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ABSTRACT
Many educators, especially those involved in professional curricula, are interested in problem solving and in how to support stu-
dents’ development into successful problem solvers. The following article serves as an overview of educational research on
https://jvme.utpjournals.press/doi/pdf/10.3138/jvme.30.3.226 - Wednesday, April 10, 2024 9:17:19 AM - IP Address:2800:bf0:67:e6b:e55a:3982:8991:c6e7
problem solving. Several concepts are defined and the transition from one theory to another is discussed. Educational theories
describing problem solving in the context of behavioral, cognitive, and information-processing pedagogy are discussed. The
final section of the article describes prior findings regarding expert–novice differences in problem solving of various kinds.
Any problem has at least three components: givens, goal, domain-specific situations or problems, based on prior
and operations. Givens are the facts or pieces of information knowledge of that domain.
presented to describe the problem. Goal is the desired end
Basic, automated skills in any domain are those that allow an
state of the problem. Operations are the actions to be per-
individual to perform necessary and routine operations
formed in reaching the desired goal.1
without much thought. These skills are overlearned to the
Problems are categorized as ill defined or well defined, point that they become habitual and even unconscious,
based on how problem and goal are represented. Problems enabling individuals to operate quickly and accurately
with complex representations and/or more than one solu- without taxing their short-term memories. Automaticity
tion are termed ill defined. Problems with discrete represen- allows individuals to focus their attention on the more com-
tations and finite goals are termed well defined. The plex tasks associated with a specific domain and is a general
distinction between ill defined and well defined is a contin- attribute associated with experts in a domain. Automaticity
uum, based on the complexity of the problem and what is supports the expert’s speed and skill of execution.
required cognitively to solve it.
Unlike basic, automated skills, which occur unconsciously
Problem-solving knowledge is, conceptually, of two kinds. and thus do not tax short-term memory, domain-specific
Declarative knowledge is knowing that something is the case. strategies remain under conscious control. They are the pro-
It is knowledge of facts, theories, events, and objects. Proce- cesses and procedures in a domain that an individual, even
dural knowledge is knowing how to do something. It includes an expert, must consciously think about in order to solve a
motor skills, cognitive skills, and cognitive strategies. Both problem. They are, in other words, the procedural knowl-
declarative and procedural knowledge are activated in edge associated with a domain.
working memory as problem solving occurs. Psychologists
Expert–novice differences have been studied and described
who distinguish between declarative and procedural
within the context of these three attributes: Experts (1)
knowledge believe that the two forms of knowledge are
exhibit better conceptual understanding of their domain; (2)
both distinct and interdependent. Declarative and proce-
use more automated skills and domain-specific strategies;
dural knowledge interact in a variety of ways during prob-
and (3) have a conceptual understanding that is declarative,
lem solving.
while basic skills and strategies are procedural.3
A basic unit of declarative knowledge in the human infor-
mation-processing system is the proposition. This expresses HISTORICAL PROGRESSION OF PROBLEM-SOLVING
or proposes the relationships among concepts. For instance, THEORIES
the phrase, “the man fixed the tire,” depicts a complete idea.
As theories of how learning occurred evolved, the under-
A proposition always contains two elements: a relation and
standing of the problem-solving process also evolved. The
one or more arguments.2
following section will present the model of problem solving
There are three attributes that are commonly used to differ- associated with each concurrent learning theory. The domi-
entiate expert from novice problem-solving characteristics. nant learning theories discussed are within the conceptual
These attributes are conceptual understanding; basic, auto- domains of behaviorism, cognitive psychology, and infor-
mated skills; and domain-specific strategies. The following mation processing. Behaviorists view problem solving as a
paragraphs explain these attributes and how they are used process that develops through positive and negative rein-
to distinguish expert from novice problem-solving charac- forcement mechanisms. Cognitive psychologists view prob-
teristics. lem solving as a process that includes introspection,
observation, and the development of heuristics. The infor-
Conceptual understanding refers to both the actual informa-
mation-processing view of problem solving is based on gen-
tion in memory and the organization of that information in
eral problem solving skills and artificial intelligence.
memory. Conceptual understanding is closely related to
schema theory, in which information is considered to be Behaviorist
stored in memory as frameworks or structures that, once
instantiated, provide a lens through which to view new Behaviorists’ understanding of learning was based on cause
information. Having a conceptual understanding of a and effect. In this conceptualization, a behavior was fol-
domain means that an individual can make meaning of lowed by reinforcement. If the behavior was followed by
positive reinforcement, then the behavior was more likely to
Polya6 promoted the idea that the application of general Newell and colleagues proposed a theory of human prob-
problem-solving strategies was key to problem-solving lem solving that emphasized the similarities between AI
expertise and intellectual performance. General problem- and human problem solving. There are four underlying
solving strategies have also been called heuristics. The word principles of this theory: (1) A few gross characteristics of
heuristics comes from the Greek, heuriskin, meaning “serving the problem-solving process are invariant over the task and
to discover.” A commonly used synonym for heuristics is the problem solver, (2) the characteristics of the problem are
rule of thumb. In problem-solving literature, the term implies sufficient to determine the problem space, (3) the structure
the general methods used in problem solving. of the task environment determines the possible structure of
the problem space, and (4) the structure of the problem
The heuristics Polya6 identifies in mathematical problem space determines the possible programs (methods) that can
solving are discussed within the framework of a four-stage be used for problem solving.
problem-solving model as discussed earlier. Some of the
heuristics applied within this plan include understanding
the unknown, understanding the nature of the goal state,
drawing a graph or diagram, thinking of structurally analo-
gous problems, simplifying the problem, and generalizing
from various domains, illustrate the body of research that experts and novices.
has been conducted to reach this conclusion. Data from audio-taped interviews revealed that expert
teachers were more accurate, verbalized more declarative
Chunking
knowledge (facts and concepts), used fewer steps, and gen-
A key area of expert–novice research has been the study of erated more subroutines than their novice counterparts.
chess players. The game of chess is thought to require sub- Experts generated more alternative solution paths and
stantial skill and cognitive ability for successful play. Cogni- moved less between procedural (rules and strategies) and
tive researchers began studying expert and novice chess declarative knowledge than did the novices.
players to develop understanding of the underlying cogni-
tive processes. Research by De Groot, as cited by Chase and As the authors noted, these findings support Norman and
Gagne’s theories of cognitive learning—specifically, that
Simon,9 indicated that master chess players are better at
knowledge is hierarchically arranged in schemata. Accord-
reconstructing chess positions due to chunking information
ing to this theory, facts unite to form concepts, concepts join
within a relational structure.
to form rules, and rules join to form problem-solving struc-
Chase and Simon9 conducted further research to discover tures. These findings also support Norman’s (1982) theory
and evaluate the structures, or chunks, that are perceived by that expert performance in procedural knowledge is charac-
the chess player. Three chess players (a master, a Class A terized by smoothness, automaticity, and decreased mental
player, and a beginner) conducted memory tasks on posi- effort, as compared to that of the novice.14
tions derived from 20 published chess games. Participants
were asked to view a game board layout, then reproduce, Experience and Training
from memory, the layout on another board. Results of this A study by Schoenfeld and Herrmann15 showed that
study indicated that the information extracted from a posi- domain-specific content is relevant to successful problem
tion, briefly exposed to the viewer, varies with playing solving. Nineteen college students participated in this
strength (the more expert player derives more information). study, which evaluated the differences between experts and
The data also suggested that experienced players are able to novices in mathematical problem perception. Experts deter-
encode the positions into larger chunks (than novices). The mined the deep- and surface-structure properties of each
number of chunks in short-term memory appeared consis- problem prior to initiation of the study. All students were
tent across levels of playing expertise, thereby strengthen- asked to sort the 32 math problems, based on which, if any,
ing the belief that content-specific relationships are chunked were mathematically similar (each of the similar problems
in a cognitively accessible framework. would be solved in the same way). After completion of the
Contrary to original speculation, studies describing the cog- first sort, subjects either participated in a course in mathe-
nitive processes of experts and novices have indicated that matical problem-solving strategies that stressed a system-
experts (chess players) do not consider plays farther ahead atic, organized approach to solving problems or took a
than the novice; rather, experts choose among vastly supe- structured computer programming course that taught a
rior (complex) moves. The expert is able to chunk relevant structural, hierarchical, and orderly way to solve non-math-
information, while novices envision single pieces of infor- ematical problems using the computer.
mation.10 Upon completion of the course, subjects sorted an equiva-
Researchers began to look beyond chess into other knowl- lent set of mathematical problems. Those completing the
edge-rich domains. Studies have described the problem- mathematical problem-solving course were more accurate
solving process in physics, mathematics, computer pro- in identifying the appropriate deep and surface structures
gramming, and medical diagnosis. Language skills, such as of the problems than they had been prior to the course,
reading and writing, and the question how students used whereas those completing the programming course were
these skills to acquire more knowledge were also studied not. This study showed that training within the problem
intensively.10, 11 domain affects problem solving more than training outside
that domain.
Schema Theory
Metacognition
Differences between expert and novice teachers have also
been studied. Research has shown that teachers, like experts Bruer summarizes the research on domain-specific problem
in other fields, possess well-elaborated schemas that pro- solving as follows: “Expertise, these studies suggest, relies
vided a framework for meaningful interpretation of infor- on highly organized, domain-specific knowledge that can
mation. Expert teachers also had an understanding of what arise only after extensive experience and practice in the
to expect in the classroom and set up procedures and rules domain”10