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RF Filter
Technology
Qorvo 2nd Special Edition
by David Schnaufer,
Brian Robbins, Warren Strand,
Gernot Fattinger, Robert Aigner,
Fouad Boueri, Shawn Gibb,
Igor Lalicevic, Mark Gallagher
RF Filter Technology For Dummies®, Qorvo 2nd Special Edition
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Introduction
T
he implementation of 5G and wireless applications is accel-
erating worldwide, along with the drive to deliver high data
rates and high data capacity. This creates new challenges
for wireless technology in many radio frequency (RF) device
applications, because these trends increase the probability of
interference. To mitigate that interference, RF filter technology is
a must.
Bulk acoustic wave (BAW) and surface acoustic wave (SAW) tech-
nologies are evolving to address these challenges. These filter
technologies are advancing toward handling higher frequencies,
smaller device sizes, and increased interference.
This book provides a solid basic tutorial to RF filter technologies

like BAW and SAW. It looks at these technologies and what’s driv-
ing filter technology implementations, helping you understand
the benefits that make it so necessary. It also surveys the current
state of how system engineers are using filter technology, in both
mature and cutting-edge applications. After reading this book,
you’ll understand how RF filter technology is revolutionizing the
electronics engineering industry — and how it will continue to do
so going forward.
Foolish Assumptions
It has been said that most assumptions have outlived their use-
fulness, but we assume a few things nonetheless! Mainly, we
assume that you’re a stakeholder in the technology or semicon-
ductor industry with more than a passing interest in a technology
like SAW and BAW. Perhaps you’re an engineer, a design archi-
tect, a technician, a technical leader, a salesperson, a technol-
ogy student, or an investor. We also assume that you have some
knowledge of semiconductor technologies. As such, this book is
written primarily for somewhat technical readers like you.
If any of these assumptions describes you, then this book is for

you! If none of these assumptions describes you, keep reading
anyway. It’s a great book, and when you finish reading it, you’ll
know enough about RF filter technology to be dangerous!
Introduction 1
Icons Used in This Book
Throughout this book, we occasionally use icons to call attention
to important information. You won’t see the typical cute grinning
faces or other flashing emoticons, but you’ll definitely want to
stop and pay attention! Here’s what you can expect.
Discover key definitions and essential takeaways.
Watch out for these pitfalls, downsides, and drawbacks.
Explore highly technical aspects that may appeal to your inner

geek.
Beyond the Book

Although this book is full of good information, we could only cover
so much in 48 pages! So, if you find yourself wanting more after
reading this book, just go to www.qorvo.com/products/filters-
duplexers, where you can get to more information about Qorvo’s
RF filter technology and products.
2 RF Filter Technology For Dummies, Qorvo 2nd Special Edition
IN THIS CHAPTER
»» Getting to know RF filters
»» Comparing SAW and BAW filters
»» Identifying the temperature coefficient

of a filter and Q factor
»» Learning how the filter coupling

coefficient affects performance
»» Understanding filter packaging
Chapter 1
Exploring RF Filter
Technology
T
he rapid growth in mobile wireless data in the last decade
has created an ever-increasing demand for new spectrum
bands and new technologies to accommodate the thirst for
wireless capacity. This demand is not only driving wireless tech-
nology advancements, but also increasing the need for more
enhanced radio frequency (RF) filter technology to help reduce
system interference, increase RF range and receiver capabilities,
and improve coexistence.
In this chapter, you find out how RF filters work and the tech-
nology variations used in today’s applications. This chapter kicks
things off by presenting some basic facts about filters and the
benefits they provide.
CHAPTER 1 Exploring RF Filter Technology 3
Uncovering the Basics of RF Filters
New to RF filter technology? Start here, with these important fil-
ter terms and concepts that will help you throughout this book.
»» Attenuation: An amplitude loss, usually measured in

decibels (dB), incurred by a signal after passing through an
RF filter. When referenced outside of the filter’s passband, it
is also referred to as rejection.
»» Cutoff: The point at which a filter’s response has fallen
by 3 dB.
»» Insertion loss: A loss of signal power in the targeted
passband of the filter.
»» Isolation: Separation of one signal from another to prevent
unintentional interaction between them. For example, you
might separate transmit and receive signals to prevent their
interaction.
»» Passband: The region through which a signal passes
relatively unattenuated.
»» Q factor: Short for quality factor, the ratio of stored versus
lost energy per oscillation cycle. It’s used to measure the
selectivity of a resonant circuit.
»» Ripple: The variation of insertion loss in the passband.
»» Selectivity: A measurement of a filter’s capability to pass or
reject specific frequencies relative to its center frequency.
Selectivity is usually stated as the loss through a filter that
occurs at some specified difference from the center fre-
quency of the filter.
»» Stopband: The band where the filter has reached its
required out-of-band rejection, defined as a required
number of decibels.
Figure 1-1 illustrates a typical RF filter response using the terms

as outlined earlier.
FIGURE 1-1: A typical RF filter response.
A filter removes unwanted frequency components from a signal

while preserving the desired frequency bandwidth. Four basic
types of filters accept or reject signals in different ways, as shown
in Figure 1-2:
»» Low-pass filter: Allows all frequencies below a certain

frequency to pass while rejecting all others (opposite of high
pass)
»» High-pass filter: Allows all frequencies above a certain
frequency to pass while rejecting all others (opposite of low
pass)
»» Band-pass filter: Allows all frequencies between two
frequencies to pass while rejecting all others (opposite of
band stop)
»» Band-reject filter (also known as band-stop or notch):
Rejects all frequencies between two frequencies while
passing all others (opposite of band pass)
FIGURE 1-2: A basic RF filter and response.
Comparing Filter Technologies

Depending on application, a filter’s construction will vary. The
most common differentiators in RF filter technology are size,
cost, and performance. The filter’s construction plays a big role
in these differentiators. Here are some examples of RF filter
constructions:
»» Acoustic filter: A filter capable of meeting both low and high

frequencies up to 9 gigahertz (GHz), and in some special
cases up to 12 GHz. These are small in size and offer the best
combination of performance and cost for complex filter
requirements. Acoustic filters are the most common filter
construction for commercial RF microwave applications such
as cellular, Wi-Fi, and Global Positioning System (GPS).
»» Cavity filter: A filter used only in infrastructure applications.
They can achieve good performance at reasonable cost but
are larger than acoustic filters.
»» Discrete inductor-capacitor (LC) filter: A low-cost structure
of modest performance and size. The LC elements are
sometimes implemented as printed structures on substrates
called an integrated passive device (IPD). LC filters can also
be implemented with discrete service mount device (SMD)
components.
»» Monoblock ceramic filter: A more expensive, higher-
performance filter than multilayer ceramic. They’re also physically
larger and usually aren’t suitable for mobile applications.
»» Multilayer ceramic filter: A low- to medium-cost filter with
performance similar to that of LC filters. Its footprint is
generally reasonable, but its thickness is greater, limiting its
use in some applications.
Filters can be designed to meet a variety of requirements. Although

they use the same basic circuit configurations, circuit values dif-
fer when the circuit is designed to meet different criteria. In-band
ripple, fastest transition to the ultimate roll-off, and highest out-
of-band rejection are some of the criteria that result in different
circuit values.
Filters allow only particular frequencies or bands of frequencies

to pass through and are an essential tool for RF design engineers.
Exploring Piezoelectric Acoustic Filters

The most preferred filter technology used in many of today’s
applications are piezoelectric. These RF filters are small, cost-
effective solutions used in many commercial, military, and scien-
tific applications.
The piezoelectric effect is a reversable phenomenon of physics. The

crystal substance generates electricity when under mechanical
stress, and the reverse is true as well. The crystal will stretch by
a tiny amount when an electric field or voltage is applied. The
piezoelectric materials convert applied mechanical stress into
electrical energy and can also transform electrical energy into
mechanical strain.
The two acoustic filters on the market are surface acoustic wave
(SAW) and bulk acoustic wave (BAW).
As shown in Figure 1-3, SAW and BAW filters can be divided into
two topologies: ladder and lattice. Ladder-type filters present a
steep rejection near the passband, but poor out-of-band rejection.
Lattice-type filters provide good out-of-band rejection with less
steep rejection near the passband. A hybrid ladder-lattice con-
figuration offers a compromise between rejection and passband
steepness.
FIGURE 1-3: SAW and BAW configuration designs.
SAW filters
SAW filters are widely used and very mature. They laterally prop-
agate high-frequency waves. As shown in Figure 1-4, an electri-
cal input signal is converted to an acoustic wave by interleaved
metal interdigital transducers (IDTs) created on a piezoelectric
substrate like quartz, lithium tantalite (LiTaO3), or lithium nio-
bate (LiNbO3). A SAW filter’s low velocity enables it to fit many
wavelengths across the IDTs in a very small device.
FIGURE 1-4: A basic SAW RF filter.
A key advantage of SAW is its capability to optimally address
standard filter applications from 600 to 1900 megahertz (MHz).
It not only meets the low 5G bands at 600 MHz but also works
well and is cost-effective in the low cellular bands of 1, 5, 8, 13,
as well as the GPS bands.
To reach above 1900 MHz, layered SAW technologies — such as

low-loss resonator technology (LRT), thin-film-SAW (TF-SAW),
ultra-SAW, or incredibly high performance (IHP) SAW — are
used. These technologies enable layered SAW to meet up to
2.7 gigahertz (GHz) for mid- to high-band applications. Above
2.7 GHz, SAW filter selectivity declines. However, where the SAW
filter ends in performance, the BAW filter (covered later in this
chapter) begins.
Temperature-compensated SAW
Among the many innovations in SAW technology is temperature-
compensated SAW (TC-SAW). This type of SAW uses a thermo-
compensated layer to avoid thermal drift, as shown in Figure 1-5.
It performs at a higher level than standard SAW because of the
greater temperature stability.
FIGURE 1-5: SAW versus TC-SAW.
TC-SAW devices on single crystal lithium niobate, along with

burying the IDT electrodes in a layer of silicon dioxide (SiO2),
improves TCF and quality factor compared to traditional SAW-
based filters and duplexers.
Implementing a temperature coefficient on SAW requires iso-

lating the interdigital transducer (IDT) from any environmen-
tal temperature changes. To accomplish this, the SAW structure
is covered with SiO2 and sometimes an additional silicon nitride
layer, as shown on the right side of Figure 1-5.
TC-SAW improves filter characteristics to deal with the tight band
allocations of LTE and 5G, as well as carrier aggregation (CA) for
uplink and high-power user equipment (HPUE). Those improve-
ments include lower insertion loss, steeper skirt characteristics,
temperature stability, higher power durability, wider bandwidth
frequency range, higher linearity, smaller size, and integration.
To achieve these characteristics, a higher Q factor and a small
temperature coefficient of frequency (TCF) are essential.
Layered SAW
In a traditional SAW substrate configuration, the acoustic wave
propagating along the surface reaches up to a few wavelengths
under the electrodes, and bulk wave radiation patterns appear
deep into the substrate. This causes bulk acoustic wave leakage,
reducing Q factor, TCF, and coupling.
One way to reduce this leakage is to create a new, multilayered

structure or a variation of TC-SAW, such as layered SAW, as shown in
Figure 1-6. Adding this additional layer of SiO2 under the surface
of the piezoelectric layer and functional layer provides an impor-
tant benefit: A SAW propagating on the surface is guided in the
piezoelectric layer and functional layer. As a result, the acoustic
energy is confined in the vicinity of the surface, which improves
the TCF and Q factor.
FIGURE 1-6: Layered-SAW versus SAW.
There are a few types of SAW filters on the market. They’re

known as SAW, TC-SAW, and layered SAW, which are also
known as guided-SAW, LRT-SAW, TF-SAW, ultra-SAW, and
IHP-SAW. They’re all part of the family of SAW, using a layer
like SiO2 between the substrate and functional layer, as shown in
Figure 1-6. Throughout this book, we refer to this type as
layered SAW.
Layered SAW offers higher performance than the standard SAW

filter. In some frequency bands, the layered SAW performance
can even compete with BAW filters, discussed next.
Layered SAW technology relies on piezoelectric material depos-

ited on an insulator. In layered SAW, the thermal compensation
mechanism comes directly from the substrate instead of being
deposited on the surface over the electrodes.
Table 1-1 compares the different characteristics of acoustic-based

SAW RF filter technologies.
TABLE 1-1 Qualitative Comparison of SAW Filter

Technologies
Parameter SAW TC-SAW Layered SAW
Structure Single Single Single

crystal piezo crystal piezo crystal piezo
Substrate material Single Single Layered substrate

crystal piezo crystal piezo
Performance Good Better Best
Temperature Good Better Best

coefficient
Manufacturing cost $ $$ $$$
BAW filters
The alternative to SAW is BAW. BAW filters address the frequen-
cies between 1.4 and 9 GHz.
The main difference between BAW and SAW, besides the struc-
ture, is the piezoelectric material that the filters rely on. BAW fil-
ters use polycrystalline aluminum nitride, which provides higher
coupling coefficient and higher wave velocity in the material.
BAW filters can achieve very low loss because their acoustic energy
density is very high, and the structures trap acoustic waves very
well. Plus, their achievable Q factor is higher than other filter
types of reasonable size employed at microwave frequencies. This
results in superb rejection and insertion loss performance, even
at the critical passband edges.
The BAW filter offers lower insertion loss, which helps contrib-
ute to longer battery life in smartphone applications. BAW also
excels in applications where the uplink and downlink separa-
tion is minimal and when attenuation is critical in tightly packed
adjacent bands.
Unlike SAW filters, the acoustic wave in a BAW filter propagates

vertically. As shown in Figure 1-7, the resonator uses a quartz
crystal as the substrate. Metal paths on the top and bottom sides
of the quartz excite the acoustic waves, which bounce from the
top to the bottom surface to form a standing acoustic wave.
The thickness of the slab and the mass of the electrodes determine
the frequency at which resonance occurs. At the high frequencies
in which BAW filters are effective, the piezo layer must be only
micrometers thick, requiring the resonator structure to be made
using thin-film deposition and micro-machining on a carrier
substrate.
FIGURE 1-7: A basic BAW RF filter.
To keep the waves from escaping into the substrate in this type
of filter, an acoustic Bragg reflector is created by stacking thin
layers of alternating stiffness and density. The result of this
approach is called a solidly mounted resonator (SMR) BAW, as
shown in Figure 1-7.
A Bragg reflector is a structure formed from multiple layers of
alternating materials with varying refractive index.
There are two major types of BAW filters on the market, as shown
in Figure 1-8: a solidly mounted resonator (SMR) BAW and a poly
film bulk acoustic resonator (FBAR).
FIGURE 1-8: Cross-section comparing BAW filter technologies.
From a technology perspective, the big differentiators are

substrate and air cavity between the substrate and bottom
electrode. In Table 1-2, you see that stacked-layer BAW has the
best temperature compensation.
TABLE 1-2 Qualitative Comparison of BAW and FBAR Filter

Technologies
Parameter BAW FBAR
Piezo lattice structure Polycrystal piezo Polycrystal piezo
Resonator Aluminum nitride (AlN) or scandium AlN or ScAlN

piezo material aluminum nitride (ScAlN)
Substrate material Silicon Silicon
Temperature Best Good

coefficient
Acoustic reflector Stacked layer Air cavity
Manufacturing cost $ $
Some companies use their own brand names for FBAR or BAW
technology, but they all fall under one of the two categories (BAW
or FBAR). For example, XBAW is just another FBAR, while ultra-
BAW is another BAW.
XBAR is a shear-wave BAW technology that is laterally field cou-

pled. However, this technology is still in development and is not
available in product.
Discovering the Temperature

Coefficient of Filters
It seems each year brings new spectrum allocations in cellular,
Wi-Fi, automotive, and so on. These additions of spectrum are
good news, because they drive incremental improvements in
wireless devices. But this additional spectrum sometimes comes
at a price in areas where bands overlap each other. There is also
an increase in system heat due to the additional RF pathways.
To ensure these signal paths are properly isolated from each other,
RF filters with a low temperature coefficient are used. But not just
any filter will do in many of these applications where spectrum
is closely aligned to each other. As shown in Figure 1-9, cellular
and Wi-Fi bands are sometimes close to each other — separated
by only a few megahertz. RF filter technology like BAW is used to
ensure coexistence between these bands.
FIGURE 1-9: Examples of closely aligned Wi-Fi and cellular spectrum.
In both SAW and BAW technologies, a best-in-class tempera-

ture coefficient is vital. It can mean the difference between RF
interference and good signal quality in an application. In BAW
and SAW technologies, the filter response moves depending on
temperature, as shown in Figure 1-10.
FIGURE 1-10: Temperature drift of piezoelectric filters.
As application temperature changes the filter response, the filter

bandwidth drifts right when cold and left when hot. A filter’s
temperature drift is determined by the parts per million per
degrees Celsius (ppm/°C) characteristic of the process and the
temperature excursion the filter experiences in the application,
as shown in Figure 1-10.
The frequency and environmental conditions of an application are

usually fixed, so the only way to minimize the temperature drift-
ing of the filter is via process technology. Using a temperature
compensation (TC) filter process technology can affect the over-
all response of the filter. As you can see in Figure 1-10, the TC-
SAW, layered SAW, and BAW technology processes greatly reduce
temperature drift of the individual filters. These BAW, layered
SAW, and TC-SAW process technologies offer lower insertion
losses, create steeper filter skirts, and provide better temperature
responses — which all equate to better out-of-band attenuation
during temperature shifts. They also improve receiver sensitivity,
isolation, and rejection.
BAW filters are inherently less sensitive to temperature change

than SAW filters. Temperature compensation (TC-SAW and
TC-BAW) reduces temperature sensitivity even further.
In BAW, certain design techniques can be used to create a

TC-BAW-type outcome, but generally BAW is effective when it
comes to good temperature coefficient values. However, because
of the structure makeup, there are differences between the three
types of BAW when addressing the temperature coefficient.
Figure 1-11 illustrates that the air cavity will likely affect the path
of heat dissipation, thereby affecting the filter’s temperature coef-
ficient. The advantages of BAW over FBAR are more pronounced
at the higher frequencies used in 5G and Wi-Fi. Power handling in
filters becomes more challenging at the higher frequencies due to
the smaller resonator size. However, with BAW, the reflector lay-
ers also become thinner, which further improves heat extraction.
FIGURE 1-11: BAW versus FBAR filter power and heat handling.
In contrast, with FBAR, the membrane above the air cavity

becomes thinner, reducing its capability to move heat away from
the resonator. As a result, with insertion loss as a constant between
BAW and FBAR, the temperature rises 20°C per watt of transmit
power, compared to 70°C rise per watt with FBAR. Less temper-
ature variation means better performance, which enables BAW
filters to meet system requirements for insertion loss and out-
of-band attenuation under high-power and high tempera-
ture conditions. Moreover, BAW filters have a low insertion loss
due to their high Q factor and high coupling, which help reduce
dissipated power and associated thermal issues.
Temperature challenges are also becoming constrained by today’s

high frequencies and smaller size applications. Moreover, the
higher the frequency of a design, the greater the challenge of
meeting parameter requirements. One of those key parameters is
insertion loss. Line lengths, matching components, filter compo-
nents, and connecting trace lines have an added effect on inser-
tion loss. This is especially true in frequencies above 3 GHz. To
optimize a system’s link budget, low insertion loss filters are
required.
Evaluating the Q Factor
Multiple factors determine a filter’s insertion loss. Among these
are the filter bandwidth relative to center frequency, the order
of the filter, and the Q factor of the resonators that make up the
component. The Q factor is a measure of the selectivity of a reso-
nant circuit.
As shown in Figure 1-12, Resonator loss and coupling are the keys
to low insertion loss and high selectivity. Resonators with similar
coupling and impedance can be compared in performance by their
Q factors.
FIGURE 1-12: Q factor, bandwidth, and attenuation characteristics of an

RF filter.
Exploring the Filter Coupling Coefficient

In filter technology, the two performance parameters that drive
application performance are the filter coupling coefficient and the
Q factor.
The RF filter resonator coupling coefficient plays a key role in

determining the bandwidth of an acoustically coupled filter.
Increasing the coupling effectiveness for a BAW filter resonator
in an SMR or FBAR configuration can offer low insertion loss and
high performance in a small package size.
Effective coupling coefficient (K2eff) is a measurement of the

relative spacing between the resonance frequency (ƒs) and
anti-resonance frequency (ƒp). Its value depends upon a mul-
titude of factors, including the electrode and the piezoelectric
characteristics.
The electromechanical coupling coefficient is the measure of
the efficiency of the piezoelectric device in converting electrical
energy to mechanical energy and vice versa. The mutual energy,
or energy capable of conversion, is the elastic energy and dielec-
tric energy. To maximize the filter resonator’s coupling coeffi-
cient, it’s crucial to provide the reflection of the acoustic energy
as close to the resonator as possible.
In the BAW filter, the effective coupling coefficient of the resona-

tors defines the obtainable flat passband width of the filter.
Understanding Filter Packaging

The surface area of the radio frequency front end (RFFE) is
shrinking in many (if not all) applications. This change is driven
mostly by device size reductions and the need to make room for
more consumer features.
Most of what we see today are module and monolithic integra-

tion, or the combination of both, inside one package. Figure 1-13
illustrates a highly integrated module that includes power ampli-
fiers, BAW filters, and antenna switches. This, in turn, is incor-
porated into a complex system in package (SiP). This is just one
of the complex modules that would be housed inside one SiP in
normal applications.
FIGURE 1-13: Complex RF module inside of SiP.
IN THIS CHAPTER
»» Understanding the crowded spectrum
»» Identifying which filter works in what

application
»» Explaining multiplexers and

antennaplexers
Chapter 2
Discovering the RF Front
End and Filters
F
ilter technology is critical to mitigating crosstalk interfer-
ence, maintaining peak signal performance, and optimizing
system efficiency in gateways, cell phones, and other wire-
less devices. Without these filters, designers would struggle to
meet many required system-level specifications that provide
ubiquitous, always-on connectivity.
Filters make such a difference in today’s end-product design

because they help system engineers mitigate or entirely remove
system-level challenges. Additionally, filters can reduce design
time by creating viable go-to solutions for system designers.
In this chapter, you see how applications are driving a new era in
radio frequency (RF) filter design in the RF front end (RFFE). You
find out about families of filters and begin to explore duplexers,
multiplexers, and antennaplexers, and see how they’re used in
today’s applications.
Exploring the RFFE and RF Filter

The rapid growth of spectrum and the many frequency bands to
accommodate the speeds and capacity requirements — along with
the integration of new technologies like ultra-wideband (UWB)
CHAPTER 2 Discovering the RF Front End and Filters 19
and cellular vehicle to everything (C-V2X) — are driving filter
technology to help coexistence between many frequency bands.
As a core component of the RFFE, RF filters are widely used in
base stations, automotive, Wi-Fi, wireless communications, and
more. In the following sections, we dig deeper into the technical
aspects of filter technology and how it relates to the RFFE.
Understanding the role of duplexing

Duplexing enables two-way communications over a single commu-
nication channel. There are two basic modes of duplex operation:
»» Half-duplex: The communicating parties take turns trans-

mitting and receiving. While one party is transmitting, the
other is receiving.
»» Full-duplex: The communicating parties can transmit and
receive simultaneously.
Full duplexing is achieved through frequency division duplex-

ing (FDD), and half duplexing is achieved through time division
duplexing (TDD), as shown in Figure 2-1.
FIGURE 2-1: FDD versus TDD uplink and downlink.
FDD uses two separate frequency bands or channels to achieve full

duplex communications. The two bands are physically separated
in frequency (called a duplex gap) to prevent interference.
TDD emulates full-duplex communication over a half-duplex link,

using a single frequency band for both transmitting and receiving.
TDD assigns rapidly alternating time slots to transmit and receive
operations of the communicating devices. Although TDD transmis-
sions are concurrent rather than simultaneous, the intermittent
nature of the communication is imperceptible to the communicat-
ing parties due to the high speeds at which TDD occurs.
Explaining isolation and cross-isolation

Duplexers are commonly used in FDD radio applications, where
one filter is a transmit (Tx) filter and the other filter is a receive
(Rx) filter. Duplexers are designed so that the passbands of each
filter will not load the other.
Isolation is a measure of the amount of power that leaks from

one RF port path to another. The greater the isolation between
these RF pathways, the lower the leakage. If the isolation is low,
then signals can bleed into one another causing interference, or
desense (short for desensitization) in the case of the receiver.
The transmit signal appearing at the output of the receive filter

must be significantly attenuated. This high level of isolation is
required so that the signal doesn’t overdrive the receiver’s front
end. This is often referred to as transmit-receive isolation, and val-
ues of 55 decibels (dB) or higher are common.
There must also be high Tx-to-Rx isolation at the receive fre-

quency. This is to prevent noise at wide offsets from the trans-
mit signal (that is, at the receive frequency) from appearing at
the receiver input and degrading sensitivity. These two isolation
requirements form the in-band isolation.
Isolation between RF pathways gets more challenging with each

wireless device generation. For example, some smartphone
models are now foldable, as shown in Figure 2-2. Not only are the
phones incorporating numerous antennas to provide services in
cellular, Wi-Fi, Global Positioning System (GPS)/Global Naviga-
tion Satellite System (GNSS), UWB, millimeter wave (mmWave),
and Bluetooth ranges, but they’re also challenged because now
these pathways are folding over each other, making the possi-
bility of interference more likely. This makes isolation between
these RF pathways, standards, and closely aligned antennas even
more important. RF filter designers must work even more dili-
gently to meet more stringent isolation, passband, and attenu-
ation parameters to ensure these foldable phones work without
interference.
FIGURE 2-2: Foldable phones with multiple antennas.
Looking into RF receiver desense

and sensitivity
Receiver sensitivity is the minimum detectable receiving signal
power of a digital radio receiver. If a wireless receiver is desensi-
tized, it means the noise floor is increased due to electromagnetic
interference. This interference reduces the received signal-to-
noise ratio, degrading the receiver performance throughput ver-
sus range.
Maintaining receiver performance amid RF interference and high

receiving signal power is a major requirement for radio receivers.
Desense is the degradation in receiver sensitivity due to noise

sources, which are typically generated by the same device radio
it’s in. Desense is caused by electromagnetic interference, which
can come from an internal source or a strong self-generated
interference within the system itself. Most often, the interference
is self-generated.
Understanding RF front-end
selectivity/coexistence
The ideal filter would have 0 dB insertion loss in its passband and
negative-infinity dB in its stop band. Between the passband and
stop band would be a transition from 0 dB to negative infinity.
It would pass the required frequencies without adding or sub-
tracting anything from the RF signal. However, a perfect filter
like this can’t be attained. Real-world filters have insertion loss,
passband ripple, and nonzero gain in the stop band (refer to 1-1
in Chapter 1).
The transition band can be a defining characteristic in a filter’s

usefulness in a given application. The transition band is the steep-
ness of the roll-off between the passband and the stop band.
The selectivity of a receiver is also very important. With the many

RF signals being transmitted, the radio receiver must be able to
receive only the required signal frequency and reject the unwanted
signals. The receiver selectivity performance determines the level
of interference the receiver will experience. Therefore, it’s very
important that the receiver rejects unwanted frequencies to ena-
ble interference-free performance.
Selectivity refers to the capability to filter out signals. In an RFFE

receiver, selectivity is the capability to reject adjacent unwanted
signals. Having superior insertion loss and out-of-band attenua-
tion improves the isolation between signals on the receiver. High
isolation between signal paths is also critical in limiting inter-
modulation products and meeting out-of-band emission speci-
fications. Receiver filter performance is key when defining the
selectivity.
Selectivity of a filter is also closely related to the quality factor

(Q factor). Reducing the bandwidth of a filter increases its
Q factor. The skirts become steeper, and the filter becomes more
selective. Therefore, the band pass filter increases in selectiv-
ity as the Q factor increases. In general, designing a filter with
superior selectivity is a trade-off between steep skirts, insertion
loss, and Q factor.
The capability for a receiver to discriminate between signals is

imperative. Receiver selectivity is usually discussed in terms of
adjacent channel rejection (ACR), adjacent channel selectivity
(ACS), in-band blocking, and out-of-band blocking.
Navigating a crowded spectrum

As we continue to jam more bands into the already crowded
RF space, the space continues to get squeezed. In some cases,
the transition between the passband and stop band is as small
as 2 megahertz (MHz). This makes it challenging to meet
system-level requirements. Any variation in filter response,
which is dominated by temperature drift, can exceed the width
of the transition band itself. This can result in interference, low
signal quality, or both. This is where filters attribute the most.
Figure 2-3 shows an example of how RF filters help separate
Wi-Fi and the vehicle to everything (V2X) bands. Using filters
with steep out-of-band transitions are a must in these types of
situations.
FIGURE 2-3: Spectrum of Wi-Fi and V2X bands.
Because spectrum is a scarce resource, governments must ration

it. This forces RF system designers to bear the brunt of the chal-
lenge in their designs, such as mitigating the evolving capabili-
ties of several spectrum areas like Wi-Fi, automotive, Internet of
Things (IoT), and cellular, all of which are converging upon each
other as spectrum evolves. These technology bands require steep
curve filters with little temperature drift and superior insertion
loss to separate their signals or otherwise risk RF interference.
Learning how small device applications

affect filter design
All wireless device solutions are shrinking in size. Today the
Wi-Fi home and business architectures are called distributed
Wi-Fi or Wi-Fi mesh. They’re based on a “pod per room” archi-
tecture and are becoming more commonplace. These Wi-Fi pod
access points or mesh network devices are becoming sleeker and
smaller. In mobile smartphones, RF area is shrinking to accom-
modate larger batteries, more cameras, and more RF pathways. In
wireless infrastructure towers, the RF portion is moving toward
the top of the tower with the antenna, requiring the RFFE to be
smaller and meet higher transmit and receive performance.
For example, the printed circuit board (PCB) in a smartphone

is shrinking because of several factors. Phone manufacturers
have increased battery size to support new features like addi-
tional cameras and antennas for UWB, mmWave, and diversity
functions. To support the broad range of frequencies for Wi-Fi,
low-band, mid-band, high-band, ultra-high-band, UWB, and
mmWave, more antennas are required — up to six in many of
today’s smartphones (see Figure 2-4). This is forcing RFFE sys-
tem designers to create smaller front-end components, including
filters, in addition to integrating these filters inside small RFFE
modules.
FIGURE 2-4: Larger batteries in 5G phones reduce the PC board space.
With the addition of all the new antennas to accommodate the

many new and existing bands, high antenna performance is
required. For high antenna performance, adequate antenna vol-
ume and spacing is required — and this is happening while space
is becoming constrained.
Manufacturers face a tough architectural decision to meet this

requirement previously solved using separate filters. They can try
to add more antennas in an ever-shrinking area, with potential
reduction in antenna and system-level performance. Or they can
use a new development in design. This is where antennaplexers
come into play — we delve more into that topic in Chapter 4.
Briefly speaking, antennaplexers combine multiple RF filters to

allow several different radios — like cellular Wi-Fi, GPS, and
UWB — to share a single antenna. They enable mobile devices to
use the existing antenna area more efficiently, adding support for
new bands with no impact on existing form factors or features.
Antennaplexers reduce the need to have separate antennas, while
addressing coexistence filtering and insertion loss requirements,
as shown in Figure 2-5.
FIGURE 2-5: This antennaplexer enables a single antenna to be shared
with Wi-Fi and cellular mid-bands and ultra-high bands.
Wi-Fi RFFE manufacturers are also taking advantage of front-end

module technology to shrink the form factor, reduce the num-
ber of matching components, decrease the PC board space area,
and create smaller, sleeker devices. By using front-end modules
incorporating many RF pathways, as shown in Figure 2-6, system
designers can save costs, cut design times, and get products to
market more quickly.
FIGURE 2-6: Wi-Fi RF front-end module with filters.
Adding multiple-input/multiple-output (MIMO) and higher fre-

quencies in the 6 GHz realm has increased system temperature
in Wi-Fi gateways. With more thermal and coexistence require-
ments, robust RFFE components that support high temperatures
and multiple frequency ranges have become a must.
To solve this challenge, more capable filter technology with tem-
perature compensation has been developed. This, along with
creating complete RFFE module solutions, has enabled system
designers in the Wi-Fi gateway, automotive, and 5G spaces to
meet their individual requirements.
Some filters used on the RF transmit side of the Wi-Fi RFFE can
help increase signal performance. For example, when a Wi-Fi signal
is close to the edge of the Wi-Fi channel band, such as channel 1,
and the signal is transmitting at full power, some “bleed noise”
outside the band can occur. This is commonly resolved by reducing
the output power in these channels, but that reduces the output
power signal output and range. RF filtering eliminates the need
to reduce the output power in these situations, reducing the radio
signal bleed outside the band. This enables the radio to transmit in
these edge channels at maximum power range.
Introducing Multiplexers
and Antennaplexers
A bandpass filter and duplexer are no longer enough to ensure
coexistence in today’s complex RF devices. We need a more
complex filter technology to support today’s connective devices
and their features such as mobile phones and gateways. These
complex systems are where multiplexers and antennaplexers are
useful.
What’s the difference between these more complex types of filter

technologies? Figure 2-7 shows the difference in a simple way.
The antennaplexer operates near the antenna to help efficiently
and effectively steer the proper signal deeper into the device.
Antennaplexers reduce the need for more discrete components,
as well as lowering the number of antennas used in the system.
For example, an antennaplexer might combine GPS, Wi-Fi, and
cellular bands, enabling one antenna to support all three RF
pathways.
FIGURE 2-7: An antennaplexer and multiplexer in a block diagram.
Multiplexers operate further down the RF front-end chain, near

the transceiver. Multiplexers separate the RF pathways, reduc-
ing system complexity and the need for many individual discrete
RF filters. They also provide carrier aggregation (CA) support,
enabling large capacity data throughput.
The next two chapters dig further into each of these filters to bet-
ter understand their benefits and how they’re used in RF systems.
IN THIS CHAPTER
»» Identifying the differences between
duplexers, bandpass filters, and
multiplexers
»» Investigating filter isolation and cross

isolation
»» Comparing multiplexers and carrier

aggregation
Chapter 3
Understanding
Multiplexer Filters
T
his chapter goes into more depth about multiplexer filters
and how they’re used in various applications. You discover
how multiplexers help designers create more complex
wireless products.
Exploring Multiplexers
A multiplexer is a group of radio frequency (RF) filters that
are combined in a way that they don’t load each other and
achieve high levels of isolation between their outputs (refer to
Figure 2-7 in Chapter 2). Multiplexers are used within the RF
front end close to the power amplifier (PA) and play an impor-
tant role in carrier aggregation (CA), while antennaplexers are
used after the radio frequency front end to simplify routing to
the antenna. Multiplexer filters can include several types of filters
all within one package. Figure 3-1 provides a high-level pictorial
of several types of filters embedded inside one complex module
design. These pictured individual duplexers, bandpass filters, and
notch filters can also be part of a group of multiplexers called
quadplexers, pentaplexers, and hexaplexers., as shown in Figure 3-2.
CHAPTER 3 Understanding Multiplexer Filters 29
FIGURE 3-1: Bandpass filters, duplexers, notch, and multiplexer in functional
block diagram.
A simple duplexer can be combined with other duplexers and

filters to create more complex multiplexer designs. Like in the
frequency division duplexing (FDD) bands are 1 and 3, and the
time division duplexing (TDD) filter is band 41.
Today’s wireless systems and devices must support more func-

tionality, so they need ever smaller components. Integrating
multiple non-overlapping filter bands into a multiplexer helps
reduce component count and the size of the radio frequency front
end (RFFE). Figure 3-2 shows some of the types of multiplexer
designs to help reduce overall RFFE component count to meet
new device size reductions. Multiplexers enable system designers
to optimize, miniaturize, and simplify the overall design to meet
system requirements.
Multiplexers provide an elegant solution, and in many cases the

only practical solution, for carrier aggregation CA combinations
that use closely aligned bands. Multiplexers integrate into a single
component all the Tx and Rx filtering for aggregated component
carriers (CCs), providing the required isolation while enabling
multiple CCs to connect to the antenna at the same time.
FIGURE 3-2: Types of multiplexer filters.
The multiplexer filters must be carefully co-designed and

matched to achieve the required performance. Figure 3-3 shows a
hexaplexer RF insertion loss for each of the filters. As you can see,
each of the duplexers within this one multiplexer (hexaplexer)
are matched for optimal insertion loss and passband. Addition-
ally, the individual filters are designed to make certain they don’t
load each other.
A well-designed multiplexer provides additional benefits to

mobile device engineers because of the high level of integration
they provide. Combining multiple filters into a single component
will save on critical PC board space as opposed to using discrete
filters.
There are some discussions on using tunable filtering in these

complex systems. However, using tunable filters may not improve
system functionality because all of today’s systems require the
use of several RF paths simultaneously. A tunable filter may com-
plicate accommodating this multipath functionality, so manu-
facturers have been pushing for higher-level multiplexer designs
into more complex designs like an octaplexer, with eight func-
tional RF pathways.
FIGURE 3-3: B1 + B3 + B7 hexaplexer filter insertion loss measurement.
Understanding Multiplexer Isolation

and Cross-Isolation
As mentioned in Chapter 2, isolation and cross-isolation are
important parameters requiring significant attention. Isolation is
the capability of the filter to prevent a signal from showing up at
a node in the RF circuit or system. Isolations such as those from
a transmit or receive path need to be high so there’s no way for
these individual signals to bleed into each other.
Cross-isolation refers to isolation across bands, as shown in

Figure 3-4. A duplexer requires the Tx signal to be attenuated
significantly at its corresponding Rx frequency output. For a mul-
tiplexer like a quadplexer, the Tx signal must be attenuated sig-
nificantly at both Rx outputs. Similarly, isolation of the Tx signal
at the Rx frequency to control noise in the Rx band now must also
apply at both Rx outputs. When you consider all the cases, there
are eight isolations in a quadplexer that are important versus two
in a duplexer. In Figure 3-4, we show the isolation measurement
between band 1 Tx and Rx (top image). For the same component,
we show the cross-isolation measurement between band 3 Rx
and band 7 Tx (bottom image). Cross-isolation is the measure
between two different Tx-to-Rx bands within the same compo-
nent, while isolation is the measurement between the Tx and Rx
of the same band.
FIGURE 3-4: Band 1 RX isolation and band 1 and 7 TX cross-isolation
measurement.
Multiplexers help achieve the required cross-isolation between

the aggregated RF pathways, to enable simultaneous communi-
cation on all the aggregated carriers while attenuating the out-
of-band (OOB) signals for each pathway.
Investigating Multiplexers
and Carrier Aggregation
CA is another complex function of the RFFE. The advancements
in filter technology have been critical to enabling the adoption
of CA with Long-Term Evolution (LTE), 4G, and 5G. Filter mate-
rial advancements in coupling, aluminum nitride enhancement,
and material doping helped to achieve high OOB attenuation, low
return loss, and the cross-isolation required for enabling multi-
plexer filter CA.
Multiplexers become increasingly important as the number of CA

CCs increases. For example, aggregating three or more CCs sig-
nificantly increases the probability of using close-together bands.
These opportunities increase the probability of using a multi-
plexer like a quadplexer or hexaplexer.
CA enables microwave devices to create higher data rates by com-

bining two or more carrier signals. CA is becoming very complex
as more bands are being added to combination options. 5G defines
hundreds of new combinations of up to 16 CCs, each with contig-
uous bandwidths up to 100 megahertz (MHz), for a total aggre-
gated bandwidth up to 1 gigahertz (GHz).
CAs are divided into three types, as shown in Figure 3-5:
»» Intra-band contiguous aggregation: Used if the spectrum

blocks are adjacent within the same band.
»» Intra-band noncontiguous aggregation: Used if the blocks
are separated within the same band.
»» Inter-band aggregation: The aggregation of spectrum in different
bands. These bands may be widely separated or close together.
FIGURE 3-5: The three types of CA.
Linear multiplexer filters with high OOB rejection allow for mul-
tiple CA combinations. Using the latest filter technologies like
BAW, engineers have access to multiplexers featuring minimal
insertion loss below or around 1 decibel (dB). This low insertion
loss minimizes any negative effect on the power amplifier cur-
rent drain and device battery life. An enhanced filter technology
like BAW also provides best-in-class band isolation and cross-
isolation for optimal system-level performance.
It’s important to note that CA creates a higher probability of

interference. Multiband signals can interfere with each other
due to insufficient filter attenuation. System desense (short for
desensitization) can also occur when isolation or cross-isolation
between the Tx and Rx paths is insufficient, creating a scenario
where the sensitivity of the receiver is degraded.
A lower temperature compensated filter technology used in mul-

tiplexers is ideal to optimize isolation, attenuation, and OOB
attenuation performance across bands to help designers mitigate
these challenges.
Additionally, RFFE switches used with filters require ultra-high

linearity and low insertion loss in a CA application. Because any
increase in insertion loss may result in an increase in system
noise, designers must figure in the receiver path. A poor insertion
loss can also reduce overall PA efficiency, reducing battery life
and device signal range.
Mobile devices feature high-speed up/down links to provide video

and data. Receiver sensitivity can be affected by noise, which can
affect signal reception. This noise can cause system desense.
Desense is the degradation in receiver sensitivity due to noise

sources, which are typically generated by the same device radio
it’s in.
EN-DC multiplexers and

carrier aggregation
4G LTE-Advanced Pro supports up to five CCs. 5G New Radio (NR)
CA supports up to 16 contiguous and noncontiguous CCs and can
aggregate new 5G bands up to approximately 1 GHz of spectrum —
as shown in Figure 3-6. Dual connectivity allows user equipment
to simultaneously transmit and receive data. This along with CA
increases data capacity of the network.
FIGURE 3-6: LTE and 5G NR CA.
Dual connectivity is also being used extensively in new 5G devices.

Dual connectivity enables user equipment to simultaneously
transmit and receive data on multiple CCs from two cell groups (a
master evolved Node B [eNB] and secondary eNB). Using Evolved
Universal Terrestrial Radio Access (EUTRA), which is a wireless
air interface of the 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP),
plus 5G NR dual connectivity or E-UTRA NR Dual connectivity
(EN-DC), networks can take advantage of 4G and 5G spectrum to
increase user throughput, provide mobile signal robustness, and
support load-balancing among eNBs.
Non-standalone and EN-DC

5G radio access network (RAN) is designed to work fully with the
existing 4G LTE network. The 3GPP Release 15 standard allowed
multiple NR deployment option such as non-standalone (NSA)
and standalone (SA). For more information on NSA and SA,
please read Qorvo’s 5G RF For Dummies book at www.qorvo.com/
design-hub/ebooks/5g-rf-for-dummies. NSA utilizes a scheme
very similar to CA. It combines an LTE anchor band for con-
trol and a 5G NR band to deliver faster data rates, as shown in
Figure 3-7. NSA is a model of deployment where 5G services
are provided without an end-to-end 5G network. This is where
EUTRA plus NR dual connectivity is introduced. In EN-DC, both
LTE and 5G NR carriers are used simultaneously. With EN-DC,
two high-power RF signals are transmitted from one device. This
configuration requires two complete uplink signal paths in the
small device area of the smartphone. This presents major chal-
lenges to keep these two strong signals from interfering with each
other. High isolation filtering is a must in these situations.
FIGURE 3-7: LTE and 5G NR CA.
High isolation between these two signal paths is critical in limit-

ing intermodulation products and meeting OOB emissions speci-
fications. Additionally, using high-isolation multiplexers between
signal paths, the smartphone and mobile network operators can
save battery life and energy because of the efficiency gained by
providing coexistence between these two uplink signals.
IN THIS CHAPTER
»» Understanding how antennaplexers
simplify and improve device designs
»» Discovering how antennaplexers

function within the RF front end
Chapter 4
Exploring
Antennaplexers
T
oday’s manufacturers face an important architectural deci-
sion. They can attempt to add more antennas in an ever-
shrinking device area, with potential reduction in antenna
performance and the resulting impact on overall performance. Or,
they can use a new alternative, the antennaplexer, which reduces
the need to add antennas and addresses coexisting filtering and
insertion loss requirements.
In this chapter, you see how antennaplexers enable more features

with fewer antennas and find out about the advantages of using
them in many wireless applications.
Why Today’s Devices Need

Antennaplexers
Take a look back at Figure 2-7 in Chapter 2, which shows the
differences between antennaplexer and a multiplexer. Notice that
the antennaplexer is used near the antenna to reduce complex-
ity, whereas the multiplexer is used closer to the radio frequency
front end (RFFE), near the power amplifier (PA).
CHAPTER 4 Exploring Antennaplexers 39
Antennaplexers solve a key challenge facing wireless manufac-
turers of 5G systems: how to accommodate the dramatic increase
in radio frequency (RF) complexity, while available antenna area
continues to shrink due to evolving industrial design. Antenna-
plexers enable manufacturers to accommodate new 5G bands, 4x4
multiple-input/multiple-output (MIMO), diversity functionality,
and other new requirements with fewer antennas and with no
impact to existing form factors or features.
In mobile device Wi-Fi applications, antennaplexer filters play a

key role in reducing design complexity and facilitating coexis-
tence. They also help provide high isolation, which helps reduce
that function on the antenna design and allows for less expen-
sive antennas. As a result, the RFFE isolation parameter no longer
needs to rest entirely on the antenna. This reduces antenna and
shielding costs, providing up to 20 percent cost reduction.
The addition of new cellular and non-cellular bands has increased

the total number of radio frequency (RF) paths in all wireless elec-
tronic devices — smartphones, automobiles, Wi-Fi gateways, and
more. For example, a typical 5G smartphone that supports milli-
meter wave (mmWave) and ultra-wideband (UWB) bands has twice
as many RF pathways as a legacy 4G phone. Many of today’s hand-
sets require six or more antennas for primary cellular and diverse
receive functions (refer to Figure 2-4 in Chapter 2). Each RF path
needs to connect to an antenna, but it’s simply impossible to dou-
ble the number of antennas due to the limited space available.
Moreover, increasing the number of antennas means they must

be closer to each other, which reduces the isolation between them.
This can cause coupling-related issues, increasing the potential
for nonlinear elements in the radio frequency front end (RFFE),
which causes desense (short for desensitization) on the receiver.
Figure 4-1 shows the many frequency bands; notice how closely
aligned they are. For example, Wi-Fi 2.4 GHz and GPS L5 are
located between low and mid–high cellular bands.
FIGURE 4-1: Multiple frequency bands used in smartphone devices.
Antennaplexers help these individual bands coexist with each
other. They reduce antenna complexity for engineers by allowing
one antenna to transmit a large bandwidth. This large bandwidth
is then split by the antennaplexer into multiple bands. Without
antennaplexers, more antennas and switches would be required.
Antennaplexers play a key role in separating individual low, mid,

and high cellular bands, Wi-Fi, and GPS (L5, L1) signals, while
simultaneously providing interference mitigation and reducing
system losses. In Figure 4-2, the top mobile smartphone image
shows many individual filters on the antennas. Additionally,
the upper-left image has three antennas. The bottom smart-
phone image shows how the introduction of antennaplexers in
this design can reduce complexity, component count, and size. As
shown in the bottom image on the left, using an antennaplexer,
you can reduce the number of antennas from three to one, as well
as taking the component count from four to one. Moreover, on the
right side of the bottom image, adding an antennaplexer reduces
the component count from four to two. This demonstrates how
antennaplexers provide system engineers the ability to create
designs easier by using antennaplexers.
FIGURE 4-2: With and without antennaplexer solutions on a smartphone.
CHAPTER 4 Exploring Antennaplexers 41
Antennaplexers provide many advantages to system and module
designers. They not only reduce the number of antennas required,
but also maximize performance while reducing system level
desensitivity. They also enable greater design flexibility to sup-
port architectural and industrial design changes. Antennaplexers
enable devices like smartphones to use the existing antenna area
more efficiently, adding support for new bands with no impact on
existing form factors or features.
Diving Deep into Antennaplexer

Technology
Now that you understand why antennaplexers do their jobs, let’s
take a look at how they do it. In this section, you explore the types
of antennaplexers and isolation.
Understanding the types of

antennaplexers
Figure 4-3 shows several varieties of antennaplexers — all using
a single shared antenna. For example, the triplexer shown in the
upper-right side of the figure splits the Wi-Fi, mid-band, and
ultra-high bands going to one antenna while providing the out-
of-band (OOB) rejection needed for optimal coexistence. The
remaining two antennaplexers shown in Figure 4-3 function
similarly but do so by addressing cellular, Wi-Fi, and Global Nav-
igation Satellite System (GNSS) in a system. However, multiple
combinations of antennaplexer filters can be achieved.
Exploring antennaplexer isolation

As with the multiplexers, antennaplexers must also have high
isolation between filters and bands, as shown in Figure 4-4. The
figure shows the global positioning L5 and GNSS filters that were
measured for isolation in this antennaplexer. The graph to the
right is the measured level of signal isolation between these two
filters within the one package design. Antennaplexers based on
acoustic filters generally offer the best performance because they
provide low insertion loss, address OOB rejection for multi-band
coexistence, and provide high isolation between the RF frequen-
cies sharing the antenna. At the same time, they support the
ultra-high frequencies used for 5G, Wi-Fi, and UWB.
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Morocco is called generally “Sus,” and the manner of their expulsion
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which means let down, or empty out—so the exiles were canted out
of their sacks, and the country is thence called “Sus” to this day!
‘Many of the Shloh proper names appear to have an affinity to the
Hebrew, if not actually of Hebraic origin, such as Ait Usi, Ait Atta, Ait
Emor, Ait Sisac, Ait Braim. The Hebrew equivalent of the first three
being Hait Busi, in our translation the Jebusites, Ha Hitti, the Hittites.
Ha Emori, the Amorites. Ait Sisac may be translated “Those of
Isaac,” or The children of laughter. Ait Braim needs no translation.
‘On our entry into Mesfíwa we were surprised to find signs of
much more industry, and even of civilisation, than in the districts
inhabited by the Arab population. Here irrigation was carefully
attended to; the numerous plantations of olive and fruit-trees, as well
as the fields of grain, were better cultivated; and the condition of the
bridle roads and rude bridges over the streams afforded further proof
of a more intelligent and industrious people.
‘Ascending the slopes we reached the camp pitched in an olive-
grove on a small island formed by the Ghemáts, here called the “Dad
i Sirr,” evidently its Berber name. We crossed with some difficulty this
mountain torrent, which foamed and swirled up to the horses’ girths.
Flowing down a gorge of the Atlas running nearly North and South,
this river then takes a north-westerly direction till it joins the Tensift,
which again flows into the Atlantic near Saffi.
‘On the side of a hill, about four hundred yards from the site of the
camp, lay the village Akhlij, crowned by a castle built of red stone
and earth, and having five square bastions with loopholes for
musketry. In fact every house in these villages can be used as a little
fort, the walls being pierced so that each householder can defend
himself against his neighbour, or all can combine and act against an
invader of their stronghold. The population of Akhlij is said to be
about 500 souls, including some forty Jews, each Jewish family,
according to the custom of the Shloh, being under the special
protection of a Mohammedan chieftain.
‘Above the spot where we were encamped rose the mountain of
Zinat Kar, the summit dotted with patches of snow, and, towering
over all, the snowy heights of “Glaui” frowned upon the groves of
palms, oranges and olives which spread below basking in the sultry
temperature of the plains.
‘On our arrival in camp the Sheikh and elders of the village
presented themselves, by order of the Sultan, to welcome the
“Bashador.” The Sheikh, a tall man, was draped in a long, seamless
“haik;” but some of his followers wore a black burnous similar to
those in use among the Jews of Marákesh. The meeting took place
under the British flag—hoisted for the first time in these wild regions
—before Sir John’s tent. In the evening the deputation returned,
bringing an abundant supply of provisions and forage, and, in
addition, huge dishes of cooked food for the soldiers and camp-
followers. This “mona” was collected from the whole province under
the rule of Basha Grenog, comprising some fifteen “kabail,” or tribes,
spread over a district about fifty miles in diameter. The tax therefore
fell lightly on the inhabitants, not amounting to more perhaps than a
half-penny a family, which sum would be deducted from the payment
of their annual taxes.
‘This spot in the valley of Uríka, at the foot of the Atlas, is about
500 feet above Marákesh and 2,000 feet above sea-level, and the
fine air was most enjoyable. The night appeared cold, the
temperature falling below 60° Fahr. At midday it was 74° in the
shade.
‘There were contradictory statements as to the sport to be
expected. But, after much cross-questioning, the natives confessed
that there were no wild boar nearer than the snow; that the
“audad[48],” or wild sheep, was to be found, but only on the highest
hills a couple of hours’ ride distant; and that lions and leopards were
not to be seen within two days’ march, or about thirty miles further
among the snowy ranges. On inquiry whether there were any fish in
the river, we were told that, later in the season, a speckled fish about
nine or ten inches long comes up from the Tensift. This no doubt is
the trout, which is found also in the mountain streams near Tetuan.
On asking the Berber name for large river fish, Sir John was
surprised to hear that it is “selmen,” which would appear to be a
cognate word to our “salmon.”’
The account of the ascent of the Atlas which follows is chiefly

compiled from notes written at the time by Mr. Drummond Hay, who
accompanied the Mission, and who, with one companion, succeeded
in scaling the heights and reaching the snow. An earlier ascent, but
not to so high a point, was made in 1829 by Mr. E. W. A. Drummond
Hay, Sir John’s father. Other travellers have visited the Atlas, both
before and since Sir John; but no Representative of a Foreign
Power, it is believed, had ever yet done so, openly and with the
good-will of the Sultan.
‘May 18. After breakfast all the party, ladies included, mounted
their horses. The son of the Sheikh, a fine handsome fellow, riding a
splendid black horse, led the way up the valley of Uríka, and we rode
along the banks of the torrent. On each side of the gorge rose
conical hills clothed with “el aris[49],” the scented “arrar[49],” and the
lentiscus or wild pistachio. The olive, walnut, orange, apricot and
vine were also abundant.
‘We travelled along a path on the steep river bank, sometimes so
narrow that, if a horse had made a false step, the rider might have
been precipitated into the torrent which foamed below. But as we
advanced the road improved, and showed signs of some knowledge
of road-making and of great care on the part of the inhabitants. Here
and there it was mended with wood and stones; the large boulders
were cleared from the path and built up as walls on either side; and,
where a torrent crossed the way, there was a rude bridge of one or
more arches, composed of trees and branches cemented with mud
and stone. Below us flowed the river, now turbulent and shallow in its
wide bed. By the banks grew numbers of trees which resembled
silver poplars, the timber of which is used in the construction of their
houses by the mountaineers. Their delicate foliage contrasted
pleasantly on the mountain side with the sombre green of the “arrar”
and “aris,” which here do not seem to attain so great a height as they
do in the Rif country. Mingled with them grow the karob, or locust-
tree, and the mountain ash. Numbers of wild flowers filled the
hedges that hemmed in the fields or grew by the wayside; among
them we recognised many English friends. There were also several
flowers new to us, particularly a lovely species of broom bearing a
brilliant violet blossom with an orange centre, and another pretty,
highly-scented, yellow flower all declared must be a wild jasmine, so
closely did it resemble the garden variety.
‘Villages were to be seen on both sides of the gorge, and one of
them saluted us with a feu de joie of musketry. After a gentle ascent
of an hour and a half we arrived at a pretty grove of olives. Here the
Sheikh insisted upon our dismounting, as he said the villagers
desired to welcome our party by giving us a feast. It was in vain the
“Bashador” explained that we desired to push, as far as we could
ride, up the mountains. After waiting an hour, as no food appeared,
he gained his point and we were allowed to re-mount. But, to our
great dismay, just at the moment of moving off, arrived some forty
villagers, every one of whom carried on his head a huge earthen
platter, containing several dishes of meat and “siksu”; each dish
holding sufficient to satisfy ten hungry hunters. Having explained to
these hospitable people that we had only just had our morning
repast and were most anxious to sharpen our appetites by a ride up
the mountain before consuming the feast, we were allowed to depart
in peace—though a solemn promise was first exacted that we would
return without fail in the evening to accept their prodigal hospitality.
We then continued the gradual ascent, passing through villages the
houses of which recalled in some degree the chalets in Switzerland,
though these were of very rude form. Many of them had overhanging
eaves and open galleries on the second story, where the inmates
could sit and enjoy the air and scenery, sheltered from sun or
weather. Some of the houses were decorated with patterns on the
wall below the roof, picked out in crossed lines such as are seen in
old buildings in some parts of England and Germany. But in this
instance the lines were white on the dull background of red earth
with which these houses are built.
‘The population—men, women, and children—turned out to gaze
at us. But neither by word, look, or gesture was there any
demonstration of fanatical or hostile feeling. The villagers seemed
rather to consider our advent to be the occasion for a holiday. A
petition was sent to the “Bashador” by the boys of a school that their
teacher should be asked to grant them a holiday to behold the
English. A few silver coins to the pedagogue and the request of the
“Bashador” set all the boys at liberty, and thus the rising generation
of Uríka will, it may be hoped, retain a friendly recollection of the
“Ingliz.”
‘These mountaineers were fairer than their brethren of the plain,
and some of the women comely. The latter, like their Rifian sisters,
do not hide their faces; and we are told that the state of morality
amongst them is of a very high standard. No female is in danger of
being insulted, and it may be safely declared that there is a better
state of morality amongst the Berber women of Morocco than exists
in England or in any other country in Europe. The women were
draped, like the men, in a long, seamless garment; but they wore it
fastened by two silver brooches on the shoulders or over the breast,
supporting the folds which hung gracefully around their persons.
These brooches are generally connected by long pendent silver
chains. The younger women had long black hair, which appeared to
be carefully dressed, and they showed the same love of adornment
as their European sisters by decorating their tresses with poppies
and other wild flowers.
‘Lady Hay, who rode a mule, on learning that all must now
dismount and proceed on foot if they wished to continue the ascent
of the mountain, decided to remain at the village. A fine-looking
Shloh, hearing of this decision, stepped forward and offered to take
her into his house. She accepted his hospitality, and was placed
under the ægis of the faithful chief of the camp, Hadj Hamed
Lamarti. The rest of the party proceeded on foot.
‘The dismounted horsemen of the Bokhári guard were soon blown
and gave up; then the Sheikh’s son—who was rather too well fed
and in bad condition—sat down, looking very grave, and tried to
dissuade us from further ascent. But on we went, accompanied only
by some half dozen stalwart Shloh, armed with long guns. Under the
shade of a locust-tree Sir John and his daughters, having ascended
some way, came to a halt, as the air was sultry and the ascent very
precipitous. Colonel Lambton, Major de Winton, Major Hitchcock,
Captain Sawle, Mr. Hay, and Mr. Brooks plodded on, the
mountaineers leading the way. The ascent was almost as steep as a
vertical ladder, and after climbing some 1,500 feet they began to feel
much exhausted. At this point four of the party gave up, and two of
the mountaineers, glad of an excuse to halt, remained to guard
them.
‘Captain Sawle and Mr. Hay continued their upward way, and, as
Mr. Hay relates, “We appeared to gain fresh wind and strength as we
ascended. On reaching the first snow we fired a shot to announce to
the party our success, for in the morning there had been a great
discussion whether the ascent to the snow could be accomplished in
one day.
‘We reached the summit of the first high range called Zinat Kar at
2 p.m., and at that moment I sprung a covey of partridges, and again
signalled our arrival by a successful right and left, which was greeted
with a yell of delight by the mountaineers who accompanied us. We
could not tell what height we had reached, as my aneroid was out of
order and had stopped registering half-way; but as far as we could
judge by distance we must then have been about 6,000 feet above
the camp. To our astonishment we found here an extensive table-
land with considerable cultivation, though snow was still lying on the
ground in many parts. This plateau extended to the foot of a snow-
covered range which again rose abruptly beyond.
‘Whilst we rested I discharged my gun at an eagle, and afterwards
at a crow, which latter I killed—a curious bird with red beak and legs.
A few minutes after, when we were thinking of again continuing our
route, we heard to our surprise a volley of musketry, and saw the
distant heights around us manned by armed men. Our Shloh
companions informed us that these people were the “Ahal Kubla,” or
people of the South, inhabiting the snowy range before us. This tribe
does not submit to the Sultan’s authority, and a gun fired on a height
is a signal that an enemy is in sight, and consequently, we were told,
in another hour we might find ourselves surrounded by these lawless
people, who were at present at feud with the Uríka, and the latter do
not venture therefore to trespass on their territory.
‘The difficulty the Sultan would experience in subduing these
tribes can be imagined, since the sole access to this district is by the
steep ascent we had just made[50].
‘Discretion being the better part of valour, we determined to beat a
rapid retreat, and descended the escalade as fast as our weary
limbs would carry us. At 4 o’clock we rejoined the rest of the party
under the olive-trees where we had first stopped. They had just
concluded the feast and were starting for camp.
‘While the climbing party were in sight Sir John and his daughters
watched them from under the shade of the locust-tree: then,
descending to the village, found Hadj Hamed waiting for them in one
of the little streets. He conducted them to Lady Hay, whom the
villagers had installed in the open gallery of one of their houses,
looking out on the mountains. It was very clean: there were only
some dry maize husks piled in a corner and a number of beehives
arranged in a row on the floor. The pillars which supported the front
of the gallery were ornamented very rudely with quaint attempts at
arabesque decoration. Lady Hay said she had felt faint on arrival,
and having asked for bread, they brought her a loaf and a piece of
honeycomb.
‘The owner of the house welcomed us warmly, and on Sir John
saying that he was much pleased with the mountaineers and
considered them far finer fellows than the Arabs, he was delighted,
and tried to pay some compliment to the English. Then he brought
us in the skirt of his dress a number of freshly gathered oranges,
which proved delicious.
‘All the climbers now returned except Captain Sawle and Mr. Hay,
and we prepared to leave our comfortable retreat; but, when Sir John
turned to take leave of his kind host, the latter begged and implored
him to wait a little longer—only a few minutes, he pleaded. After
some demur, his earnest request was acceded to; the carpets were
again spread, and all sat down. The hospitable villager hurried away,
but soon re-appeared, followed by another man, each bearing a bowl
of smoking hot paste, resembling vermicelli, boiled in milk. In the
centre of each dish was a little pool of melted butter. We rather
dreaded tasting the food, after our late experience of Moorish
cookery, but were agreeably surprised, when, having grouped
ourselves round each bowl, using our own forks, we tried the mess
and found it excellent. The paste was delicate, well boiled, and
flavoured with some pungent spice, and the butter exquisitely fresh
and sweet. This form of food appears to have been a staple dish with
the Berbers since ancient times. We did justice to this food, which
was followed by a basket of hot cakes made of rye, resembling
scones, accompanied by a bowl of melted butter, and those who had
the courage to dip their bread therein pronounced it good also.
‘Our host no longer made any objection when we again rose to
depart, only saying, when thanked for his hospitality, that not having
expected us to remain at his village he had been unable to prepare
better food at such short notice. He added that, should the
“Bashador” desire at any future time to travel in the Atlas, he could
do so in perfect safety—especially if unaccompanied by an escort
from the Moorish Government. “For,” he said, “your love of justice
towards all and the kindness shown by you to our poorer brethren,
when in distress in the North (of Morocco), is known to us and we
shall not forget. Come amongst us, you will ever be welcome; remain
several months, hunt with us and be our guest, and no injury shall
befall you or yours.”
‘Touched and pleased by this kindly speech from a native Sheikh
in a district where few Christians had ever penetrated, Sir John and
his party rode back towards the olive-grove. As we passed through
the narrow lanes, the women and children collected in some of the
orchards, smiling and beckoning, and were delighted when the
ladies lifted the thick white veils they wore and greeted them in
return. The women were fair-skinned, and many of them good-
looking. Here and there we observed really pretty, graceful girls; one
in particular, whom Sir John noticed as she leant against a doorway,
was quite handsome. She was dressed in a curious “haik,” stained in
patterns to represent a leopard skin, and hanging from her neck she
wore a quaint, square-shaped silver ornament, with a blue stone in
the centre.
‘The women’s heads were covered, but they made no attempt to
veil their faces. The men were generally draped in the “haik”; but
those who ran beside us, or climbed the heights, threw aside this
cumbrous garment and appeared in thin long shirts belted at the
waist. Wooden powder-flasks, covered with brightly coloured leather
and studded with brass knobs, gay little shot or bullet bags, and an
ornamented curved dagger hung by their sides from a broad strap
over the shoulder. A long gun was invariably carried by each man.
Some were bare-headed, others had a cord tied tightly round their
shaven skulls, but most of them wore a small white turban.
‘On arrival at the olive-grove, at which we had promised to halt on
our return, we were soon seated round an enormous flat dish full of
“siksu.” It would have been cold, but for the depth of the contents; so
that by digging down we reached some that was hot and palatable.
Our followers assembled in twos and threes about each great platter
and devoured the contents with the greatest avidity.
‘Several of the boys, who gathered about us, we observed busily
working at a curious frame composed of a hollow cane, up which a
number of coarse woollen threads were passed and secured at
either end. Under these, the cane was encircled by a ring which held
the threads away from the rod and enabled the little workman to
deftly weave in bright coloured worsted across the threads, his
fingers being employed without any shuttle, and a small piece of
wood, cut like a comb, used to drive down each cross thread into its
place, making various patterns as they went up the rod. On inquiring
the purpose of this work we were told they were belts. Though we
offered to buy any that were finished, none were forthcoming; but
one of the lads brought his work to be examined, and was much
startled when the “Bashador” on returning him his frame offered him
a small coin, evidently fearing an attempt was being made to buy his
work, frame and all. However he took the money readily, though
shyly, when convinced it was only a present.
‘We returned to Marákesh on the 20th; but, before leaving,
received a visit from some of the Jews who live amongst the
mountain tribes and who wished to consult the doctor attached to the
Mission. They came up as we were all seated, grouped under the
trees about the camp. The elders kissed the heads of those of our
party who were covered; the younger, their shoulders. These Jews
were dressed exactly like the Shloh amongst whom they live, with
the exception that they wore a black skull-cap. The Jewesses also
were attired like the Shloh or Arab women, but with a scarlet
headdress. The men were unarmed; but we were told that, further in
the interior, the Jews carry arms and join in tribal warfare; neither are
they, there, the oppressed people known to the lowlands of
Morocco.’
Two of the stories related to Sir John on the march by the Sultan’s
stirrup-holder may be inserted here as exemplifying the manners and
customs of the officials about the Moorish Court, and especially
those of the military class. The first may be called ‘A Story of a
Moorish Prince.’
Mulai Ahmed, second son of Sultan Mulai Abderahman Ben
Hisham, was appointed by his father Viceroy of the districts of Beni
Hassén, Zair, Dukála, Shedma, &c. His residence was at Rabát.
This Prince was clever, and endowed with many good qualities,
but he was extravagant and reckless in his expenditure, and thus
became deeply indebted to the merchants and shopkeepers of
Rabát; but no man ventured to press his pecuniary claims on the
wayward youth. His debtors, moreover, had only to ask some favour
by which they might be benefited in their trade, and it was
immediately granted by the Prince; the favour thus conferred amply
recouping them for their unpaid goods.
On the occasion of a visit of the Sultan to Rabát in 1848, Mulai
Ahmed was still Viceroy. Various complaints had been brought by the
inhabitants to the Uzir, Ben Dris, against His Royal Highness for not
paying his debts; but the Uzir endeavoured so to arrange matters as
to avoid reporting the misconduct of the young Prince to his father.
One day, however, when the Sultan was going to mosque, an
Arab from the country called out, from a high wall—on which he had
climbed to avoid being silenced by the troopers who formed the
escort of the Sultan—‘Oh Lord and Master, Mulai Abderahman, my
refuge is in God and in thee! I have been plundered and unjustly
treated during this your reign.’
The Sultan, restraining his horse, desired his attendants to learn
who this man was; and, after hearing their report, sent for the Uzir
and directed him to inquire into the case and report thereon.
On the man presenting himself before the Uzir, the latter
reprimanded him for brawling in the streets for justice. ‘One would
suppose,’ said Ben Dris, ‘that there were no longer governors or
kadis in Morocco! Whence are you? what have you to say?’
‘I am an Arab from Shedma,’ the man replied. ‘I had a fine horse,
for which I had been offered by the chief of my tribe three hundred
ducats, but I refused to sell; for, though a poor man, my horse was
everything to me; I would not have parted with him for all the wealth
that could be offered me. Some weeks ago I came to Rabát, and
Mulai Ahmed—may God prolong his days!—in an evil hour saw my
horse, and ordered his soldiers to seize it, sending me a purse of
three hundred ducats, which however I refused to accept. For forty
long days have I been seeking justice, but can obtain hearing neither
of Mulai Ahmed nor of any one else.’
The Uzir replied, ‘If your story be true, your horse shall be
returned to you; but, if false, you shall be made an example of for
daring to bring a complaint against the son of the Sultan.’
The Uzir then sent a messenger to inquire of Mulai Ahmed
concerning the matter, and by him the Prince sent reply that he knew
nothing about the horse. The Uzir was consequently about to order
the Arab to be bastinadoed, when the latter begged Ben Dris to send
him, accompanied by some of his—the Uzir’s—attendants, to the
stables of Mulai Ahmed, where he felt sure he would find the horse;
begging that his whole tribe might, if necessary, be called upon to
give evidence respecting the identity of the horse.
The Uzir accordingly sent the Arab, with a guard, to the Prince’s
stables to point out the horse, with directions that it should be
brought before him. He also sent to inform Mulai Ahmed that this
order of his father the Sultan must be obeyed.
The attendants took the Arab to the stable, where he immediately
recognised his horse, but had no sooner done so than he was
arrested, along with the Uzir’s men, by some soldiers sent by Mulai
Ahmed, and brought before the Prince, who had them all
bastinadoed and dismissed.
On the return of the Uzir’s men, they reported to their master what
had taken place. The Uzir had them again bastinadoed for not
having carried out his orders, viz. to bring back the Arab and his
horse in safety. Then, mounting his mule, he rode direct to the
palace, where he recounted to the Sultan what had occurred.
His Majesty was highly incensed; his eyes flashed lightning, and
his voice was as thunder. ‘Dare any son of mine disobey the orders
of his father? Are my people to be robbed and ill-used at his caprice?
Summon the chief kaid of our guard.’
The officer appeared. ‘Take,’ said the Sultan, ‘a saddled mule to
the palace of Mulai Ahmed. Bind the Prince hand and foot. Conduct
him this day to Meknes, where he is to be imprisoned until further
orders. Let the Arab have his horse and an indemnity for the rough
treatment he has received. Let a proclamation be issued that all
persons who have been unjustly used by Mulai Ahmed are to
present themselves to me; for there is no doubt,’ added the Sultan,
‘that is not the only case of injustice of which my son has been
guilty.’
The orders of Sultan Mulai Abderahman were obeyed. The chief
of the guard appeared before Mulai Ahmed with a mule saddled and
bridled, and informed the Prince he was deposed from his position
as Viceroy, and that he was to proceed at once with him to Meknes.
At first Mulai Ahmed refused to obey his father’s commands, but,
on being threatened by the officers with fetters and manacles if he
showed any resistance, consented to mount the mule and start at
once on his journey. The third day they arrived at Meknes, where
Mulai Ahmed was confined in prison, whence he was not liberated
for five years.
Another story related by the stirrup-holder was that of Kaid

Maimon and the lion.
In the early part of this century, when Sultan Mulai Suliman

reigned over Morocco, Kaid Maimon was Governor of Tangier, and,
according to custom, had visited the Court at Fas to pay his respects
to His Sherifian Majesty. On his return journey to Tangier he was
conveying, in pursuance of His Majesty’s commands, a large lion in
a cage carried by four mules, as a present from the Sultan to the
King of Portugal.
One evening, after the tents had been pitched, and while Kaid
Maimon was reposing on a divan in his ‘kubba,’ he heard shouts of
alarm and the snorting and tramping of horses and mules which had
broken loose from their tethers and were fleeing from the camp.
The Kaid clapped his hands repeatedly, to summon his
attendants, but no one appeared. Being too much of a Moorish
grandee to rise from the divan and see with his own eyes what had
happened—such a proceeding would have been undignified—he
remained seated, counting the beads of his rosary and muttering
curses on his attendants. After a time he again shouted lustily for his
slave ‘Faraji,’ with a malediction on him and on all slaves.
The Kaid had barely finished these imprecations, when in walked
his huge prisoner, the lion, glaring fiercely at him.
Kaid Maimon was a man of undaunted courage: while realising it
would be folly for him to draw his sword and attack the lion, as he
would most probably be worsted in such a conflict, he was also
aware that even should he succeed in dealing the beast a death-
blow, his own life would be forfeited; as the Sultan would, no doubt,
order his head to be cut off, for destroying the royal gift entrusted to
his keeping for the King of Portugal. The Kaid therefore, looking as
placidly as he could at the intruder, thus addressed his namesake—
for the lion had also been given the name of ‘Maimon,’ or ‘the
trustworthy.’ ‘You are a brave fellow, Maimon, to leave your cage and
take a walk this fine evening. O judicious and well-behaved lion!’ he
added, ‘you do right to roll and enjoy yourself’—as the lion, pleased
with the voice of the Kaid, commenced rolling himself on the carpet.
‘O bravest and most trustworthy!’ the Kaid continued—as the lion,
rising, rubbed himself cat-like against him, repeating this very
embarrassing performance several times, finally stretching himself
and lying down with his head on the Kaid’s knee.
Brave man though he was, Kaid Maimon perspired with horror at
having to nurse such a beast. He tried patting him on the head, but a
lash of the creature’s tail warned him that the lion preferred to take
his repose without such caresses.
Not a sound was to be heard in the camp, save now and then a
snort or struggle near the Kaid’s tent, from some terror-stricken
horse which, winding the lion, was endeavouring to break away from
the pickets which still held him—though most of the horses and
mules had broken away and fled, with their masters after them.
Kaid Maimon now began to consider what kind of severe
punishment he would inflict upon his cowardly attendants and his
body-guard—if the lion did not eat him! ‘Fine warriors,’ thought he;
‘two hundred men to run away from a tame lion!’
At this moment the lion, having rested, awoke from his nap, and,
stretching himself, showed his long and terrible claws. ‘This beast is
not to be trifled with,’ reflected the Kaid; ‘yet if any rascal had shot it
—either in self-defence or to save my life—I should have made him
a head shorter.’
The lion now got up and, stalking towards the door of the tent,
lashed his tail; one switch of which caught the Kaid’s turban and
knocked it off. Calmly replacing it, the Kaid muttered to himself, ‘I
hope this visit is now coming to an end. May it be the last of the kind
I shall have to receive in my life.’
The lion, looking out, espied the horse—still picketed near the tent
—which immediately recommenced its frantic struggles and at last,
succeeding in breaking away, was just galloping off, when the lion, in
two bounds, was on its back and brought his victim to the ground—
panting in the agonies of death, its whole side lacerated and its
throat torn open.
The Kaid, who had moved to the door of his tent, beheld this
scene, and thought it would be a favourable moment, whilst the lion
was enjoying his repast, to recall his cowardly attendants and
troopers; so going out at the back of the tent, unseen by the lion, he
looked around and finally espied his followers about half a mile off,
huddled together, with the horses and mules they had recovered.
The Kaid, on coming up to them, vowed he would bastinado every
cowardly rascal; but that the punishment would be deferred until the
morrow, as they must now return at once to secure the lion before
nightfall, adding—‘The first man who again runs away I will
bastinado until the breath be out of his body.’
The keeper of the lion was a Jew; since, in Morocco, Jews are
always appointed keepers of wild beasts, the Moors believing that a
lion will not attack a woman, a child, or a Jew—as being beneath
notice. The Jew was ordered to attach two long chains to the neck of
the lion, now bloated with the flesh of the horse, then to stretch the
chains in opposite directions and to attach them to long iron stakes
which were driven into the ground for the purpose. The trembling
Jew, who knew he would be cruelly bastinadoed should he fail to
obey this order, did as he was bid, and the lion, lying near the
remains of the horse he had been devouring, suffered the Jew to
fasten the chains to the rings on his collar, which was still about his
neck.
When this had been done, a dozen powerful men were ordered by
the Kaid to fasten strong ropes to the chains, and by pulling contrary
ways to control and guide the lion to his cage, wherein a live sheep
was placed. By these means the lion was induced to enter his cage,
the door of which was then closed.
Kaid Maimon, who was well pleased at the recovery of the
Sultan’s present to the King of Portugal, forgave the conduct of
attendants and troopers, and, assembling the chiefs, related to them
the incidents of the lion’s visit to his tent.
CHAPTER XXI.
MISSION TO FAS IN 1875.
In 1874 Sultan Sid Mohammed died, and was succeeded by his

son Mulai Hassan. Sir John, writing to Sir Henry Layard on October
29 of that year, says:—
I suppose the young Sultan intends to tread in the footsteps of his ancestors
and remain stagnant.
My belief is that these people, or rather this Government, will never move
ahead until the lever acts at headquarters continuously, by the presence and
pressure of the Foreign Representatives. So long as we preach and pray at a
distance, nothing will be done. On the other hand, if the Foreign Representatives
were removed to the Court, there would no doubt be a rupture of relations, or
some tragedy, before twelve months elapsed.
Again, shortly after the accession of Mulai Hassan, Sir John writes
to the same correspondent:—
I shall make a fresh effort to induce the young Sultan to introduce some
reforms and improvements, but I have but faint hope of success, as the Ministers
and satellites of the Court are either rogues or fools.
From my experience of Turkey and the Turks I confess I have little confidence
in the beneficial effect of any attempt to introduce European grafts on the old
Mohammedan stock. The tree which showed signs of vigour has been cut down,
and the fruit of the European graft contains rather the evils than the virtues of both
the West and the East.
When this letter was written, Sir John was already on his way to
Fas. On March 3, 1875 he left Tangier, accompanied by several
members of his family, some personal friends[51], and the officers
appointed by the British Government to attend the Mission.
The reception at Fas was magnificent, some six thousand troops
having been sent to do honour to the Representative of Great
Britain; but what was more pleasing to him and greatly enhanced the
effect of the entry, was the presence of the citizens of Fas, who had
come to meet him in their thousands, bringing with them their wives
and children; to show, they said, their appreciation of his friendship
and love of justice. The shrill ‘zagharit’ continually raised by the
women as Sir John passed through the crowd, attended by his staff
and escort, completely drowned at times the sound of the brass
band which the Sultan had sent to play before the procession. Soon
after the instalment of the Mission at Fas, the incident occurred
which Sir John relates as follows:—
‘When on my mission to the Court at Fas in 1875, the Uzir had

selected the Kaid of an Arab regiment to command the guard of
honour which had been appointed to attend on our Mission.
‘Another Kaid, named Meno, being superior in rank to the Arab
Kaid, felt aggrieved that this post of confidence had not been offered
to him; moreover, he had rendered important service to the Sultan,
which he considered unrecognised, so he vowed vengeance on his
rival.
‘The men of his regiment, all Berbers, were much attached to Kaid
Meno, not only on account of his famed courage in battle, but also
because whenever a razzia took place, Meno did not, like other
chiefs, insist on having the lion’s share of the plunder, but left all to
his followers.
‘On hearing of my arrival and the appointment of the Arab Kaid,
Meno summoned a dozen stalwart men of his regiment and imparted
to them, secretly, a scheme to bring disgrace upon the Arab officer

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RF Filter Technology For Dummies,

Qorvo 2nd Special Edition David

LIMIT OF LIABILITY/DISCLAIMER OF WARRANTY: WHILE THE PUBLISHER AND AUTHORS HAVE

ISBN 978-1-119-89834-4 (pbk); ISBN 978-1-119-89835-1 (ebk)

Editorial Manager: Rev Mengle Special Help: Stephanie Orr,

This book provides a solid basic tutorial to RF filter technologies

If any of these assumptions describes you, then this book is for

Discover key definitions and essential takeaways.

Watch out for these pitfalls, downsides, and drawbacks.

Explore highly technical aspects that may appeal to your inner

Beyond the Book

2 RF Filter Technology For Dummies, Qorvo 2nd Special Edition

»» Comparing SAW and BAW filters

»» Identifying the temperature coefficient

»» Learning how the filter coupling

»» Understanding filter packaging

CHAPTER 1 Exploring RF Filter Technology 3

»» Attenuation: An amplitude loss, usually measured in

Figure 1-1 illustrates a typical RF filter response using the terms

4 RF Filter Technology For Dummies, Qorvo 2nd Special Edition

A filter removes unwanted frequency components from a signal

»» Low-pass filter: Allows all frequencies below a certain

CHAPTER 1 Exploring RF Filter Technology 5

Comparing Filter Technologies

»» Acoustic filter: A filter capable of meeting both low and high

6 RF Filter Technology For Dummies, Qorvo 2nd Special Edition

Filters can be designed to meet a variety of requirements. Although

Filters allow only particular frequencies or bands of frequencies

Exploring Piezoelectric Acoustic Filters

The piezoelectric effect is a reversable phenomenon of physics. The

CHAPTER 1 Exploring RF Filter Technology 7

FIGURE 1-4: A basic SAW RF filter.

8 RF Filter Technology For Dummies, Qorvo 2nd Special Edition

To reach above 1900 MHz, layered SAW technologies — such as

FIGURE 1-5: SAW versus TC-SAW.

TC-SAW devices on single crystal lithium niobate, along with

Implementing a temperature coefficient on SAW requires iso-

CHAPTER 1 Exploring RF Filter Technology 9

One way to reduce this leakage is to create a new, multilayered

FIGURE 1-6: Layered-SAW versus SAW.

There are a few types of SAW filters on the market. They’re

10 RF Filter Technology For Dummies, Qorvo 2nd Special Edition

Layered SAW offers higher performance than the standard SAW

Layered SAW technology relies on piezoelectric material depos-

Table 1-1 compares the different characteristics of acoustic-based

TABLE 1-1 Qualitative Comparison of SAW Filter

Structure Single Single Single

Substrate material Single Single Layered substrate

Performance Good Better Best

Temperature Good Better Best

Manufacturing cost $ $$ $$$

CHAPTER 1 Exploring RF Filter Technology 11

Unlike SAW filters, the acoustic wave in a BAW filter propagates

FIGURE 1-7: A basic BAW RF filter.

12 RF Filter Technology For Dummies, Qorvo 2nd Special Edition

FIGURE 1-8: Cross-section comparing BAW filter technologies.

From a technology perspective, the big differentiators are

TABLE 1-2 Qualitative Comparison of BAW and FBAR Filter

Piezo lattice structure Polycrystal piezo Polycrystal piezo

Resonator Aluminum nitride (AlN) or scandium AlN or ScAlN

Substrate material Silicon Silicon

Temperature Best Good

Acoustic reflector Stacked layer Air cavity

As application temperature changes the filter response, the filter