the materials used to make the pots.
b. Explain what the designs on the pots represent.
c. Recommend how to store the pots to prevent further
damage.
IBIGIDEA CHEMISTRY AS THE CENTRAL SCIENCE
7. Why would a student who wants to be a doctor need to
study chemistry?

Introduction to Chemistry 5
 | _CHEMIST
R“YY:O-U
Q: How is chemistry used to study worlds other than your own? The Hubble
Space Telescope has provided detailed views of celestial objects. Scientists
who know chemistry have also used the telescope to discover water and com-
pounds containing carbon on a planet located 63 light years from Earth.
Such compounds are necessary for life on Earth. However, the planet, desig-
nated HD189733b, is much too hot to support life. Perhaps the Hubble Space
Telescope or its successors will someday be used to find evidence of life on
planets with atmospheres more like that of Earth.
Key Questions
What are three general
reasons to study chemistry? Why Study Chemistry?
What are some outcomes of What are three general reasons fo study chemistry?
modern research in chemistry? You may not realize it, but chemistry can answer many questions you have
Vocabulary about the world around you. Should you use hot water or cold water to
remove a grass stain from a shirt? How could you prepare for a career in nurs-
¢ technology
ing, firefighting, or journalism? If your local government wanted to build a
solid waste incinerator in your town, what questions would you ask about the
project? Chemistry can be useful in explaining the natural world, pre-
paring people for career opportunities, and producing informed citizens.

Explaining the Natural World You were born with a curiosity about your
world. Chemistry can help you satisfy your natural desire to understand how
things work. For example, chemistry can be seen in all aspects of food prep-
aration. Chemistry can explain why cut apples, such as the one shown in
Figure 1.3, turn brown upon exposure to air. It can explain why the texture
of eggs changes from runny to firm as eggs are boiled. Chemistry can explain
why water expands as it freezes, why sugar dissolves faster in hot water than
in cold water, and why yeast makes bread dough rise. After you study this
textbook, you will know the answers to these questions and many more.

Preparing for a Career Being a chemist can be rewarding. Chemists con-

Figure 1.3 Chemistry and Food
When cut apples are exposed to
air, a chemical reaction takes place,
which causes the color to change
to brown.
tribute to society in many ways. In this book, you will find features on careers
that require knowledge of chemistry. Some of the choices may surprise you.
You do not need to have the word chemist in your job title to benefit from
understanding chemistry. For example, a reporter may be asked to interview
a chemist to gather background for a story. Turf managers have the important
task of keeping the grass on golf courses, lawns, and soccer fields, such as the
one shown in Figure 1.4a, healthy. This job requires an understanding of soil
chemistry. Figure 1.4b shows a firefighter, who must know which chemicals
to use to fight different types of fires.

6 Chapter 1 © Lesson 2
Figure 1.4 Careers
Many careers require a knowledge of chemistry. a. Turf managers must know how
the soil and other conditions affect grass. b. Firefighters must choose the correct
chemicals to extinguish different types of fires.
Inter What are some factors that may affect the health and appearance of the
grass on a soccer field?

Being an Informed Citizen Industry, private founda-

tions, and the federal and state governments all provide
funds for scientific research. The availability of funding
can influence the direction of research. Those who dis-
tribute funds have to balance the importance of a goal
against the cost. Areas of research often compete for
funds because there is limited money available.
For example, space exploration research could not
take place without federal funding. Critics argue that
the money spent on space exploration would be bet-
ter spent on programs such as cancer research. Those
who support space exploration point out that NASA
research has led to the development of many items
used on Earth. These include smoke detectors, scratch-
resistant plastic lenses, heart monitors, and flat-screen
televisions. What if all the money spent on space explo-
ration was used to find a cure for cancer? Are there
enough valid avenues of research to take advantage of
the extra funding? Would there be qualified scientists
to do the research? Figure 1.5 Voting
Like the citizen shown in Figure 1.5, you will need Through voting, citizens have a say in the decisions their
to make choices that will influence the direction of sci- government makes. Those decisions include how much
entific research. You may vote directly on some issues money to provide for scientific research.
through ballot initiatives or indirectly through the offi-
cials you elect. You may speak at a public hearing, write
a letter to the editor, or sign a petition. When it comes
to scientific research, there is no one correct answer.
However, knowledge of chemistry and other sciences
can help you evaluate the data presented, arrive at an
informed opinion, and take appropriate action.

Introduction to Chemistry 7
InterpretGraphs Ee Pm ye

Fi ure 16 ee packaging includes i Plastics era <elellite| in U.S. Waste

15,000
soft-drink and water bottles, milk and water ¥FOSS
: IE
eNO

jugs, and other plastic containers.

12,500
a. Read Graphs How much plastics
ECR
Se

| 11,190
packaging was in U.S. waste in 2007?
10,000
b. Calculate How much more plastics
packaging was in U.S. waste in 2000 than 7500 6900
in 1990?
c. Predict Do you think that the amount of 5000
plastics packaging in U.S. waste will increase produced
Waste
fons)
of
(thousands| 3.400 einer
HORN
eemres
RB

or decrease in the next 10 years? Explain. 2500 2090

9 L_120 Ez
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2007
Note: The amount of plastics
~ Year
_ | packaging in U.S. waste
_| includes plastics packaging
Arle i ec ps ie ee
eto ie el act NSA
OS ae RCSA
“| that is to be recycled.

Chemistry, Technology, and Society

What are some outcomes of modern research in chemistry?
You have probably heard the term high tech used when describing the latest
gadgets and inventions, such as computers that are the size of your watch, or
cars that can drive themselves. However, you may not realize that many of
the basic items you use every day, such as the sneakers you wear or the cereal
you eat, are products of technology. Technology is the means by which a soci-
ety provides its members with those things needed and desired. Technology
allows humans to do some things more quickly or with less effort. It also
allows people to do things that would be otherwise impossible, such as tray-
eling to the moon. Modern research in chemistry can lead to technol-
ogies that aim to benefit the environment, conserve and produce energy,
improve human life, and expand our knowledge of the universe.

Materials and the Environment Chemists don’t just study matter—they

also use what they know about the structure and properties of matter to make
new materials with different or improved properties. Take plastics, for exam-
ple. If you have ever consumed bottled water, eaten a salad with a disposable
fork, or put on your helmet before riding your bike, you have used plastics.
Chemistry has played a large role in developing plastics for different uses.
Most plastics are made using petrochemicals, which are chemical prod-
ucts derived from petroleum. Although plastics are a part of most of our daily
lives, there is concern that their use is taking a toll on the environment and
on natural resources. The supply of petrochemicals is limited, and the manu-
facture of plastics uses large amounts of energy. Unrecycled plastics end up
in landfills, where they remain for hundreds of years. Figure 1.6 shows the
amount of plastics packaging in U.S. waste. Understandably, there has been a
demand for plastics that are better for the environment. Figure 1.7 describes a
new technology that offers an alternative to petroleum-based plastics.

8 Chapter 1 © Lesson 2
 ANA }

Oy
. \} { 3 j ff
\
it A
‘ : :
Figure 1.7 Bioplastic cle WN ih
Polylactic acid (PLA) is known as a bioplastic. Made from corn, PLA can be li \ | | ‘
used to manufacture many items that are typically made out of petroleum- | 1 | Aa
based plastics, including cups, utensils, containers and packaging for food,
and bags.

Corn is grown,
harvested, and
ground. A sugar
ero] |(-Yekre][Worse Lactic acid is also found
is extracted. in your muscle tissue
when you exercise.

Bacteria are added to convert

glucose into lactic acid.

Rererirerelelfe| genes folg-M ital <ate.

into long chains called polymers.

Plastics are made out

of polymers. Polymers
are long chains of The polylactic acid (PLA)
molecules that are polymeris formed into
chemically bonded to small pellets. The pellets
one another. can be spun into fibers
or melted to take almost
any form.

C
~
|ye

Compostatie

alts at lc ures Sines PLA ele at

aide from corn Hand Sher eaeheh can be
grown year after year.
V Less energy The production of PLA uses less
energy than the production of conventional
plastics.
Better for the environment Fewer greenhouse
gases, och as carbon ieuide, are produced in
the production of PLA than in the production of
other plastics. Also, PLA can be broken down
into compounds found in nature.
fergperarare ioter Awe other common plastics, it
doesn’t have as many applications.
x Made from corn The fields used to grow corn
for PLA could be used to grow food for Earth's
growing population. There is also concern that
the corn used to produce PLA is genetically
modified.
Difficult to dispose of PLA must be taken to
special compost facilities in order to ensure that
the material breaks down. Products made from
PLA cannot be recycled with other plastics.
 Energy The needs of any modern society require energy to power homes,
factories, and transportation. With population growth and more industrial-
ization around the globe, the demand for energy is on the rise. There are only
two ways to meet the demand for energy—conserve it or produce more of it.
Chemistry plays an essential role in both of these options.
Gasoline-electric hybrid cars play a substantial role in the conservation
of energy. They have greater fuel efficiencies than gasoline-powered vehicles.
Hybrids use both a gasoline engine and a set of batteries to run the car. A
knowledge of chemistry was necessary to develop these batteries. In an effort
to produce more energy, sustainable energy sources are important to consider.
Unlike fossil fuels, the sun is a renewable energy source. Chemists help design
materials that collect energy from the sun that is then converted to electricity.

Medicine and Biotechnology Chemistry supplies the medicines, materi-

als, and technology that doctors use to treat their patients. Biochemists work
with biologists and doctors to understand the structure of matter found in the
human body and the chemical changes that occur in cells.
There are more than 10,000 prescription drugs, which have been
designed to treat various conditions including infections, high blood pres-
sure, and depression. Other drugs, such as aspirin and antacids, can be sold
without a prescription. Many drugs are effective because they interact in a
specific way with chemicals in cells. Chemists who develop these drugs must
have knowledge of the structure and function of these target chemicals in
order to design safe and effective drugs. Chemistry can also develop materials
to repair or replace body parts. Diseased arteries can be replaced with plas-
tic tubes. Artificial hips and knees made from metals and plastics can replace
worn-out joints and allow people to walk again without pain.
Figure 1.8a shows a model of a small piece of DNA. Segments of DNA,
called genes, store the information that controls changes that take place in
cells. Biotechnology applies science to the production of biological products
or processes. It uses techniques that can alter the DNA in living organisms.
It may depend on the transfer of genes from one organism to another. When
genes from humans are inserted into bacteria, the bacteria act as factories
that produce chemicals of importance to humans, such as insulin. Production
takes place in large versions of the bioreactors shown in Figure 1.8b.

Figure 1.8 Biotechnology

The discovery of the structure
of DNA led to the development
of biotechnology. a. This
computer graphics model shows
a small segment of DNA. b. The
conditions in a bioreactor
are controlled so that the
bacteria produce as
much of the product
as possible.

10 Chapter 1 © Lesson 2
The Universe Scientists assume that the methods used to study Earth can Figure 1.9 Space Exploration
be applied to other objects in the universe. To study the universe, chemists With help from NASA, chemists
gather data from afar and analyze matter that is brought back to Earth. study matter from other bodies
In the early 1800s, scientists began to study the composition of stars by ns act Soa gis
IC Vi
analyzing the light they transmitted to Earth. In 1868, Pierre Janssen discov- O
; portunity on the surface
ered a gas on the sun’s surface that was not known on Earth. Joseph Norman E tiNaee
Lockyer named the gas helium from the Greek word helios, meaning “sun.” In
1895, William Ramsay discovered helium on Earth.
The moon and the planets do not emit light, so scientists must use other
methods to gather data about these objects. The methods used depend on
matter brought back to Earth by astronauts or on probes that can analyze
matter in space. Chemists have analyzed more than 850 pounds of moon KS
rocks that were brought back to Earth. The rocks were similar to rocks ?
Q: How can chemistry be
formed by volcanoes on Earth, suggesting that vast oceans of molten lava
used to find evidence oflife on
once covered the moon’s surface. Figure 1.9 is a drawing of the robotic vehicle 2
Opportunity. The vehicle was designed to determine the chemical composi- aa Ess
tion of rocks and soil on Mars. Data collected at the vehicle’s landing site indi-
cated that the site was once drenched with water.

oF ]4, LessonCheck
8. Cae List What are three reasons for studying 12. Explain How can a knowledge of chemistry help
chemistry? you be a more informed citizen?
9. Cx Review How has modern research in
chemistry impacted society? IDEA
CHEMISTRY AS THE CENTRAL SCIENCE
10. Describe How do chemists study the universe?
13. A friend tells you that she doesn’t think it is
11. Form an Opinion Do the advantages of sub- important to learn chemistry. What would be
stituting the bioplastic PLA for conventional your response?
plastics outweigh the disadvantages? Would you
use products made out of PLA? Why or why not?

Introduction to Chemistry 11
Typically, chemists direct their research toward a practical goal or
application. However, sometimes scientists accidentally stumble
upon a discovery that they didn't intend to find.

Polytetrafluoroethylene In
1938, Roy J. Plunkett was
researching new refrigerants,
which are compounds used
in refrigerators and air
conditioners. In preparation
for an experiment, Plunkett
stored a compound called
tetrafluoroethylene gas (TFE) in
cylinders at a low temperature overnight.
When Plunkett was ready to use the TFE the next
day, he found that none of the gas came out. He opened a
cylinder to find a white, waxy solid that was very slippery
and did not react with any other chemicals.
The substance that Plunkett accidentally made, called
polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) has many uses that you
may be familiar with, such as insulation for electrical
cables, soil and stain repellents for fabrics, and coatings
for nonstick cookware.

Saccharin In 1879, Constantine Fahlberg

was looking for new uses for coal tar and
forgot to wash his hands after working
one day in the lab. When he went home
to eat dinner that night he noticed that
his bread tasted sweet. He realized that the
sweet taste was coming from his unwashed
hands.
The substance on his hands was saccharin,
which is the oldest artificial sweetener. Saccharin
was initially sold in tablet form from the late
1890s to the 1940s. In 1957, it was introduced in
granulated form.

12 Chapter 1 © Chemistry & You

Sticky Notes In 1968, a chemist named Spencer
Silver developed an adhesive that was only slightly
sticky. However, Silver didn’t have an application for
his discovery. Several years later, in 1974, Silver’s
co-worker, Art Fry, was singing in his church choir.
He thought that Silver’s adhesive would be useful for
sticking bookmarks in his hymnal. In 1980, sticky
notes were introduced around the world.

| Vulcanized Rubber When rubber was introduced in the early 1830s,

it was not very useful. It froze in the winter and melted into a glue-like
substance in the summer. Charles Goodyear, a hardware merchant
from Philadelphia was on a quest to improve the properties of the
substance. After countless failed experiments, Goodyear began
using sulfur in his rubber formulations. In the winter of 1839, a
chunk of his rubber-sulfur formulation landed on top of a hot
stove. Instead of melting, the rubber charred. The mixture
had hardened but it was still elastic.
Thomas Hancock, an Englishman, saw a sample of
Goodyear’s rubber and re-invented it in 1843. He named
the processes “vulcanization, after Vulcan, the Roman
god of fire.

Take It Further
1. Identify Coal tar contains carbon. What type of
chemistry was the focus of Fahlberg’s research?
2. Classify Were the inventors in these examples
performing pure or applied research when they made
their discoveries? Explain.
3. Infer When Plunkett couldn't get the TFE gas out
of the cylinders, he weighed them and found that they
weighed the same as they did the night before. What
was the significance of this finding?
4. Form an Opinion Are the inventions described
examples of technology? Why or why not?
 k Alexander Fleming tested his hypothesis? In 1928,
Alexander Fleming, a Scottish scientist, noticed that a bacteria he was study-
ing did not grow in the presence of a yellow-green mold. Other scientists had
made the same observation, but Fleming was the first to recognize its impor-
tance. He assumed that the mold had released a chemical that prevented the
growth of the bacteria. That chemical was penicillin, which can kill a wide
range of harmful bacteria.
Key Questions
How did Lavoisier help to
transform chemistry?
An Experimental Approach to Science
How did Lavoisier help to transform chemistry?
What are the steps in the
scientific method? The word chemistry comes from the word alchemy. Long before there were
chemists, alchemists were studying matter. Alchemy arose independently in
What role do collaboration many regions of the world. It was practiced in China and India as early as
and communication play in
400 s.c. In the eighth century, Arabs brought alchemy to Spain, and from
science?
there it spread quickly to other parts of Europe.
Vocabulary You may have heard that alchemists were concerned with searching for a
® scientific method way to change other metals, such as lead, into gold. Although alchemists did
® observation not succeed with this quest, the work they did spurred the development of
¢ hypothesis chemistry. Alchemists developed the tools and techniques for working with
© experiment chemicals. For example, alchemists developed processes for separating mix-
¢ independent variable tures and purifying chemicals. They designed equipment that is still used
* dependent variable today, including beakers, flasks, tongs, funnels, and the mortar and pestle,
° model which is shown in Figure 1.10. What they did not do was provide a logical set
* theory of explanations for the changes in matter that they observed. Chemists would
® scientific law accomplish that task many years later.

Figure 1.10 Mortar and Pestle

Pharmacists still use a bowl-shaped mortar and
club-shaped pestle to mix drugs for patients. The
mortar and pestle in this photograph are made of
porcelain, which is a hard material.
Infer What may be some other uses of a mortar
and pestle?

14 Chapter 1 © Lesson 3
 By the 1500s in Europe, there was a shift from alchemy to science. Science
flourished in Britain in the 1600s, partly because King Charles II was a sup-
porter of the sciences. With his permission, some scientists formed the Royal
Society of London for the Promotion of Natural Knowledge. The scientists
met to discuss scientific topics and conduct experiments. The society’s aim
was to encourage scientists to base their conclusions about the natural world
on experimental evidence, not on philosophical debates.
In France, Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier did work in the late 1700s that
would revolutionize the science of chemistry. Lavoisier helped to trans-
form chemistry from a science of observation to the science of measure-
ment that it is today. To make careful measurements, Lavoisier designed a
balance that could measure mass to the nearest 0.0005 gram.
One of the many things Lavoisier accomplished was to settle a long-
standing debate about how materials burn. The accepted explanation was that Figure 1.11 Antoine Lavoisier
materials burn because they contain phlogiston, which is released into the air This portrait of Antoine Lavoisier
as a material burns. To support this explanation, scientists had to ignore the and his wife Marie Anne was
evidence that metals can gain mass as they burn. By the time Lavoisier did painted by Jacques Louis David
his experiments, he knew that there were two main gases in air—oxygen and in 1788.
nitrogen. Lavoisier was able to show that oxygen is required for a material to
burn. Lavoisier’s wife Marie Anne, shown in Figure 1.11, helped with his sci-
entific work. She made drawings of his experiments and translated scientific
papers from English.

The Scientific Method

What are the steps in the
scientific method?
Scientists have a powerful tool that they use to
produce valuable results. Like all scientists, the
biochemist shown in Figure 1.12 is using the
scientific method to solve difficult problems.
The scientific method is a logical, systematic
approach to the solution of a scientific prob-
lem. Steps in the scientific method include
making observations, proposing and testing
hypotheses, and developing theories.

Making Observations The scientific method

is useful for solving many kinds of problems.
Suppose you try to turn on a flashlight and
you notice that it does not light. When you use
your senses to obtain information, you make
an observation. An observation can lead to a
question: What is wrong with the flashlight?

Figure 1.12 Observing With

a Microscope
Observation is an essential step in
the scientific method.

Introduction to Chemistry 15
Figure 1.13 Computer Models Testing Hypotheses If you guess that the batteries in the
This scientist is using a computer to model flashlight are dead, you are making a hypothesis. A hypothesis
complex molecules, which are difficult to is a proposed explanation for an observation. You can test your
study with experiments alone.
hypothesis by putting new batteries in the flashlight. Replacing
the batteries is an experiment, a procedure that is used to test
| See scientific a hypothesis. If the flashlight lights, you can be fairly certain
/ models online. that your hypothesis was true. What if the flashlight does not
a | pe
work after you replace the batteries? A hypothesis is useful only
if it accounts for what is actually observed. When experimental
data does not fit a hypothesis, the hypothesis must be changed.
A new hypothesis might be that the light bulb is burnt out. An
experiment to test this new hypothesis is to replace the bulb.
When you design experiments, you deal with variables,
or factors that can change. The variable that you change dur-
ing an experiment is the independent variable, also called
the manipulated variable. The variable that is observed dur-
ing the experiment is the dependent variable, also called the
responding variable. If you keep other factors that can affect
the experiment from changing during the experiment, you
can relate any change in the dependent variable to changes in
the independent variable. For the results of an experiment to
be accepted, the experiment must produce the same result no
matter how many times it is repeated, or by whom. This is why
scientists are expected to publish a description of their proce-
dures along with their results.
Sometimes the experiment a scientist must perform to test
a hypothesis is difficult or impossible. For example, atoms and
molecules, which are some of the smallest units of matter, can-
not be easily seen. In these situations, scientists often turn to
models to gain more understanding of a problem. A model is
a representation of an object or event. Figure 1.13 shows a sci-
entist working with computer models of complex biological
molecules. Chemists may also use models to study chemical
reactions and processes.

A hypothesis may be
revised based on
odol-tafunl-lalrelmelelion
Experiments Theory
An experiment can A theory is tested by
lead to observations more experiments
that support or folate Mantetellitcve Mi
disprove a hypothesis. necessary.

Figure 1.14 The Scientific Method Scientific Law

The steps in the scientific method do not A scientific law
have to occur in the order shown. summarizes the results
Compare and Contrast How are a ohm ulelaNacelok<-1aZelitolars
hypothesis and a theory similar? How and experiments.
are they different?

16 Chapter 1 ¢ Lesson 3
 Developing Theories Figure 1.14 shows how the steps of the scientific CHEMISTRY/5°:YOU)
method fit together. Once a hypothesis meets the test of repeated
Q: What was Alexander Fleming's
experimentation, it may be raised to a higher level of ideas. It may become
hypothesis? How could he test his
a theory. A theory is a well-tested explanation for a broad set of obser-
| hypothesis?
vations. Some of the theories in chemistry are very useful because they
help you form mental pictures of objects or processes that cannot be seen.
Other theories allow you to predict the behavior of matter.
When scientists say that a theory can never be proved, they are not
saying that a theory is unreliable. They are simply leaving open the possi-
bility that a theory may need to be changed at some point in the future to
explain new observations or experimental results.

Scientific Laws Figure 1.14 shows how scientific experiments can lead to
laws as well as theories. A scientific
law is a concise statement that sum-
marizes the results of many observations and experiments. In Chapter 14,
you will study laws that describe how gases behave. One law describes the
relationship between the volume of a gas in a container and its tempera-
ture. If all other variables are kept constant, the volume of the gas increases
as the temperature increases. The law doesn’t try to explain the relation-
ship it describes. That explanation requires a theory.

(Quick Lab ) _.
a

| Purpose To test ie hypoth--

__ esis that bubble making can be,
_ affected by adding sugar or salt
_ toa bubble-blowing mixture
Materials -
Bubbles! Shel DAS ath: a Ana
RecutBl 5
1. Label three drinlaiig cups 1, 2, and 3. 4. Dip the drinking straw into
~ Measure and add one teaspoon of liquid cup 1, remove it, and blow gently
dish detergent to each cup. | into the straw to make the largest =phm
nrea
ee
R
Ee
r

¢ 3 plastic drinking cups

2. Use the measuring cup to add two-
e measuring cup and spoons
thirds cup of water to each drinking cup.
e liquid dish detergent
Then swirl the cups to forma clear mixture.
¢ water CAUTION Wipe up any spills immediately
e table sugar so that no one will slip and fall.
¢ table salt 3. Add a half teaspoon of table sugar to
¢ drinking straw cup 2 and a half teaspoon of table salt to
cup 3. Swirl each cup for one minute.
bubble you can. Practice making
bubbles until you feel you have
reasonable control over your bub-
ble production.
5. Repeat Step 4 with the mix-
tures in cups 2 and 3.

Analyze and Conclude

1. Observe Did you observe any differences in your ability to produce bubbles
using the mixtures in cup 1 and cup 2?
2. Observe Did you observe any differences in your ability to produce bubbles
using the mixtures in cup 1 and cup 3?
3. Draw Conclusions What can you conclude about the effects of table sugar
and table salt on your ability to produce bubbles?
4. Design an Experiment Propose another hypothesis related to bubble mak-
ing. Design an experiment to test your hypothesis.

Introduction to Chemistry 17

Figure 1.15 Teamwork
For a volleyball team to win, the
players must work together.
Figure 1.16 Lab Partners
Working in pairs or in a group can
be challenging, but it can also be
rewarding.
Apply Concepts What steps
in the scientific method are these
students using?
18 Chapter 1 © Lesson 3
Collaboration and Communication
What role do collaboration and communication play in science?
No matter how talented the players on a team may be, one player cannot
ensure victory for the team. Individuals must collaborate, or work together,
for the good of the team. Think about the volleyball players in Figure 1.15. In
volleyball, the person who spikes the ball depends on the person who sets the
ball. Unless the ball is set properly, the spiker will have limited success. Many
sports recognize the importance of collaboration by keeping track of assists.
During a volleyball game, the players also communicate with one another
so it is clear who is going to do which task. Strategies that are successful in
sports can work in other fields, such as science. When scientists collabo-
rate and communicate with one another, they increase the likelihood of a
successful outcome.
Collaboration Scientists choose to collaborate for different reasons. For
example, some research problems are so complex that no one person could
have all the knowledge, skills, and resources to solve the problem. It is often
necessary to bring together individuals from different disciplines. Each sci-
entist will typically bring different knowledge and, perhaps, a different
approach to a problem. Just talking with a scientist from another discipline
may provide insights that are helpful.
There may be a practical reason for collaboration. For example, an indus-
try may give a university funding for pure research in an area of interest to
the industry. Scientists at the university get the equipment and financing
required to do the research. In exchange, the scientists provide ideas and
expertise. The industry may profit from its investment by marketing applica-
tions based on the research.
Collaboration isn’t always'a smooth process. Conflicts can arise about use
of resources, amount of work, who is to receive credit, and when and what to
publish. Like the students in Figure 1.16, you will likely work in pairs or on a
team in the laboratory. If so, you may face some challenges. However, you can
also experience the benefits of a successful collaboration.
Communication The way scientists communicate with each other and with
the public has changed over the centuries. In earlier centuries, scientists
exchanged ideas through letters. They also formed societies to discuss the lat-
est work of their members. When societies began to publish journals, scien-
tists could use the journals to keep up with new discoveries.
Today, many scientists, like those in Figure 1.17, work as a team. They can
Figure 1.17 Communication
communicate face to face. They also can exchange ideas with other scientists
Scientists often get together
by e-mail, by phone, and at local and international conferences. Scientists still at professional meetings and
publish their results in scientific journals, which are the most reliable source workshops to discuss their findings
of information about new discoveries. Most journals are now published and share ideas.
online and are readily accessible. Articles are
published only after being reviewed by experts
in the author's field. Reviewers may find errors
in experimental design or challenge the author’s
conclusions. This review process is good for sci-
ence because work that is not well founded is
usually not published.
The Internet is a major source of infor-
mation. One advantage of the Internet is that
anyone can get access to information. One dis-
advantage is that anyone can post information
on the Internet without first having that infor-
mation reviewed. To judge the reliability of
information you find on the Internet, you have
to consider the source. This same advice applies
to articles in newspapers and magazines or the
news you receive from television. If a media out-
let has a reporter who specializes in science,
chances are better that a report will be accurate.

14. Review How did Lavoisier revolutionize the sci-
ence of chemistry?
15. List Name three steps in the scientific method.
16. Explain Why are collaboration and communica-
tion important in science?
17. Describe What did alchemists contribute to the
development of chemistry?
18. Explain How did Lavoisier’s wife help him to com-
municate the results of his experiments?
19. Describe What process takes place before an article is
published in a scientific journal?
20. Explain Why is it important for scientists to publish a
description of their procedures along with the results
of their experiments?
21. Infer Why should a hypothesis be devel-
oped before experiments take place?
22. Compare What is the difference between a
theory and a hypothesis?
23. Classify In Chapter 2, you will learn that
matter is neither created nor destroyed in
any chemical change. Is this statement a
theory or a law? Explain your answer.
BIGIDEA
CHEMISTRY AS THE CENTRAL SCIENCE
24. Do the steps in the scientific method always
need to be followed in order? Explain.

Introduction to Chemistry 19
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 ERICA margaritacea.

CHARACTER SPECIFICUS.

Erica, antheris cristatis, inclusis; stylo exserto; corollis globoso

campanulatis; floribus terminalibus, sub-umbellatis; foliis quaternis, lineari-
trigonis, glabris, erectis.

DESCRIPTIO.

Caulis erectus, ramosus; ramuli frequentissimi, erecti, glabri.

Folia quaterna, lineari-trigona, erecta, subtus sulcata, glabra; petiolis
brevissimis, adpressis.
Flores terminales, nutantes, sub-umbellati; pedunculi filiformes, bracteis
tribus, linearibus instructi.
Calyx. Perianthium tetraphyllum, foliolis subulatis, carinatis, sulcatis,
lævibus, adpressis.
Corolla urceolata, alba, calyce paulo longior; laciniæ limbi obtusæ,
erecto-patulæ.
Stamina. Filamenta octo capillaria, apice inflexa. Antheræ ovatæ,
brunneæ, cristatæ, inclusæ.
Pistillum. Germen globosum, sulcatum. Stylus filiformis, exsertus.
Stigma tetragonum.
Habitat ad Caput Bonæ Spei.
Floret a mensi Junii, in Septembrem.

REFERENTIA.

1. Calyx, et Corolla.
2. Calyx, lente auctus.
3. Stamina, et Pistillum.
 4. Stamen unum, lente auctum.
5. Pistillum, lente auctum.

SPECIFIC CHARACTER.

Heath, with crested tips, within the blossom; shaft without; blossoms
globularly bell-shaped; flowers terminate the branches in small bunches;
leaves grow by fours, linearly three-sided, smooth and upright.

DESCRIPTION.

Stem upright, and branching; the small branches are numerous, upright,
and smooth.
Leaves grow by fours, linearly three-sided, upright, furrowed on the
under part and smooth; with very short foot-stalks, pressed to the branches.
Flowers terminate the branches, are a little bent downwards, and grow in
small bunches; the foot-stalks are thread-shaped, with three linear floral
leaves on them.
Empalement. Cup four-leaved, the little leaves are awl-shaped, keeled,
furrowed, smooth, and pressed to the blossom.
Blossom pitcher-shaped, white, and a little longer than the cup; the
segments of the border are blunt, upright and spreading.
Chives. Eight hair-like threads, bent inwards at the ends. Tips egg-
shaped, brown, crested and within the blossom.
Pointal. Seed-bud globular, and furrowed. Shaft thread-shaped and
without the blossom. Summit four-cornered.
Native of the Cape of Good Hope.
Flowers from June, till September.

REFERENCE.

1. The Empalement, and Blossom.

2. The Empalement, magnified.
3. The Chives, and Pointal.
4. A Chive, magnified.
5. The Pointal, magnified.
 ERICA Massonia.

CHARACTER SPECIFICUS.

Erica, antheris muticis, inclusis; corollis sub-cylindricis, viscosis,

speciosissimis, tricoloratis; foliis subquaternis, pilis longis vestitis.

DESCRIPTIO.

Caulis fruticosus, erectus, bipedalis, basi simplicissimus, dein ramosus,

rami suberecti, foliis toti tecti.
Folia subquaterna, oblonga, serrata, pilis longis vestita, supra plana,
subtus sulcata, petiolis brevissimis adpressis.
Flores subterminales, plures, simplice verticillati, cernuo-patenti,
pedunculi pilosi, foliolis tribus subtus instructi.
Calyx. Perianthium tetraphyllum, foliolis lanciolatis, hirsutis, adpressis,
apicibus revolutis.
Corolla subcylindracea, micans, viscosa, rubra, lutea et viridia
speciosissime colorata, ore arctato, quadrisido.
Stamina. Filamenta octo capillaria, longitudine tubi, receptaculo inserta.
Antheræ muticæ.
Pistillum. Germen clavatum, sulcatum. Stylus filiformis, subexsertus.
Stigma tetragonum.
Habitat ad Caput Bonæ Spei.
Floret a mensi Augusti ad Decembrem.

REFERENTIA.

1. Calyx et Corolla.
2. Calyx lente auctus.
3. Stamina et Pistillum.
 4. Stamina a Pistillo diducta, anthera una lente aucta.
5. Stylus et Stigma lente aucta.

SPECIFIC CHARACTER.

Heath, with beardless tips, within the blossom, which are nearly cylindrical,
clammy, most beautiful, and three-coloured; the leaves grow mostly by
fours, and are entirely covered with long hairs.

DESCRIPTION.

Stem shrubby, upright, grows two feet high, simple at the base, then
branching, the branches nearly upright, and quite covered by the leaves.
Leaves grow mostly by fours, oblong, sawed, clothed with long hairs,
smooth on the upper, and furrowed on the under part, having very short leaf-
stems pressed to the branches.
Flowers are numerous, in single whorls, near the summit of the
branches, bending downward, and spreading, the foot-stalks hairy, with three
small leaves fixed on their under part.
Empalement. Cup four-leaved, which are lance-shaped, hairy, pressed to
the blossom, and rolled back at the point.
Blossom nearly cylindrical, shining, clammy, and most beautifully
coloured with red, yellow, and green, narrow at the mouth, which is divided
into four segments.
Chives. Eight hair-like threads, the length of the blossom, fixed into the
receptacle. Tips beardless.
Pointal. Seed-vessel club-shaped, and furrowed. Shaft thread-shaped,
rather without the blossom. Summit four-cornered.
Native of the Cape of Good Hope.
Flowers from August till December.

REFERENCE.
1. The Empalement and Blossom.
2. The Empalement magnified.
3. The Chives and Pointal.
4. The Chives detached from the Pointal; one tip magnified.
5. The Shaft and its Summit magnified.
 ERICA melastoma.

CHARACTER SPECIFICUS.

Erica, antheræ muticæ, exsertæ, attenuata in filamenta plana; corollis

sessilibus, solitariis, luteis, terminalibus; oris laciniis nigris; calyx
duplicatus, heptaphyllus, imbricatus; foliis subulatis, quaternis.

DESCRIPTIO.

Caulis laxus, erectus, bipedalis; rami pauci, simplices; ramuli sparsi,

brevissimi, frequentissimi, foliosi.
Folia quaterna, subulata, apice, recurvata, sub-scabrida, rigida; petiolis
brevissimis, adpressis.
Flores sessiles in apicibus ramulorum, solitarii, dependenti; pedunculi
brevissimi.
Calyx. Perianthium duplex; interius tetraphyllum, foliolis concavis,
ovatis, glabris, imbricatis, integris, luteis; exterius triphyllum, priori
brevioribus, consimilibus.
Corolla conica, lutea, parum curvata, basi quadrifariam sulcata, apice
attenuata; laciniis erectis, obtusis, longissimis, adpressis, nigris.
Stamina. Filamenta octo, plana, linearia. Antheræ muticæ, lineares,
exsertæ, longitudine corollæ, attenuata in filamenta.
Pistillum. Germen ovatum, glabrum, integrum. Stylus exsertus,
filiformis, staminibus paulo longior. Stigma marginatum, virescens.
Habitat ad Caput Bonæ Spei.
Floret a Mensi Februarii, in Julium.

REFERENTIA.

1. Calyx.
2. Corolla, et Stamina.
 3. Stamina, et Pistillum.
4. Stamina a Pistillo diducta.
5. Stamen unum, lente auctum.
6. Pistillum, lente auctum.

SPECIFIC CHARACTER.

Heath, with beardless tips, without the blossom, tapering into the threads
which are flat; blossoms sitting close to the branches singly, are yellow, and
terminate them; the segments of the mouth are black; the cup is doubled, of
seven leaves and tiled; leaves awl-shaped, growing by fours.

DESCRIPTION.

Stem weak, upright, grows two feet high; the branches are few, and
simple; the small branches are scattered, very short, numerous, and covered
with leaves.
Leaves grow by fours, awl-shaped, bent back at the point, roughish and
stiff; foot-stalks very short, and pressed to the stem.
Flowers sitting on the ends of the smaller branches are solitary, and hang
down; the foot-stalks are very short.
Empalement. Cup double; the inner one has four leaves, which are
concave, egg-shaped, smooth, tiled, entire, and yellow; the outer three-
leaved, shorter than the former, and like them.
Blossom conical, yellow, slightly curved, having four furrows at the base,
and tapering at the point; the segments of the border grow upright, are blunt,
very long, pressed to the chives, and black.
Chives. Eight flat, linear, threads. Tips beardless, linear, without the
blossom, and of its length, tapering into the threads.
Pointal. Seed-bud egg-shaped, smooth and entire. Shaft without the
blossom, thread-shaped, a little longer than the chives. Summit bordered,
and greenish.
Native of the Cape of Good Hope.
Flowers from February, till July.
 REFERENCE.

1. The Empalement.
2. The Blossom, and Chives.
3. The Chives, and Pointal.
4. The Chives detached from the Pointal.
5. A Chive magnified.
6. The Pointal magnified.
 ERICA monadelphia.

CHARACTER SPECIFICUS.

Erica, antheris muticis, exsertis, attenuatis in filamenta plana. Corolla

conica, sanguinea, oris laciniis erectis, adpressis. Folia terna.

DESCRIPTIO.

Caulis erectus, sesquipedalis, scaber, ad basin parum ramosus. Ramuli

sparsi.
Folia terna, obtusa, sub-tomentosa, subtus sulcata, petiolis brevissimis
adpressis.
Flores in ramulis, bini vel terni, terminales, cernui, in medio ramorum
racemum formantes speciosissimum; pedunculis brevibus, bracteis nullis.
Calyx. Perianthium duplex, coloratum; exterius triphyllum, foliolis lato-
ovatis, apicibus virescentibus; interius tetraphyllum, foliolis latioribus
majoribus.
Corolla conica, sub-pollicaris, glabra, sanguinea; oris laciniis erectis.
Stamina. Filamenta octo plana, corolla multoties longiora, receptaculo
inserta; antheris muticis, exsertis, attenuatis in filamenta.
Pistillum. Germen ovatum, tenuissime sulcatum. Stylus filiformis.
Stigma tetragonum.
Habitat ad Caput Bonæ Spei.
Floret a mense Augusti in Decembrem.

REFERENTIA.

1. Calyx et Corolla.
2. Calyx lente auctus.
3. Stamina et Pistillum.
 4. Stamina a Pistillo diducta; antherâ unâ lente auctâ.
5. Stylus et Stigma lente aucta.

SPECIFIC CHARACTER.

Heath, with beardless tips without the blossoms, and tapering into filaments,
which are flat. The blossom is conical, of a blood colour, having the
segments of the mouth upright, and pressed to the threads. The leaves grow
by threes.

DESCRIPTION.

Stem upright, a foot and a half high, rough, branching but little at the
base. The smaller branches are scattered.
Leaves grow by threes, blunt-ended, rather downy, channelled
underneath, having very short foot-stalks pressed to the branches.
Flowers grow by twos and threes at the end of the smaller branches,
hanging down, forming a beautiful spike near the middle of the larger
branches. The foot-stalks are short, without floral leaves.
Empalement. Cup double, and coloured; the outer three-leaved, the
leaves of a broad oval-shape, the ends greenish: the inner is four-leaved,
broader and larger than the former.
Blossom cone-shaped, near an inch long, smooth, deep red; the segments
of the mouth upright.
Chives. Eight flat threads, much longer than the blossom, fixed into the
receptacle; the tips beardless, without the blossom, and tapering into the
filaments.
Pointal. Seed-vessel egg-shaped, and slightly furrowed. Shaft thread-
shaped. Summit four-cornered.
Native of the Cape of Good Hope.
Flowers from August till December.

REFERENCE.
1. The Empalement and Blossom.
2. The Empalement magnified.
3. The Chives and Pointal.
4. The Chives detached from the Pointal; one tip magnified.
5. The Shaft and Summit magnified.