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CIRCUIT THEORY
Third Edition
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
A Nagoor Kani is a multifaceted personality with efficient technical expertise and management
skills. He obtained his BE degree in Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Thiagarajar
College of Engineering, Madurai, and MS (Electronics and Control) through the Distance
Learning program of BITS, Pilani. He is a life member of ISTE and IETE.
Prof. Nagoor Kani started his career as a self-employed industrialist (1986–1989) and then
changed over to teaching in 1989. He has worked as Lecturer in Dr MGR Engineering College
(1989–1990) and as Assistant Professor in Satyabhama Engineering College (1990–1997).
In 1993, he started a teaching centre for BE students, naming it the Institute of Electrical
Engineering, which was renamed RBA Tutorials in 2005.
A Nagoor Kani launched his own organization in 1997. The ventures currently run by him are
• RBA Engineering (involved in manufacturing of lab equipment, microprocessor trainer
kits, and undertake electrical contracts and provide electrical consultancy);
• RBA Innovations (involved in developing projects for engineering students and industries);
• RBA Tutorials (conducting tutorial classes for engineering students and coaching for
GATE, IES, IAS);
• RBA Publications (publishing of engineering books); and
• RBA Software (involved in web-design and maintenance).
His optimistic and innovative ideas have made the RBA Group a very successful venture.
A Nagoor Kani
Founder, RBA Educational Group
Chennai
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be reproduced for publication.
Print Edition:
ISBN-13: 978-93-392-2433-2
ISBN-10: 93-392-2433-7
E-book Edition:
ISBN-13: 978-93-392-2475-2
ISBN-10: 93-392-2475-2
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Organization
This text is designed for an undergraduate course in Circuit Theory for engineering students.
This book is organized with 12 chapters. The fundamental concepts, steady state analysis and
transient state analysis are presented in a very easy and elaborative manner. Throughout the
book, carefully chosen examples are presented so that the reader will have a clear understanding
of the concepts discussed.
Chapter 1 starts with explanation of fundamental quantities involved in circuit theory,
standard symbols and units used in circuit theory. The basic concepts of dc and ac circuits are
presented separately in chapters 2 and 3.The mesh and node analysis of circuits are discussed
separately in chapters 4 and 5, with special attention to dependent sources.
The concepts of series, parallel and star-delta network reduction are discussed in
Chapter 6. The analysis of circuits using theorems are presented in Chapter 7. The concepts of
resonance are discussed in detail in Chapter 8. The analysis of coupled circuits are discussed
in Chapter 9.
The transient analysis of circuits are explained in Chapter 10 through Laplace transform.
The concepts of one port and two port networks are discussed in Chapter 11. The analysis
of three phase circuits and measurement of power in three phase circuits are presented in
Chapter 12.
The Laplace transform has been widely used in the analysis of Electric Circuits. Hence
an appendix on Laplace transform is included in this book.All the calculations in this book are
performed using calculator in complex mode. An appendix is also included to help the readers
to practice calculations in complex mode of calculator.
Since circuit theory is introduced as a course in the first year of engineering curriculum
in most of the universities, this subject is considered tough by students entering engineering
courses. Hence the author has taken special care in presenting the concepts in simple manner
supported by carefully chosen solved problems.
Publisher’s Note
McGraw Hill Education (India) invites suggestions and comments from you, all of which can be
sent to (kindly mention the title and author name in the subject line).
Piracy-related issues may also be reported.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I express my heartfelt gratitude to my wife Ms C Gnanaparanjothi Nagoor Kani and my sons—N
Bharath Raj alias Chandrakani Allaudeen and N Vikram Raj for the support, encouragement and
cooperation they have extended to me throughout my career.
I thank Ms T A Benazir, Manager, RBA Group, and all my office-staff for their cooperation in
carrying out my day-to-day activities.
It is my pleasure to acknowledge the contributions of our technical editors—Ms E R Suhasini,
Ms C Mohana Priya and Ms F Shynimol for editing, proofreading and typesetting of the manuscript
and preparing the layout of the book.
I am also grateful to Ms Vibha Mahajan, Ms Koyel Ghosh, Ms Piyali Chatterjee, Mr Satinder
Singh and Ms Jagriti Kundu of McGraw Hill Education (India) for their concern and care in
publishing this work.
Finally, a special note of appreciation is due to my sisters, brothers, relatives, friends, students
and the entire teaching community for their overwhelming support and encouragement to my
writing.
A Nagoor Kani
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS
P - Active power
Y - Admittance
AC, ac - Alternating current
A - Ampere
ω - Angular frequency
ωr - Angular resonance frequency
S - Apparent Power
I ave - Average value of current
Vave - Average value of voltage
β - Bandwidth
B - Branch
C - Capacitance
XC - Capacitive reactance
BC - Capacitive susceptance
Q - Charge
k - Coefficient of coupling
j - Complex operator (j = - 1)
S - Complex Power
G - Conductance
C - Coulomb
kC - Critical coefficient of coupling
RC - Critical resistance
I - Current
i (0+) - Current at t = 0+
i (0−) - Current at t = 0–
i (∞) - Current at t = ∞
CC - Current Coil
I (jω), I - Current in frequency domain
I(s) - Current in Laplace domain
(t) - Current in time domain
ζ - Damping ratio
xx List of Symbols and Abbreviations
E - DC source voltage
D - Determinant of matrix
DC, dc - Direct current
Y - Driving point admittance
Z - Driving point impedance
hB - Efficiency of battery
W - Energy
Req - Equivalent resistance
F - Farad
φ - Flux
Ψ - Flux linkage
kf - Form factor
p - Half period
H - Henry
Hz - Hertz
ωh - Higher cut-off angular frequency
fh - Higher cut-off frequency
j - Imaginary part
Z - Impedance
θ - Impedance angle
L - Inductance
XL - Inductive reactance
BL - Inductive susceptance
e, e(t) - Instantaneous value of ac source voltage
q - Instantaneous value of charge
(t) - Instantaneous value of current in time domain
C
- Instantaneous value of current through capacitor
L
- Instantaneous value of current through inductor
R
- Instantaneous value of current through resistor
w - Instantaneous value of energy
p - Instantaneous value of power
C
- Instantaneous value of voltage across capacitor
List of Symbols and Abbreviations xxi
L
- Instantaneous value of voltage across inductor
R
- Instantaneous value of voltage across resistor
, (t) - Instantaneous value of voltage in time domain
J - Joule
K - Kelvin
kWh - kilowatt-hour
KCL - Kirchhoff’s Current Law
KVL - Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
L - Laplace operator
L - Links
IL - Load Current
VL - Load Voltage
RL - Load Resistance
ωl - Lower cut-off angular frequency
fl - Lower cut-off frequency
Z - Magnitude of impedance
Y - Magnitude of admittance
Im - Maximum value of current
Vm - Maximum value of voltage
m - Mesh
M - Mho
M - Mutual inductance
ωn - Natural frequency
IN - Neutral current
N - Neutral point
N - Nodes
Ω - Ohm
Ω-m - Ohm-metre
O.C. - Open circuit
kp - Peak factor
φ - Phase difference between voltage and current
pf - Power factor
xxii List of Symbols and Abbreviations
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Basic Phenomena
The energy associated with flow of electrons is called electrical energy. The flow of electrons
is called current. The current can flow from one point to another point of an element only if there
is a potential difference between these two points. The potential difference is called voltage.
When electric current is passed through a device or element, three phenomena have been
observed. The three phenomena are,
(i) opposition to flow of current,
(ii) opposition to change in current or flux, and
(iii) opposition to change in voltage or charge.
The various effects of current like heating, arcing, induction, charging, etc., are due to the
above phenomena. Therefore, three fundamental elements have been proposed which exhibit only
one of the above phenomena when it is considered as an ideal element (of course, there is no ideal
element in nature). These elements are Resistor, Inductor and Capacitor.
DC Voltage Sources
E
Independent DC Voltage Source, +-
RM Ix = Vx
Current Controlled DC Voltage Source, + -
DC Current Sources
I
Independent DC Current Source,
AI Ix
Current Controlled DC Current Source,
AC Voltage Sources
o
- V
E+= EÐq
Independent AC Voltage Source, ~
Dependent AC Voltage Source
mVx
Voltage Controlled AC Voltage Source, + -
RM Ix = Vx
Current Controlled AC Voltage Source, + -
AC Current Sources
I = IÐq o A
Independent AC Current Source, ~
Dependent AC Current Source
GM Vx = Ix
Voltage Controlled AC Current Source,
AI I x
Current Controlled AC Current Source,
Fundamental Parameters
R
Resistance,
Inductance
L
Self Inductance,
Mutual Inductance, M
C
Capacitance,
Derived Parameters
± jX
Reactance,
+jXL = +j2pfL
Inductive Reactance,
1
- jX C = - j
Capacitive Reactance, 2pfC
Z = R ± jX
Impedance,
Inverse Parameters
1
G=
R
Conductance,
1
m jB =
± jX
Susceptance,
1
- jB L = - j
Inductive Susceptance, 2pfL
+jBC = +j2pfC
Capacitive Susceptance,
Y = G m jB
Admittance,
1 1
Y= = = G m jB
Z R ± jX
The elements which generate or amplify energy are called active elements. Therefore,
energy sources are active elements. The elements which dissipate or store energy are called
passive elements. The resistance dissipates energy in the form of heat, inductance stores energy
in magnetic field, and capacitance stores energy in electric field. Therefore, resistance, inductance
and capacitance are passive elements. If there is no active element in a circuit then the circuit is
called passive circuit or network.
The sources can be classified into independent and dependent sources. Batteries, generators
and rectifiers are independent sources, which can directly generate electrical energy. The transistors
and op-amps are dependent sources whose output energy depends on another independent source.
Practically, the sources of electrical energy are used to supply electrical energy to various
devices like lamps, fans, motors, etc., which are called loads. The rate at which electrical energy
is supplied is called power. The power in turn is the product of voltage and current.
The circuit analysis rely on the concept of law of conservation of energy, which states
that energy can neither be created, nor be destroyed, but can be converted from one form to other.
Therefore, the total energy/power in a circuit will be zero.
1.4 Units
SI units are followed in this book. The SI units and their symbols for the various quantities
encountered in circuit theory are presented in Table 1.1. In engineering application the large values
are expressed with decimal multiples and small values are expressed with submultiples. The
commonly used multiples and submultiples are listed in Table 1.2.
TABLE 1.1 : UNITS AND SYMBOLS
Charge q, Q Coulomb C - -
Current i, I Ampere A Coulomb/second C/s
Flux linkages ψ Weber-turn Wb - -
Magnetic flux φ Weber Wb - -
Energy w, W Joule J Newton-meter N-m
Voltage v, V Volt V Joule/Coulomb J/C
Power p, P Watt W Joule/second J/s
Capacitance C Farad F Coulomb/Volt C/V
Inductance L, M Henry H Weber/Ampere Wb/A
Resistance R Ohm Ω Volt/Ampere V/A
Conductance G Siemens S Ampere/Volt A/V or M
or mho
Circuit Theory 1. 5
Time t Second s - -
Frequency f Hertz Hz cycles/second -
Angular frequency ω Radians/second rad/s - -
Therefore, 1 J = 1 N - m = 1 kg - m2 - m
s
In thermal engineering, one joule is equal to a heat of 4.1855 (or 4.186) calories, and one
calorie is the heat energy required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1o C.
Therefore, 1 J = 4.1855 calories
POWER : Power is the rate at which work is done (or Power is rate of energy transfer). The unit of power
is watt and denoted by W. One watt is defined as the power if the energy is transferred at the
rate of one joule per second.
An average value of power can be expressed as,
Energy
Power, P = = W .....(1.1)
Time t
A time varying power can be expressed as,
Instantaneous power, p = dw .....(1.2)
dt
d q
Also, p = dw = dw # = vi .....(1.3)
dt dq dt
Hence, power is also given by the product of voltage and current.
CHARGE : Charge is the characteristic property of the elementary particles of the matter. The
elementary particles are electrons, protons and neutrons. There are basically, two
types of charges in nature: positive charge and negative charge. The charge of an
electron is called negative charge. The charge of a proton is called positive charge.
Normally, a particle is neutral because it will have equal number of electrons
and protons. The particle is called charged, if some electrons are either added or
removed from it. If electrons are added then the particle is called negative charged.
If electrons are removed then the particle is called positive charged.The unit used
for measurement of charge is coulomb. One coulomb is defined as the charge which
when placed in vacuum from an equal and similar charge at a distance of one metre
repels it with a force of 9 × 10 9 N. The charge of an electron is 1.602 × 10 −19 C. Hence
1/(1.602 × 10 −19) = 6.24 × 10 18 electrons make up a charge of one coulomb.
CURRENT : Current is defined as the rate of flow of electrons. It is measured in the unit of amperes.
One ampere is the current flowing through a point if a charge of one coulomb crosses
that point in one second. In SI units, one ampere is defined as that constant current in
two infinite parallel conductors of negligible circular cross-section, one metre apart
in vacuum, which produces a force between the conductors of 2 × 10 − 7 newton per
metre length.
A steady current can be expressed as,
Charge Q
Current, I = = .....(1.4)
Time t
A time varying current can be expressed as,
dq
Instantaneous current, i = .....(1.5)
dt
Circuit Theory 1. 7
Voltage V v Vave Vm or Vp V V
Power P p P Pm - S
Energy W w W Wm - -
1. 8 Chapter 1 - Introduction
+
L R2 C L R2 C
E ~
E
+ +
+ Is
E - E E = EÐq ~ Is = Is Ðq ~
- -
Vs + Is L
E
R C
Vs = RI or A vV Is = GV or A II
Fig. e : Dependent Fig. f : Dependent Fig. g : Fig. h : Fig. i :
voltage source. current source. Resistance. Inductance. Capacitance.
Fig. 2.2 : Symbols of active and passive elements of circuits.
Independent and Dependent Sources
The sources can be classified into independent and dependent sources. The electrical energy
supplied by an independent source does not depend on another electrical source. The independent
sources converts energy in some form to electrical energy. For example, a generator converts the
mechanical energy to electrical energy, a battery converts the chemical energy to electrical energy,
a solar cell converts light energy to electrical energy, a thermocouple converts heat energy to
electrical energy, etc.
The electrical energy supplied by a dependent source depends on another source of electrical
energy. For example, the output signal (energy) of a transistor or op-amp depends on input signal
(energy), where the input signal is another source of electrical energy.
In the circuit sense, the voltage/current of an independent source does not depend on voltage/
current in any part of the circuit. But the voltage/current of a dependent source depends on the
voltage/current in some part of the same circuit.
2.2 Nodes, Branches and Closed Path
A typical circuit consists of lumped parameters such as resistance, inductance, capacitance and
sources of electrical energy like voltage and current sources connected through resistance-less wires.
In a circuit, the meeting point of two or more elements is called a node. If more than two
elements meet at a node then it is called principal node.
The path between any two nodes is called a branch. A branch may have one or more elements
connected in series.
A closed path is a path which starts at a node and travels through some part of the circuit
and arrives at the same node without crossing a node more than once.
Circuit Theory 2. 3
The nodes, branches and closed paths of a typical circuit are shown in Fig. 2.3. The nodes
of the circuit are the meeting points of the elements denoted as A, B, C, D, E and F. The nodes A,
B, C and D are principal nodes because these nodes are meeting points of more than two elements.
E2 R3
+ E
F
E2 R3 A
C
+ E
A R2 B R4
F B C
R2 B R4 B
A C A C
R1 R1
R5 R6 R5 R6
E E
+ +
E1 E1
E E
D D D D
E2 R3
+ E
F
Fig. c : Nodes of the circuit in Fig. a.
E2 R3 E2 R3
+ E + E
F F
R2 B B R4 E2 R3
A C A C + E
F
R1 R2 R4
B
R5 R6 R5 A C
E
+
E1
E
E2 R3
D D + E
F
R2 B B R4
A C A C
R1 R1
R5 R5 R6 R6
E E
+ +
E1 E1
E E
D D D
Fig. d : Closed paths of circuit in Fig. a.
Fig. 2.3 : A typical circuit and its branches, nodes and closed paths.
2. 4 Chapter 2 - Basic Concepts of Circuits
V1 V2 V3 L C
I I R L I R C I R
E + E + E +
Fig. d : Voltage Fig. e : Resistance and Fig. f : Resistance and Fig. g : Resistance,
sources in series. inductance in series. capacitance in series. inductance and
capacitance in series.
Fig. 2.4 : Examples of series connected elements.
Ic
Ic
R3 L
R3 L
Ib R2 R4
B Id A C
A C A C
Ia Ie If Ia If
R1 R1
R5 R6 R6
+ +
~ E ~ E
E E
R7 D C R7 D D C
V R1 R2 R3 V L1 L2 L3 C1 C2 C3 V R L
V
E E E E
V R C V R L C I1 I2 I3
E E
Fig. e : R and C in parallel. Fig. f : R, L and C in parallel. Fig. g : Current sources in parallel.
Fig. 2.6 : Examples of parallel connected elements.
+ R1 R2 + R2 + R1
E ~ E ~ R1 E ~ R2
E E E
L C C L
Fig. a : The voltage source,series Fig. b : The voltage source,Resistance Fig. c : The voltage source,
combination of R1 and L and series R1 and series combination of R2 series combination of R1 and L
combination of R2 and C are in parallel. and C are in parallel. and resistance R2 are in parallel.
Fig. 2.7 : Simple circuits with parallel branches.
R6 G L
R2 R3 R3
B B B
A C C
R6 L +
G
R1
F R4 R5 R4 R5
V BD
+ VAC
E + _
~
E C A C C _
D A C D
E R2 B R3 E D
Fig. a : A typical circuit. Fig. b : The path AGC is parallel Fig. c : The path BCD is parallel
with the path ABC. with the path BED.
R2 R3
R2 A B B C
A B
A A C
+ _ B B _
+ VAB + VBC
R1 R1
F V AE R4 F R4 R4 R5
+ +
E ~ _ E
E
~
E C
E D
E E E
Fig. d : The path ABE is Fig. e : The path AFEB is parallel Fig. f : The path BEDC is parallel
parallelwith the path AFE. with the resistance R2 . with the resistance R3 .
Fig. 2.8 : A typical circuit and its parallel paths.
R1 R3 R5 R5 D
A B C D CC
+
+
R4 VCE R6
E R2 R4 R6
E
_
E E E EE E
B B R3 C R1
A B B
+ +
+
R2 VBE R4 VBE
E R2
E
_ _
E E E E E
Fig. c : The path BCE is in parallel Fig. d : The path EAB is in parallel
with resistance R2 . with resistance R2 .
Fig. 2.9 : A typical circuit and its parallel paths.
1
2.3.3 Star-Delta Connection R1 N
R2
R1 1 2
R1 B R3 R1 B R3 B R3
A C A C A C
+
E R2 R4 R2 R4
E
D D D
R1 B R3 R2 R4
A C
D
Fig. c : Delta connections in circuit of Fig. a.
Fig. 2.11 : A typical circuit and its star and delta connections.
Circuit Theory 2. 7
While applying KVL to closed paths the open circuit can be included as an element of
infinite resistance in the path, because a voltage exists across the two open nodes of a circuit.
In a circuit if there is a closed path of zero resistance between two nodes then it is called
short circuit (S.C). Since the resistance of the short circuit is zero, the voltage across the short
circuit is zero.
2 5 A A
A
1
Circuit I S.C. 10 V +E 4 S.C. S.C.
N1
20 V +E
B
3 B B
1
1W 2W A 4W 2W 1W 2W A
10 V +- 2W S.C. 1W 1W Þ +
10 V - 2W S.C.
B B
2W A 2W A
5 V +- 3W 4W S.C. 5 V +- S.C.
Þ
6W
B B
6W
Fig. 2.14 : Examples of short circuit.
2. 8 Chapter 2 - Basic Concepts of Circuits
I
+
+ V
E E Is
E
I V
Fig. a : Characteristics of ideal voltage source. Fig. b : Characteristics of ideal current source.
Fig. 2.20 : Characteristics of ideal sources.
In reality, the ideal conditions never exists (but for analysis purpose the sources can
be considered ideal). In practical voltage source the voltage across the source decreases with
increasing load current and the reduction in voltage is due to its internal resistance. In a practical
current source, the current delivered by the source decreases with increasing load voltage and the
reduction in current is due to its internal resistance.
E Is
I V
Let, Es = Voltage across ideal source (or internal voltage of the source).
Is = Current delivered by ideal source (or current generated by the source).
V = Voltage across the terminals of the source.
I = Current delivered through the terminals of the source.
Rs = Source resistance (or internal resistance).
The practical voltage source can be IRs I
V, E
+
considered as a series combination of an ideal E
+
Rs
voltage source and a source resistance, Rs. The E Vs I
The practical voltage source can be converted to an equivalent practical current source and
vice-versa, with same terminal behaviour. In these conversions the current and voltage at the
terminal of the equivalent source will be same as that of original source, so that the power delivered
to a load connected at the terminals of original and equivalent source will be same.
Rs
A A
+ + +
IRs - I Ish I
E +- V RL Þ Is Rs V RL
- -
B Is = E/Rs B
A Rs
A
+ + - +
V I IRs I
Rs
Is Rs V RL Þ E +- V RL
- -
B E = Is R s B
Power, P = VI
The power is rate of work done and the energy is total work done. Hence the energy is
given by the product of power and time. When time is expressed in second, the unit of energy is
watt-second and when the time is expressed in hours, the unit of energy is watt-hour.
\ Energy, E = P t in W-s or W-h
The larger unit of electrical energy is kWh and commercially one kWh of electrical energy
is called one unit.
` Energy, E = Pt in kWh
1000 # 3600
Circuit Theory 2. 13
I = V ⇒ V = IR ..... (2.4) +
V E V R
R E
Power in the resistance, P = VI ..... (2.5)
Using equation (2.4), the equation (2.5) can also be written as, Fig. 2.27 : Resistance
2 connected to dc source.
P = VI = V # V = V and P = VI = IR ´ I = I2 R
R R
2
` Power, P = VI or P = V or P = I2 R I
R
I1 I2
2.9.2 Current Division in Parallel Connected Resistances
+ +
The equations (2.6) and (2.7) given below, can be used to +
V E V R1 V R2
determine the currents in parallel connected resistances shown in E E
Fig. 2.28 in terms of total current drawn by the parallel combination
and the values of individual resistances. Hence, these equations are
called current division rule. The proof for current division rule is Fig. 2.28 : Resistances
presented in Chapter 6. in parallel.
2. 14 Chapter 2 - Basic Concepts of Circuits
I1 = I # R2 .....(2.6)
R1 + R2
I2 = I # R1 .....(2.7)
R1 + R2
The following equation will be helpful to remember the current division rule.
In two parallel connected resistances,
Total current drawn by Value of the
#
parallel combination other resistance
Current through one of the resistance =
Sum of the inidvidual resistances
V2 = V # R2 .....(2.9)
R1 + R2
The following equation will be helpful to remember the voltage division rule.
In two series connected resistances,
Total voltage across Value of the
#
series combination resistance
Voltage across one of the resistance =
Sum of the inidvidual resistances
+ R2 +
E E R1 E
R3 R2
L E
3
2 0
0 R1
Fig. 2.30 : Different shapes of a circuit.
2.10.1 Graph
The topological properties of networks are described by using the graph. A graph of a
network consists of nodes and branches of the network. In a network the branches will have
elements but in a graph the branches are drawn by lines. When arrows are placed on the branches
of graph it is called oriented graph. The arrow indicates the direction of branch current and
polarity of branch voltage.