(Physics)

INDEX

S.NO TOPIC PAGE NO.

1. Electric Field on Axial Line of an Electric Dipole 𝟏
2. Electric Field on Equatorial Line of Dipole 𝟏
3. Electric Dipole in Uniform Electric Field 𝟐
4. Electric Field Due to a Line Charge 𝟐
5. Electric Field Due to Infinite Charged Plane Sheet 𝟐−𝟑
6. Electric Field Due to Charged Spherical Shell 𝟑
7. Electric Potential at any point due to an Electric Dipole 𝟒
Potential Energy of an Electric Dipole, when Placed in Uniform
8. 𝟒
Electric Field
9. Parallel Plate Capacitor 𝟒−𝟓
Capacitance of Capacitor, when a Dielectric Slab Completely Fills
10. 𝟓
the Space Between Plates
11. Energy Stored in a Charged Capacitor 𝟓
12. Drift Velocity 𝟕
13. Relation between Drift Velocity and Electric Current 𝟕
14. Electric Current and Current Density 𝟖
15. Cells in Series 𝟖
16. Cells in Parallel 𝟖−𝟗
17. Wheat Stone Bridge 𝟗
18. Motion of a Charged particle inside a Uniform Magnetic Field 𝟏𝟎
19. Magnetic Field at a point on the Axis of a Loop 𝟏𝟏
Force between two infinitely Long Parallel Current Carrying
20. 𝟏𝟏 − 𝟏𝟐
Conductors
21. Torque on a Current Loop placed in a Magnetic Field 𝟏𝟐
22. Self-Induction (of a Long Solenoid ) 𝟏𝟑
23. Mutual Induction (of Two Long Solenoids) 𝟏𝟑
24. Mean or Average Value of A.C. 𝟏𝟒
25. Root Mean Square(rms) or Virtual Value of A.C. 𝟏𝟒
26. A.C. Through LCR-Series Circuit 𝟏𝟓 − 𝟏𝟔
27. Power of an A.C. Circuit 𝟏𝟔
28. Mirror Formula (for Concave spherical mirror) 𝟏𝟕
29. Linear Magnification(for Concave spherical mirror) 𝟏𝟕
30. Refraction at Convex Spherical Surface 𝟏𝟖
31. Lens Maker's Formula 𝟏𝟖 − 𝟏𝟗
32. Refraction through a Prism 𝟏𝟗
33.a Simple Microscope Magnifying power (Image is formed at D) 20
33.b Simple Microscope Magnifying power (Image is formed at infinity). 𝟐𝟎
34.a Compound Microscope Magnifying power (Image is formed at D). 𝟐𝟏
34.b Compound Magnifying power (Image is formed at infinity). 𝟐𝟏
35. Astronomical Telescope (Image is formed at infinity). 𝟐𝟏

APNI KAKSHA 0
(Physics)

36. Laws of Reflection on the basis Wave Theory 𝟐𝟑

37. Laws Refraction on the Basis of Wave Theory 𝟐𝟑
38. Conditions for Constructive and Destructive Interference 24
39. Distance of Closest Approach 𝟐𝟓
40. Bohr's Theory of Hydrogen Atom 𝟐𝟓
41. Nuclear Density 𝟐𝟔
42. Mass Defect 𝟐𝟔
43. Binding Energy 𝟐𝟔

APNI KAKSHA 0
(Physics) ELECTRIC FIELD AND CHARGES
1. Electric Field on Axial line of an Electric Then, resultant electric field at point P is given by
Dipole [𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟗, 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟏]
Consider an electric dipole consisting of charges −q
and +q, separated by a distance 2a and placed in
free space.

⃗ at point P due to the dipole will

The electric field E
⃗ A (due to −q
be the resultant of the electric fields E
at point A ) and ⃗EB (due to +q at the B) i.e. ⃗E = ⃗EA + ⃗EB
⃗E = ⃗EA + ⃗EB Let ∠MPN = ∠PBN = θ .
⃗ B | >|E
Also, |E ⃗ A |. Also ∠NPL = ∠PAB = θ

̂ ̂
So, ⃗E = ⃗EA + ⃗EB = (EA cos θ + EB cos θ)(−i)
⃗E = ((E
⃗ B ) − (E
⃗ A ) ) (𝑖)
1 q 1 q ̂
⃗E = ⃗EA + ⃗EB = (2EA cos θ)(−i)
or ⃗E = ⋅ 2
− ⋅
4πε0 (r − a) 4πε0 (r + a)2 1 q 2a
̂
= ⋅ 2 2
× 2 (−𝑖)
1 (r + a)2 − (r − a)2 4πε0 (r + a ) (r + a2 )1/2
= ⋅q 1 q(2a)
4πε0 (r 2 − a2 )2 ̂
or E= ⋅ 2 (−𝑖)
1 q(4ra) 4πε0 (r + a2 )3/2
⃗E = ⋅ 2 ̂
(𝑖)
4πε0 (r − a2 )2 ̂ , So,
Now ⃗P = q(2a)(𝑖)
1 P
∴ E= ⋅ 2 ̂
(−𝑖)
̂ , then.
Now, ⃗P = q(2a)(𝑖) 4πε0 (r + a2 )3/2
1 2Pr In vector notation,
∴ ⃗E = ⋅ 2 ̂
(𝑖)
4π ε0 (r − a2 )2 ⃗
1 P
⃗ =−
E ⋅ 2
4πε0 (r + a2 )3/2
In vector notation,
For dipole is of small length, a << r; then in
1 ⃗r
2P
⃗ =
E ⋅ 2 equation a2 can be neglected as compared to r 2 .
4 π ε0 (r − a2 )2
𝟏 ⃗
𝐏
For dipole is of small length, a << r; ⃗ =−
Therefore, 𝐄 ⋅ 𝐫𝟑
𝟒𝛑𝛆𝟎
Therefore,
3. Electric Dipole in uniform Electric Field
𝟏 ⃗𝐫
𝟐𝐏
⃗ =
𝐄 ⋅ 𝟑 [𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟏𝟗, 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟏, 𝟐𝟐]
𝟒 𝛑 𝛆𝟎 𝐫
Consider an electric dipole consisting of charges −q
and +q and of length 2a placed in a uniform electric
2. Electric Field on Equatorial line of Dipole
field ⃗E making an angle θ with the direction of the
[𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟔, 𝟐𝟎]
field.
Consider an electric dipole consisting of charges −q
and +q separated by a distance 2a.

APNI KAKSHA 1
(Physics) ELECTRIC FIELD AND CHARGES
Φ = E × curved surface area of cylinder
or Φ = E × 2πrl … (i)
According to Gauss' theorem, we have
q
Φ= … (ii)
ε0
Now, charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface,
q = λl
⃗
Force on charge −q at A = −qE
λl
⃗
& force on charge +q at B = qE ∴ Φ=
ε0
So, ⃗Fnet = ⃗F+q + ⃗F−q = 0 From the equations (i) and (ii), we have
Also both forces are equal and opposite and will λl 𝟏 𝛌
E × 2πrl = or 𝐄 = ⋅
produce torque on dipole ε0 𝟐𝛑𝛆𝟎 𝐫
τ = either force × perpendicular distance
between the two forces 5. Electric Field due to infinite Charged
= qE(AN) = qE(2asin θ) = q(2a)Esin θ Plane sheet. [𝟐 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟖]
τ = pEsin θ or τ = pEsin θ
Consider an infinite thin plane sheet of positive
Here, ⃗P = q(2a), (electric dipole moment) charge having a uniform surface charge density σ
Also since the dipole rotates in clockwise
on both sides of the sheet.
̂ direction so,
(−𝑘) The Gaussian surface will be a cylinder as shown in
In vector form 𝛕 ⃗
⃗ ×𝐄
⃗ =𝐩 figure.
4. Electric Field Due to line charge If E is the magnitude of electric field at point P, then
[𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟖, 𝟐𝟎] electric flux crossing through the gaussian surface,
A thin infinitely long straight line charge having a
uniform linear charge density λ placed along YY ′ .
The Gaussian surface for line charge will be
cylindrical and from symmetry all the flux will pass
from curve surface area.
Let E is the magnitude of electric field at point P,
then electric flux through the Gaussian surface is
given by Φ = E × area of the end faces (circular caps) of the
cylinder or Φ = E × 2 A …… (i)
q
According to Gauss' theorem, we have Φ = ε
r = radius of cylinder 0

l = length of cylinder Here, the charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface,

σA
q = σA ∴ Φ= ……(ii)
ε0

From the equations (i) and (ii), we have

𝛔𝐀 𝛔
𝐄×𝟐𝐀= 𝐨𝐫 𝐄 =
𝛆𝟎 𝟐𝛆𝟎

APNI KAKSHA 2
(Physics) ELECTRIC FIELD AND CHARGES
Thus, we find that the magnitude of the electric field dϕ = Ed S
at a point due to an infinite plane sheet of charge is Therefore, total electric flux through the
independent of its distance from the sheet of charge. gaussian surface is given by
6. Electric Field due to charged Spherical (b) When point P lies on the surface of
Shell [𝟐 𝐨𝐫 𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟗, 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟏] spherical shell
Consider a thin spherical shell of radius R and For this case also we will draw a Gaussian surface of
centre O. Let +q be the charge on the spherical just outside the shell, this will enclose charge
shell. q of shell completely,
For all the three surfaces the Gaussian surface Then according to Gauss' theorem,
will be a sphere. q 1 q
E × 4πR2 = or E = ⋅ 2 ( for r = R)
ε0 4πε0 R
In a medium of dielectric constant K, the
electric field is given by
𝟏 𝐪
𝐄= ⋅ 𝟐
𝟒𝛑𝛆𝟎 𝐊 𝐑

(c) When point 𝑷 lies inside the spherical shell

(a) When point P lies outside the shell In such a case, the gaussian surface will be
⃗ be the electric field at the point P due to inside the shell and will not enclose any
Let E
charge and hence according to the Gauss'
the charged spherical shell.
theorem,
Consider a small area element ⃗⃗⃗⃗
dS (shown 0
E × 4πr 2 = ε or 𝐄 = 𝟎 (for r < R )
shaded) around the pointP. 0

Then, the electric flux through area element ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

dS
is given by dϕ = ⃗E ⋅ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
d S = E ds cos θ
⃗⃗⃗⃗ is normal to the surface so θ = 0,
Since dS
dϕ = E dS
Now total Electric flux is ∮S dϕ = ∮S E dS = E∮S dS
Now, ∮S d S = surface area of spherical shell of
radius r = 4πr 2
∴ Φ = E × 4πr 2 … (i)
the charge enclosed by the gaussian surface is q,
so according to the Gauss' theorem,
q
Φ= … (ii)
ε0
From the equations (i) and (ii), we have
q 𝟏 𝐪
E × 4πr 2 = or 𝐄 = ⋅ 𝟐 ( for r > R)
ε0 𝟒𝛑𝛆𝟎 𝐫

APNI KAKSHA 3
(Physics) ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL & CAPACITANCE
7. Electric Potential at any point due to an Special cases.
Dipole [𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟖, 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟏] 1. When point P lies on the axial line of the
AB is a diploe with charge −q and +q. P be any dipole. θ = 0∘ and cos θ = cos 0∘ = 1.
point at a distance r from its center O, where Therefore,
electric potential due to the dipole is to be 1 P
Vaxial = ⋅ 2 … (iii)
determined. 4πε0 (r − a2 )
∠POB = θ as shown in fig In case a << r, then
Therefore, net potential at point P due to the dipole, 𝟏 𝐩
𝐕axial = ⋅ 𝟐 … (iv)
1 q 1 q 𝟒𝛑𝛆𝟎 𝐫
V = V1 + V2 = − ⋅ + ⋅
4πε0 PA 4πε0 PB 2. When point P lies on the equatorial line of the
1 1 1
or V = ⋅ q[ − ] … (i) dipole. θ = 90∘ and cos θ = cos 90∘ = 0
4πε0 PB PA
Therefore, the equation (ii) gives
Draw BN perpendicular to OP and AM
𝐕equi = 𝟎 … (v)
perpendicular to PO.
From right angled ΔAMO, we have 8. Potential Energy of an Electric Dipole,
OM OM when Placed in Uniform Electric Field
cos θ = = or OM = a cos θ
OA a [𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟓, 𝟏𝟗, 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟏]
In case the length of the dipole is very small as
Let the Dipole be kept along a direction making an
compared to distance r, then
angle θ with the direction of an external uniform
PA ≈ PM = PO + OM = r + acos θ
electric field E. The, torque acting on the dipole is
Similarly, PB = r − a cos θ
given by τ = PE sin θ
In the equation (i), substituting for PA and PB, we
then work done is rotating the dipole against
have
natural rotation by dθ
1 1 1
V = ⋅ q[ − ] dW = τ ∗ dθ = PE sinθ dθ
4πε0 r − acos θ r + acos θ
1 r + acos θ − r + acos θ So, Total work done will be
= ⋅q[ ] θ2
4πε0 r 2 − a2 cos2 θ θ
W=∫ PEsin θdθ = PE ∗ |1 − cos θ|θ21
1 2acos θ θ1
= ⋅q⋅ 2
4πε0 (r − a2 cos2 θ) or W = PE(cos θ1 − cos θ2 )
Since q(2a) = P, the electric dipole moment of the
This work done is stored in the dipole in the form of
dipole, the above equation becomes
its potential energy. and so
𝟏 𝐏 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛉 W = ΔU = PE(cos θ1 − cos θ2 )
𝐕= ⋅ 𝟐 … (ii)
𝟒𝛑𝛆𝟎 (𝐫 − 𝐚𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐 𝛉)
Let θ1 = 90∘ and θ2 = θ. Then,
Uf − Ui = PE(cos 90∘ − cos θ)
or Uf = − PE cos θ
⃗ ⋅𝐄
In vector notation, 𝐔 = −𝐏 ⃗
9. Parallel Plate Capacitor
[𝟐/𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟏𝟗, 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟏, 𝟐𝟐]
The capacitor shown has two conducting plates
placed parallel to each other kept between Potential

APNI KAKSHA 4
(Physics) ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL & CAPACITANCE
Difference ‘V’. Separation between plates = d (very
𝑞+ 𝑞−
small as compared to the area of the plates).
Area of plates = A Dielectric
𝑉𝐴 =V 𝑉𝐵 =0
𝑞+ medium
𝑞−

𝑉𝐴 =V 𝑉𝐵 =0

Let the space between the two plates of the

capacitor is filled with a dielectric medium of
dielectric constant K.
Here the electric field between the two plates is Then, the electric field between the two plates is
related to the potential gradient as given by
dV σ q q
E= (in magnitude) E= = (∵ σ = )
dr ε0 K ε0 KA A
V is potential difference between the two plates. If V is potential difference between the two plates of
E=
V
(For uniform
dV
field, dr =
V
) the capacitor separated by a distance d,
d d
then V = Ed
Or V = Ed … … … (i)
So substituting the value of E, we have
Also Let σ be the surface charge density of the
qd
plates, then the electric field between the two plates V=
ε0 KA
is given by
σ σ σ
So if C is the capacitance of the parallel plate
E = 2ε + 2ε = ε (Sum of fields due to both plates)
0 0 0 capacitor, then
(ε0 is absolute permittivity of the free space.) q q
C= =
In the equation (i), substituting for E, we have V qd
ε0 KA
σ q
V = d (σ = ) 𝛆𝟎 𝐊𝐀
ε0 A or 𝐂=
qd 𝐝
∴V= 11. Energy Stored in a Charged Capacitor
ε0 A
If C is the capacitance of the parallel plate capacitor, [𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟔, 𝟏𝟗, 𝟐𝟎]
then, A battery is connected across the two plates of the
𝐪 𝐪 𝛆𝟎 𝐀 capacitor, the work is done (or energy is supplied)
𝐂= = = … (ii)
𝐕 𝐪𝐝/𝛆𝟎 𝐀 𝐝 by the battery in charging the capacitor.
10. Capacitance of Capacitor, when a The work done in charging a capacitor is stored in

Dielectric Slab completely fills the Space the capacitor in the form of electric energy.
between Plates Let Capacitance of capacitor = C.
[𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟗, 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟏] the small amount of work done by the battery to
The capacitor shown has two conducting plates store small charge dq is given by
q q
placed parallel to each other kept between Potential d W = Vdq = dq (∵ V = )
C C
Difference ‘V’. Separation between plates = d (very Therefore, amount of work done in delivering
small as compared to the area of the plates). charge q to the capacitor is given by
Area of plates = A

APNI KAKSHA 5
(Physics) ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL & CAPACITANCE

𝑞+ 𝑞− This work done is stored inside the capacitor in the

form of the electric
𝑉𝐴 =V 𝑉𝐵 =0
1 q2
W = ΔU = … (i)
2C
since Ui = 0 so,
1 q2
U= … (i)
2C
(Substituting for q = C V), the equation (i) becomes)
1
V or U = 2 CV 2 … (ii)
q
q q In the equation (ii), substituting for C (= V),
q 1 q 1 q2 1 q2
W = ∫ dq = ∫ qdq = | | =
0 C C 0 C 2 0 2C we have
This work done is stored inside the capacitor in the 1 𝟏 𝐪𝟐 𝟏 𝟏
U = 2 q V so, 𝐔=𝟐 = 𝟐 𝐂𝐕 𝟐 = 𝟐 𝐪 𝐕
𝐂
form of the electric potential energy. Therefore,
energy stored in the capacitor,
1 q2
W = ΔU = … (i)
2C
since Ui = 0 so,
1 q2
U= … (i)
2C
(Substituting for q = C V), the equation (i) becomes
1
or U = CV 2 … … … . (𝑖𝑖)
2
q
In the equation (ii), substituting for C (= V),

we have
1
U = 2 q V so,

𝟏 𝐪𝟐 𝟏 𝟏
𝐔=𝟐 = 𝟐 𝐂𝐕 𝟐 = 𝟐 𝐪 𝐕
𝐂

APNI KAKSHA 6
(Physics) CURRENT ELECTRICITY
12. Drift Velocity Therefore the, above equation becomes
[𝟐 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟔, 𝟏𝟗, 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟏] υ
⃗⃗⃗⃗d = 0 + a⃗τ = a⃗τ
(Using the equation (iii), we have)
The velocity gained by any electron before the
⃗
𝐞𝐄
successive collision is called Drift Velocity. ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝛖𝐝 = − 𝛕
𝐦
Let u
⃗⃗⃗⃗1 , u
⃗⃗⃗⃗2 , u un are random thermal velocities
⃗⃗⃗⃗3 , … . . , ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 13. Relation between Drift Velocity and
of n electrons in a conductor, then their average Electric Current
thermal velocity i.e. [𝟏/𝟐 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟖, 𝟏𝟗, 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟏]
u
⃗⃗⃗⃗1 + u
⃗⃗⃗⃗2 + u
⃗⃗⃗⃗3 + ⋯ . +u
⃗⃗⃗⃗n Let, length of conductor = L & area of cross-section
=0 … (i)
n = A. then, volume = A L
Let n be the number of free electrons per unit
volume, n =N/V
So, total charge on all the free electrons
= q = Ne = n AL e … (i)
Time taken by the free electrons to cross the length
of the conductor
l
Since charge on an electron is −e, each free electron t= … (ii)
υd
in the conductor experiences a force q
Also we know, I =
t
⃗F = −eE
⃗ … (ii)
If m is mass of the electron, then acceleration is
given by
⃗F ⃗
eE
a⃗ =
=− … (iii)
m m
So final velocity attained after drifting for
τ1 (relaxation time)
υ1 = u
⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗1 + a⃗τ1 ′ Using the equations (i) and (ii), we have
Similarly velocities acquired by the other electrons n Ale
I= or I = n Aυd 𝑒 … (iii)
l/υd
in the conductor will be
eE
υ1 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗ u1 + a⃗τ2 , ⃗⃗⃗⃗
υ3 = u
⃗⃗⃗⃗3 + a⃗τ3 , … . υ
⃗⃗⃗⃗n = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
un + a⃗τn Also υd = τ
m
Le υ
⃗⃗⃗⃗d is the average drift velocity of all 𝐧 𝐀𝐞𝟐 𝛕
So, 𝐈 = 𝐄 … (v)
electrons. So, 𝐦

υ1 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗ υ2 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
υ3 + ⋯ . +υ⃗⃗⃗⃗n 14. Electric Current and Current Density
υ
⃗⃗⃗⃗d =
n [𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟖, 𝟐𝟏]
(u
⃗⃗⃗⃗1 + a⃗τ1 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗2 + a⃗τ2 ) + (u
) (u ⃗⃗⃗⃗3 + a⃗τ3 ) + ⋯ . +(u
⃗⃗⃗⃗n + a⃗τn ) Current density ( j ) is a vector
=
n If the current flowing through the conductor is
τ1 + τ2 + τ3 + ⋯ . +τn uniform over its cross section, then current may be
Now,
n
defined as
is called average relaxation time and is denoted by
⃗,
I=j⋅A …(i)
τ.
u
⃗⃗⃗⃗1 + u
⃗⃗⃗⃗2 + u
⃗⃗⃗⃗3 + ⋯ . . +u
⃗⃗⃗⃗n Where ⃗A = area vector representing the area of
=0 cross-section.
n

APNI KAKSHA 7
(Physics) CURRENT ELECTRICITY
For non-uniform cross-section, the current through and 𝐫 = 𝐫𝟏 + 𝐫𝟐 … (iv)
a small area ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
d A is given by If the series combination of the two cells provides
dI = j ⋅ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
dA the current I through an external resistance R, then
Hence, the current through the whole cross-section E
I=
of the conductor is given by R+r
I = ∫ j ⋅ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
dA … (ii) Substituting for E and r, we have
𝐄𝟏 + 𝐄𝟐
If current density j is normal to the cross-sectional 𝐈=
𝐑 + (𝐫𝟏 + 𝐫𝟐 )
area i.e. if ĵ is parallel to ⃗A, then
16. Cells in Parallel
I =jA
[𝟐 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟖, 𝟏𝟗, 𝟐𝟏]
Putting I = n Aυd 𝑒
When cells are of different e.m.f and internal
𝐣 = 𝐧𝛖𝐝 𝐞 … (iii)
resistances.
15. Cells in Series
[𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟗] Let E1 and E2 areEMF’s and internal resistances r1
When cells are of different EMF’s. & internal and r2 of cells . In parallel combination terminal
resistances. potential V is constant across two cells (between A
Let E1 and E2 areEMF’s and internal resistances r1 & B) that provides a current I.
and r2 of cells . In series I = Constant
If I1 and I2 are the currents due to the two cells,
Then, the terminal potential difference across the
then
first cell,
I = I1 + I2 … (i)

V1 = E1 − Ir1
Similarly, the terminal potential difference across
the second cell,
V2 = E2 − Ir2
If V is the potential difference between the points A
and B, then For 1st cell
V = V1 + V2 = (E1 − Ir1 ) + (E2 − Ir2 ) V = E1 − I1 r1
or V = (E1 + E2 ) − I(r1 + r2 ) … (i) E1 − V
or I1 =
Let E be the battery with internal resistance r that r1
can replace both E1 and E2 which withdraws same For 2nd cell
current I between A & B then, E2 − V
I2 =
r2
Substituting for I1 and I2 in eq (i), we have
E1 − V E2 − V
I= +
V = E − Ir … (ii) r1 r2
E1 E2 1 1
Comparing the equations (i) and (ii), we have or I = ( + ) − V ( + )
r1 r2 r1 r2
𝐄 = 𝐄𝟏 + 𝐄𝟐 … (iii)

APNI KAKSHA 8
(Physics) CURRENT ELECTRICITY
E1 r2 + E2 r1 r1 r2
or V=( )− I( ) … (ii)
r1 + r2 r1 + r2
Let E is effective e.m.f. and r, the effective internal Now, potential difference across P, Q, R, X are
resistance of the parallel combination of the two VA − VB = I1 P … (i)
cells [ Fig.], VD − VC = I1 Q … (ii)
VA − VD = I2 R … (iii)
VD − VC = I2 X … (iv)
then it follows that When the bridge is in balanced state, VB = VD.

V = E − Ir … (iii) So, putting values

VA − VB = I2 R … (v)
Comparing the equations (ii) and (iii), we have
VB − VC = I2 X … (vi)
𝐄𝟏 𝐫𝟐 + 𝐄𝟐 𝐫𝟏
𝐄= … (iv) From the equations (i) and (v), we have
𝐫𝟏 + 𝐫𝟐
𝐫𝟏 𝐫𝟐 I1 P = I2 R … (vii)
and 𝐫= … (v)
𝐫𝟏 + 𝐫𝟐 From the equations (ii) and (vi), we have
I1 Q = I2 X
Dividing the equation (vii) by (viii), we have
17. Wheat Stone Bridge
[𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟖, 𝟏𝟗, 𝟐𝟏, 𝟐𝟐] 𝐏 𝐑
=
𝐐 𝐗
P, Q, R and X are 4 resistances. A galvanometer G
and a tapping key K1 (called galvanometer key) are
connected between points B and D.

Also Battery E is connected between A & C

Let I = current in the main circuit.
I1 = Current through resistance P & Q
I − I1 = I2 (say) = Current through resistance
R & X.
For balanced wheat stone bridge, points B and D are
at the same potential & Ig = 0
Let VA , VB , VC and VD be electric potentials of points
A, B, C and D respectively.

APNI KAKSHA 9
(Physics) MOVING CHARGE AND MAGNETISM
18. Motion of a Charged particle inside a Uniform (ii) υn = υsin θ
Magnetic Field (Component of velocity perpendicular to B)
Force experienced by charged particle mυn 𝐦𝛖𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉
So, r = = … (v)
𝐅 = 𝐪(𝐯⃗ × ⃗𝐁) … (i) Bq 𝐁𝐪
⃗⃗F is always perpendicular to v The period of the circular path is given by
⃗ , so force will act as
centripetal force. 2πr 2π mυsin θ 2πm
T= = × or T =
⃗. υn υsin θ Bq Bq
(a) When 𝛖 ⃗ is perpendicular to 𝐁
The force F⃗ on the charged particle acts as the
centripetal force and makes it to move along a
circular path.
m = mass of the charged particle &
r = radius of the circular path, then

The charged particle moves along circular path in XY-

plane due to the velocity component υn , it also
advances linearly helical path.

mυ2
| q(υ ⃗ )| =
⃗ ×B
r
Since υ ⃗
⃗ & B are at right angles to each other, so
|q(υ⃗ ×B⃗ )| = Bqυ
mυ2
or Bqυ =
r
𝐦𝛖
𝐫= … (ii)
𝐁𝐪
The period of circular motion of the charged particle
Now, Pitch = the distance travelled by the charged
is given by
2πr 2π mυ 𝟐𝛑𝐦 particle, along the direction of magnetic field in a time
T= = × or 𝐓 = … (iii) it completes one revolution.
υ υ Bq 𝐁𝐪
Also angular frequency of the charged particle pitch of the helical path = υB × T
2π 2π 𝐁𝐪 2πm
ω = = or 𝛚 = … (iv) = υcos θ ×
T 2πm 𝐦 Bq
Bq 2πmυcos θ
⃗ are inclined to each other. or pitch of the helical path = … (vi)
(b) When 𝛖 ⃗ and 𝐁 Bq
The charged particle is moving with velocity υ ⃗
19. Magnetic Field at a point on the Axis of a Loop
inside the uniform magnetic field B making an
[𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟖, 𝟏𝟗, 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟏]
angle θ with the direction of the magnetic field.
The velocity υ
⃗ of the charged particle can be resolved Consider a circular loop of radius a, centre O and
into the following two components: carrying a current I as shown.
(i) υB = υcos θ (Component of velocity along B) (No
contribution in force)
APNI KAKSHA 10
(Physics) MOVING CHARGE AND MAGNETISM
𝛍𝟎 𝟐𝛑𝐍𝐈𝐚𝟐
𝐁 = ⋅ 𝟐
𝟒𝛑 (𝐚 + 𝐱 𝟐 )𝟑/𝟐
Special cases.
1. Magnetic field at the center of the loop. (x=0)
𝛍𝟎 𝟐𝛑𝐍𝐈
𝐁= ⋅
𝟒𝛑 𝐚
20. Force between two infinitely Long Parallel
Current Carrying Conductors
[𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟗, 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟏, 𝟐𝟐]
Consider two infinitely long conductors X1 Y1 and X 2 Y2
placed parallel to each other at a distance r apart with
Let P be the point on the axis of the loop at a distance
I1 and I2 current flowing through them in the same
OP = x from its centre O, Let AB = dl be small current
direction.
element of the loop.
Also ∠BCP (or ∠ACP ) is equal to 90∘ . Let B1 & B2 be magnetic fields of wire 1 & 2 so,
μ 2I1 μ 2I2
According to Biot Savart's law, the magnetic field due B1 = 4π0 ⋅ r
, B2 = 4π0 ⋅ r
to the current element AB at point P is given by The wire 1 will experience Magnetic force due to field
μ0 I ⃗⃗⃗
dl × r of wire 2 & Vice versa
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
dB= ⋅ ,
4π r3
**L is the length of wires on which F is calculated
⃗⃗⃗ and r is 90∘ , the magnitude of
The angle between dl μ 2I
So, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ × ⃗⃗⃗⃗
F1,2 = I1 (L B2 ) = 4π0 ⋅ r2 × I1 × L (−𝑖̂)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is given by
dB
μ0 Idl (Force on wire 1 due to magnetic field of wire 2)
dB= ⋅ … (i)
4π r 2
Another element A′ B ′ = dl located just opposite to the
element AB. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
dB ′ . = Mag Field due to the current
element A′ B ′.
If ∠OPC = ∠OPC ′ = θ, then ∠ZPL = ∠Z′ PM = θ.
On resolving the cos θ components gets cancelled out
and only sin θ gets added so,
μ0 Idl
B = ∮ dBsin θ = ∮ ⋅ sin θ
4π r 2
μ0 𝐈
= ⋅ sin θ∮ dl ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
4π r 2 𝐅𝟏,𝟐 𝛍𝟎 𝟐𝐈𝟏 𝐈𝟐
or = ⋅ (−𝒊̂) … (i)
∮ dl = 2πa 𝐋 𝟒𝛑 𝐫
μ 2I
μ0 𝐈 μ0 2π𝐈a Also ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ × ⃗⃗⃗⃗
F2,1 = I2 (L B1 ) = 4π0 ⋅ r1 × I2 × L (𝑖̂)
∴ B = ⋅ sin θ (2πa) = ⋅ sin θ
4π r 2 4π r 2
(Force on wire 2 due to magnetic field of wire 1)
μ0 2π𝐈a a μ0 2π𝐈a2
∴ B = ⋅ × = ⋅ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
4π r 2 r 4π r 3 𝐅𝟐,𝟏 𝛍𝟎 𝟐𝐈𝟏 𝐈𝟐
or = ⋅ (𝒊̂)
μ0 2π𝐈a2 𝐋 𝟒𝛑 𝐫
∴B = ⋅ 2
4π (a + x 2 )3/2 This shows that Force per unit length on both wires is
Also for ‘N’ turns equal and opposite.
APNI KAKSHA 11
(Physics) MOVING CHARGE AND MAGNETISM
21. Torque on a Current Loop placed in a Magnetic ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ) × |B
F3 = I(AB ̂ = (Ia)B(1) = BIa(−î)
⃗ | sin 90∘ (−i)
Field [𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟖, 𝟏𝟗] ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ) × |B
F4 = I(CD ̂ = (Ia)B(1) = B I a (î)
⃗ ||sin 90∘ (i)
A rectangular coil ABCD with side a & b , carrying a
So, ⃗Floop = ⃗F1 + ⃗F2 + ⃗F3 + ⃗F4 = 0.
current I is suspended in a uniform magnetic field ⃗B
acting in the plane of the paper from left to right.
⃗ 1, F
F ⃗ 2, F
⃗ 3 and F
⃗ 4 be the forces acting on arms
DA, BC, AB and CD of the coil respectively in the
magnetic field.
Here AB = a , BC = b, CD = a , DA = b
Also 𝜽 is the angle between Normal to plane and
magnetic field.
It follows that the force on arm DA, As the two forces⃗⃗⃗⃗F3 & F
⃗ 4 have different lines of
⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ) × B
F1 = I(DA ⃗,
action, they constitute a torque, whose magnitude is
⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ) × |B
F1 = I(DA ̂
⃗ | sin(90∘ + θ) ĵ = BIbcos θ (j) given by
Similarly,
⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ) × B
F2 = I(BC ⃗, 𝛕 = either force × 𝐊𝐃,
⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ) × |B
F2 = I(BC ⃗ | sin(90∘ − θ) (−ĵ) τ = BaI × bsinθ

= IbBcos θ (−ĵ) τ = BIAsinθ (Area = A = a× b)

Also, I⃗⃗⃗A = M
⃗⃗⃗ = the magnetic dipole moment of the
current loop. Therefore,
τ = M B sinθ
⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐁
⃗ =𝐌
𝛕 ⃗
Note : If the coil has N turns, then
𝛕 = 𝐍 BIA 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉

APNI KAKSHA 12
(Physics) ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
22. Self-Induction
The phenomenon, according to which an opposing
induced e.m.f. is produced in a coil as a result of
change in current or magnetic flux linked with the
coil itself, is called self-induction.
it is also called back e.m.f .
Self-Inductance of a Long Solenoid
[𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟗, 𝟐𝟏]
Let L = Length of coil,
A = Area of cross section,
n = number of turns per unit length = N/L
I = current passing through solenoid (coil)
Then, magnetic field inside the solenoid is given by
B = μ0 nI
The magnetic (self) flux passing through each turn
of the coil = B × area of each turn = μ0 nI × A
Total magnetic flux linked with the solenoid,
ϕ = Magnetic flux linked with one turn × total
number of turns
Now, total number of turns in the solenoid = nL
∴ ϕ = μ0 nIA × nL or ϕ = μ0 n2 LA I … (i)
If L is the self-inductance of the solenoid, then
ϕ= LI … (ii)
On comparing
𝛍𝟎 𝐍 𝟐 𝐀
𝐋= … (iii)
𝐋 on comparing (iii) & (iv) M12 = μ0 n1 n2 AL
23. Mutual Induction
The phenomenon according to which an opposing
e.m.f. is produced in a coil as a result of change in
current or magnetic flux linked with a neighboring
coil is called mutual induction.
Mutual Inductance of Two Long Solenoids
[𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟗, 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟏]
. Let I1 & I2 be the current flowing in given
coils(solenoids).
APNI KAKSHA
L = Lengths of both solenoids S1 and S2 , such that
the solenoid S2 surrounds the solenoid S1
completely
n1 , n2 = number of turns per unit length of the
solenoids S1 and S2 respectively.
ϕ21 ∝ I1
or ϕ21 = M21 I1 , … (i) ( M21 is the coefficient of
mutual induction of S2 due to S1 )
Also, B1 = μ0 n1 I1 (mag field produced inside the
solenoid S1 due to I1
So, total magnetic flux linked with the solenoidS2 ,
ϕ21 = B1 A × n2 L = μ0 n1 I1 × A × n2 L
= μ0 n1 n2 AI1 L (ii)
On comparing(i)& (ii) M21 = μ0 n1 n2 AL
Similarly
ϕ12 ∝ I2 or ϕ12 = M12 I2 , … (iii)
(M1,2 is the coefficient of mutual induction of S1
due to S2 )
Also, B2 = μ0 n2 I2 (mag field produced inside the
solenoid S1 due to I1
Therefore, total magnetic flux linked with the
solenoid S1 ,
ϕ12 = B2 A × n1 L = μ0 n2 I2 × A × n1 L
or ϕ12 = μ0 n1 n2 AI2 L … (iv)
Therefore,
𝐌𝟐𝟏 = 𝐌𝟏𝟐 = 𝐌 (say)
Hence, coefficient of mutual induction between the
two long solenoids,
𝐌 = 𝛍𝟎 𝐧𝟏 𝐧𝟐 𝐀l
13
(Physics) ALTERNATING CURRENT
24. Mean or Average Value of A.C. small amount of heat produced in the resistance R
[𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟖, 𝟐𝟏, 𝟐𝟐] in time dt is given by
Let I = I0 sin ωt is current in any circuit R
𝑉𝐴 =V 𝑉𝐵 =0

R
𝑉𝐴 =V 𝑉𝐵 =0

dH = I 2 Rdt = (I0 sin ωt)2 Rdt = I02 Rsin2 ωtdt

The amount of heat produced in the resistance in
Let the small amount of charge that will pass
time T/2 (half time period) can be obtained by
through the circuit in time dt is given by integrating the above equation between the limits
dq = Idt or dq = I0 sin ωtdt t = 0 to t = T/2 i.e.
The amount of charge that will pass through the T T
2 2
circuit in time T/2 (half time period of a.c.) is the H = ∫ I02 R sin2 ωtdt = I0 2 R ∫ sin2 ωtdt
total integral value of above equation from t = 0 to 0 0
T/2
t = T/2 i.e. 1 − cos 2ωt
T T = I0 2 R ∫ dt
2 2 2
0
q = ∫ I0 sin ωtdt = I0 ∫ sin ωtdt 2
I0 R
0 0
or H =
2
cos ωt T/2 I0 T/2
T/2 T/2
= I0 |− | = − |cos ωt|0 = (∫ dt − ∫ cos 2ωtdt) … (i)
ω 0 ω 0 0
I0 2π T 2π In the equation (i), substituting the values of the
=− |cos ⋅ − cos ⋅ 0|
2π T 2 T
T two integrals obtained above, we have
I0 T I0 T I0 2 R T I0 2 R T
=− |cos π − cos 0| = − (−1 − 1). H= ( − 0) = ⋅ … (ii)
2π 2π 2 2 2 2
I0 T If Iv is virtual or r.m.s. value of a.c., then by
or q=
π
definition,
If Im is mean value of a.c., then by definition
T
T H = Iv 2 R ⋅ … (iii)
q = Im ⋅ 2
2
From the equations (ii) and (iii), we have
From the equations (i) and (ii), we have
T I0 2 R T I0 2
T I0 T 𝟐𝐈𝟎 Iv2 R ⋅ = ⋅ or Iv 2 =
Im ⋅ = or 𝐈𝐦 = = 𝟎 ⋅ 𝟔𝟑𝟔𝐈𝟎 2 2 2 2
2 π 𝛑
𝐈𝟎
25. Root Mean Square (rms) or Virtual Value or 𝐈𝐯 = = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟎𝟕𝐈𝟎
√𝟐
of A.C. [𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟖, 𝟏𝟗, 𝟐𝟏]
Let I = I0 sin ωt is current in any circuit
The current through the resistance remains
constant for an infinitesimally small time dt so the
APNI KAKSHA 14
(Physics) ALTERNATING CURRENT
26. A.C. Through LCR-Series Circuit
[𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟖, 𝟏𝟗, 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟏]
Also phase angle ϕ From right angled△ OAE, we
have
AE VL − VC IX L − IX C
tan ϕ = = =
OA VR IR
𝟏
𝐗 𝐋 − 𝐗 𝐂 𝛚𝐋 − 𝛚𝐂
or 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝛟 = = … (iv)
𝐑 𝐑
27. Power of an A.C. Circuit
The small amount of electrical energy consumed in
Let E and I be the instantaneous values of e.m.f. and circuit is given by the work done by battery. So,
current in the LCRcircuit; and VL , VC and VR be the d W = EIdt = (E0 sin ωt)I0 sin(ωt + ϕ) dt
instantaneous values of the voltages across = E0 I0 sin ωt(sin ωtcos ϕ + cos ωtsin ϕ)dt
inductor L, capacitor C and resistor R respectively. = E0 I0 (sin2 ωtcos ϕ + sin ωtcos ωtsin ϕ)dt … (i)
Then, VL = IX L ; VC = IX C and VR = IR Now, cos 2ωt = 1 − 2sin ωt 2
Or
Here, X L = ωL and X C = 1/ωC are reactances due 1 − cos 2ωt
sin2 ωt =
to inductor and capacitor respectively. Where ω is 2
the angular frequency of given supply. Also, sin 2ωt = 2 sin ωt cos ωt or
sin 2ωt
sin ωt cos ωt =
2
In the equation (i), substituting for sin2 ωt and
sin ωtcos ωt, we have
1 − cos 2ωt sin 2ωt
d W = E0 I 0 ( cos ϕ + sin ϕ) dt
2 2
E0 I 0
= (cos ϕ − cos ϕcos 2ωt + sin ϕsin 2ωt)dt
2
The electrical energy consumed in the circuit in
time T (period of a.c.) can be obtained by
integrating the above equation between t = 0 to
t = T i.e.
OE = √OA2 + AE 2 = √OA2 + OD2 (Pythagoras)
T
or E = √VR 2 + (VL − VC )2 E0 I 0
W=∫ (cos ϕ − cos ϕcos 2ωt
Substituting the values of VR′ , VL and VC , we have 2
0
E= √(IR)2 + (IXL − IX C )2 + sin ϕsin 2ωt)dt
E0 I 0
= I√R2 + (X L − X C )2 W= [cos ϕ(T) − cos ϕ(0) + sin ϕ(0)]
2
E
or I= … (i) E0 I 0 T
√R + (X L − X C )2
2 or W = cos ϕ
2
E
Let , I=Z … (ii) The average power of the a.c. circuit is given by
W E0 I 0 T 1 E0 I 0
From the equations (i) and (ii), we have Pavg = = cos ϕ × = cos ϕ
T 2 T 2
𝐙 = √𝐑𝟐 + (𝐗 𝐋 − 𝐗 𝐂 )𝟐 E0 I 0
⋅ cos ϕ
= √R2 + (ωL − 1/ωC)2 … (iii) √2 √2
The equation (iii) gives impedance of LCR-circuit. 𝐏𝐚𝐯𝐠 = 𝐄𝐯 𝐈𝐯 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛟 … (ii)

APNI KAKSHA 15
(Physics) ALTERNATING CURRENT
ϕ = π/2 .
𝑅 Pav = Ev , Iv cos π/2 = Ev Iv (0) = 0
Here cos ϕ = is called the power factor of circuit.
𝑍
(iii) circuit containing C only. For such a circuit,
& Ev & Iv are RMS value of voltage and current
Special cases :
(i) circuit having R only. For such a circuit, ϕ = 0. 0
Pav = Ev Iv cos 0 = Ev Iv (1) = Ev Iv
(ii) circuit having L only. For such a circuit,
ϕ = π/2 .
Pav = Ev , Iv cos π/2 = Ev Iv (0) = 0
(iii) circuit containing C only. For such a circuit,
ϕ = −π/2
Pav = Ev Iv cos(−π/2) = Ev Iv (0) = 0

APNI KAKSHA 16
(Physics) RAY OPTICS & OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
28. Mirror Formula 29. Linear Magnification
[𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟖, 𝟐𝟎] [𝟐𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟖, 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟐]
For Concave spherical mirror The ratio of the size of the image formed by a
Let the points P, F and C be the pole, focus and spherical mirror to the size of the object is called
centre of curvature of a concave spherical mirror. the linear magnification.
AB = Object
𝐈
Now, triangles A′ B ′ F and ENF are similar. 𝐦= … (i)
𝐎
A′ B ′ A′ F
∴ = . Magnification produced by a concave mirror
NE NF
Fig. shows the formation of the image A′ B ′ of an
object AB by a concave spherical mirror. Since the
triangles ABP and A′ B ′ P are similar, we have
A′ B′ PA′
=
AB PA
Applying the new
Cartesian sign
conventions, we have
As aperture of the concave mirror is small, the
A′ B ′ = −I
points N and P lie very close to each other and
consequently NF ≈ PF. Also, NE = AB. AB = +O
A′ B ′ A′ F PA = −u
∴ =
AB PF PA′ = −υ
Since all the distances are to be measured from the (∵ distance of image is measured against incident ray)
pole of the concave mirror, we have Therefore, the above equation becomes
A′ F = PA′ − PF −I −υ I υ
A′ B ′ PA′ − PF = or = − … (ii)
O −u O u
∴ = … (i)
AB PF From the equations (i) and (ii), we have
Also, triangles ABP and A′ B ′ P are similar. 𝐈 𝛖
A′ B ′ PA′ 𝐦= =− … (iii)
∴ = … (ii) 𝐎 𝐮
AB PA Also by Mirror formula
From the equations (i) and (ii), we have
1 1 1
PA′ − PF PA′ + =
= … (iii) u υ f
PF PA
Multiplying by υ , we get
Applying the new cartesian sign conventions, we
υ υ υ υ υ
have + = => = −1
u υ f u f
PA = −u (Object distance) υ υ υ−f
= −1=
PA′ = −υ(Image dist. ) and PF = −f (focal length) u f f
In the equation (iii), substituting for PA, PA′ and PF, So,

we have 𝐟− 𝛖
𝐦=
−υ − (−f) −υ υ−f υ υ υ 𝐟
= or = or − 1 =
−f −u f u f u
1 1 1 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
or − = or + =
f υ u 𝐮 𝛖 𝐟
The above relation between u, υ and f is called
mirror formula.
APNI KAKSHA 17
(Physics) RAY OPTICS & OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
30. Refraction at Convex Spherical Surface Since angles β and γ are small, we have
[𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟖, 𝟏𝟗, 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟏, 𝟐𝟑] r = tan γ − tan β … (v)
Let us consider a convex spherical refracting From right angled triangles ANC and ANI, we have
surface with AN AN AN AN
tan γ = ≈ and tan β = ≈
μ2 = refractive index of medium 2 & NC PC NI PI
μ1 = Refractive index of medium 1, In the equation (v), substituting for tan β and tan γ

Let P = pole, C = center of curvature and we have

PC = Principal axis of the convex surface. AN AN
r= − … (vi)
PC PI
When object lies in the rarer medium and image
By Snell’s law
formed is real.
μ1 sin i = μ2 sin r
O = Object. Draw AN as perpendicular and take
Since the angles i and r are also small, the above
angle α, β & γ respectively in triangles.
equation becomes
Let ∠AOP = α; ∠AIP = β and ∠ACP = γ.
μ1 i = μ2 r
In triangle AOC, we have
From the equations (iv) and (vi), substituting the
i=α+γ (exterior angle property) … (i)
values of i and r, we have
AN AN AN AN
μ1 ( + ) = μ2 ( − )
PO PC PC PI
μ1 μ1 μ2 μ2
or + = −
PO PC PC PI
μ1 μ2 μ2 − μ1
or + = … (vii)
PO PI PC
Since angles α, β and γ will be small. As such, these Applying new cartesian sign conventions:
angles may be replaced by their tan α etc. PO = −u (object distance)
Therefore, equation (i) may be written as PI = +v (image distance)and
i = tan α + tan γ … (ii) PC = +R (Radius of curvature)
From right angled triangles ANO and ANC, we have Therefore, the equation (vii) becomes
AN AN μ1 μ2 μ2 − μ1 𝛍𝟐 𝛍𝟏 𝛍𝟐 − 𝛍𝟏
tan α = and tan γ = + = or − =
NO NC
−u +v +R 𝐯 𝐮 𝐑
In the equation (ii), substituting for tan α and tan α,
31. Lens Maker's Formula
we have
[𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟖, 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟏, 𝟐𝟐]
AN AN
i= + … (iii)
NO NC
NO ≈ PO and NC ≈ PC
Therefore, the equation (iii) becomes
AN AN
i= + … (iv)
PO PC
Now, from triangle ACI, γ = r + β (by exterior angle
property) or r = γ − β

Let us consider a convex lens with refracting

surface with

APNI KAKSHA 18
(Physics) RAY OPTICS & OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
μ2 = refractive index of outer medium & 32. Refraction through a Prism
μ1 = Refractive index of lens , [𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟖, 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟏, 𝟐𝟐]
Suppose that O is a point object placed on the KTS = δ is called the angle of deviation.
principal axis of the lens. The surface XP1 Y forms
the real image I1 (assuming that material of the lens
extends beyond the face XP1 Y as such). It can be
obtained* that
μ1 μ2 μ2 − μ1
+ = … (i)
P1 O P1 I1 P1 C1
Since the lens is thin, the point P1 lies very close to
the optical centre C of the lens. Therefore, we may
write Since ∠TQO = ∠NQP = i and ∠RQO = r1 , we have
P1 O ≈ CO; P1 I1 ≈ CI1 and P1 C1 ≈ CC1 ∠TQR = i − r1
𝛍𝟏 𝛍𝟐 𝛍𝟐 −𝛍𝟏
So, + 𝐂𝐈 = … (ii) Also,
𝐂𝐎 𝟏 𝐂𝐂𝟏
The image formed by first refraction will act as ∠TRO = ∠NSE = e and ∠QRO = r2 . Therefore,
virtual object for 2nd surface refraction. ∠TRQ = e − r2
μ2 μ1 μ2 − μ1
− + = … (iii) in triangle TQR, by exterior angle property
P2 I1 P2 I P2 C2
δ = ∠TQR + ∠TRQ = (i − r1 ) + (e − r2 )
Again P2 I1 ≈ CI1 , P2 I ≈ CI and P2 C2 ≈ CC2
or 𝛅 = (𝐢 + 𝐞) − (𝐫𝟏 + 𝐫𝟐 ) … (i)
Therefore, eq (iii) may be written as
𝛍𝟐 𝛍𝟏 𝛍𝟐 − 𝛍𝟏 In triangle QRO, the sum of the angles is 180∘ .
− + = … (iv)
𝐂𝐈𝟏 𝐂𝐈 𝐂𝐂𝟐 Therefore,
Adding the eq (ii) and (iv), we have r1 + r2 + ∠QOR = 180∘ … (ii)
μ1 μ2 μ2 μ1 μ2 − μ1 μ2 − μ1
+ − + = + In quadrilateral AQOR,
CO CI1 CI1 CI CC1 CC2
A + ∠QOR = 180∘ … (iii)
μ1 μ1 1 1
or + = (μ2 − μ1 ) ( + ) … (v) From the equations (ii) and (iii), we have
CO CI CC1 CC2
Applying the new cartesian sign conventions: r1 + r2 = A … (iv)
CO = −u (object distance) In the equation (i), substituting for (r1 + r2 ) we
CI = +v (Final image distance) have 𝛅 = (𝐢 + 𝐞) − 𝐀 … (v)
CC1 = +R1 and CC2 = −R 2 (Radii of curvature) Also, when δ = δm ; (in minimum deviation
μ1 μ1 1 1 position),
+ = (μ2 − μ1 ) ( + )
−u +v +R1 −R 2 e = i and r2 = r1 = r = A/2 (say)
Dividing both sides of the above equation by μ1 , we Also, setting δ = δm and e = i in the equation (v),
have
we have
Since μ2 /μ1 = μ, we have
A + δm = i + i or i = (A + δm )/2
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
− = (𝛍 − 𝟏) ( − ) … (vi) The refractive index of the material ( a μg or simply
𝐯 𝐮 𝐑𝟏 𝐑𝟐
Also if u = CF1 = −f1 (focal length ), then v = ∞ μ) of the prism is given by
Setting the above condition in the equation (vi), we sin i
μ =
have sin r
1 1 1 1 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝐀 + 𝛅𝐦 )/𝟐
− + = (μ − 1) ( − ) ∴ 𝛍=
−f1 ∞ R1 R 2 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐀/𝟐
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= (𝛍 − 𝟏) ( − ) … (ix)
𝐟 𝐑𝟏 𝐑𝟐

APNI KAKSHA 19
(Physics) RAY OPTICS & OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
33. Simple Microscope (Magnifying Glass) Now, CA = u and CA′ = D
[𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟖, 𝟐𝟐, 𝟐𝟑] Therefore, the equation (ii) becomes
A convex lens of short focal length can be used to D
M= … (iii)
see magnified image of a small object and is called a u
magnifying glass or a simple microscope. u = −u or υ = −D
So, 33.a - Magnifying power- When image is formed
Magnifying power of simple microscope at D (least distance of distinct vision=25cm).
𝐀𝐧𝐠𝐥𝐞 𝐦𝐚𝐝𝐞 𝐛𝐲 𝐢𝐦𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐨𝐧 𝐞𝐲𝐞 ( 𝐰𝐡𝐞𝐧 𝐤𝐞𝐩𝐭 𝐚𝐭 𝐃) Therefore, the above equation becomes by lens
=
𝐀𝐧𝐠𝐥𝐞 𝐦𝐚𝐝𝐞 𝐛𝐲 𝐨𝐛𝐣𝐞𝐜𝐭 𝐨𝐧 𝐞𝐲𝐞 (𝐰𝐡𝐞𝐧 𝐤𝐞𝐩𝐭 𝐚𝐭 𝐃) formula
1 1 1 1 1 1
Let ∠A′ CB ′ = β be the angle subtended by the − + = or − =
−u −D f u D f
image at the eye. Cut A′ Q equal to AB(object size) D D D D
or − 1 = or = 1 + … (iv)
and join QC Then, ∠A′ CQ′ = α is the angle u f u f
subtended by the object at the eye, when it is placed From the equations (iii) and (iv), we have
at the least distance of distinct vision. 𝐃
𝐌=𝟏+ … (v)
By definition, the magnifying power of the simple 𝐟
microscope is given by 33.b - Magnifying power (When image is formed
β at infinity).
M=
α

u = −f and CA′ = −D
(Note: Remember the first clear image is always seen
at D only)
In practice, the angles α and β are small. Therefore, Therefore, the above equation gives
the angles α and β can be replaced by their tangents D D
M= = … (vii)
i.e. u f
tan β 34. Compound Microscope
M= … (i)
tan α [𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟖, 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟏]
From the right angled △ CA′ Q,
A′ Q AB
tan α = ′ = ′ (∵ A′ Q = AB)
CA CA
Also, from the right angled △ ABC
AB
tan β =
CA
Substituting for tan α and tan β in the equation
we have
AB/CA CA′
M= or M = … (ii)
AB/CA′ CA

APNI KAKSHA 20
18
10
(Physics) RAY OPTICS & OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
For a compound microscope two lenses, eyepiece υe = −D and fe = +fe
of focal lenght (fe )and objective of focal lenght (f0 ) In the above equation, substituting for υe and fe , we
are used to achieve greater magnification then have
simple microscope. First clear image is formed at D D
me = 1 + … (iv)
fe
(least distance of distinct vision = 25cm)
So, putting values in M = mo × me we get
So,
𝛖𝐨 𝐃
Magnifying power of Compound microscope 𝐌= (𝟏 + ) … (vii)
𝐮𝐨 𝐟𝐞
𝐀𝐧𝐠𝐥𝐞 𝐦𝐚𝐝𝐞 𝐛𝐲 𝐢𝐦𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐨𝐧 𝐞𝐲𝐞 ( 𝐰𝐡𝐞𝐧 𝐤𝐞𝐩𝐭 𝐚𝐭 𝐃)
= 34.b - Magnifying power - When image is formed
𝐀𝐧𝐠𝐥𝐞 𝐦𝐚𝐝𝐞 𝐛𝐲 𝐨𝐛𝐣𝐞𝐜𝐭 𝐨𝐧 𝐞𝐲𝐞 (𝐰𝐡𝐞𝐧 𝐤𝐞𝐩𝐭 𝐚𝐭 𝐃)
Let ∠A′′ C′B ′′ = β be the angle subtended by the at infinity.
υ υ
image at the eye. extend A′′ Q equal to We know , M = mo × me & m0 = u0 & me = ue,
0 e
AB(object size) and join QC Then, ∠A′ ′C′Q = α is For image at infinity 𝒖𝒆 = −𝒇𝒆 & 𝝊𝒆 = −𝑫
the angle subtended by the object at the eye, when Here fe is the focal length of the eye lens.
it is placed at the least distance of distinct vision. (Note: Remember the first clear image is always seen
By definition, the magnifying power of the simple at D only so 𝜐𝑒 = −𝐷)
microscope is given by 𝛖𝐨 𝐃
So, 𝐌 = ×𝐟 … (ix)
β 𝐮𝟎 𝐞
M=
α 35. Astronomical Telescope (Refracting Type)
Since the angles α and β are small, they can be [𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟖, 𝟐𝟏]
replaced by their tangents i.e.
An astronomical telescope is used to see the
tan β
M= … (i) heavenly objects.
tan α
A′′ Q AB An astronomical telescope consists of two lens
Also tan α = = ′ ′′ (∵ A′′ Q = AB)
C′ A′′
′′ ′′
CA systems. The lens system facing the object is called
A B
Also, tan β = ′ ′′ objective. It has large aperture and is of large focal
CA
Multiplying and dividing by A′ B ′ , we have length (f0 ). The other lens system is called eye-
A′′ B ′′ A′ B ′ A′ B ′ A′′ B ′′ piece. It has small aperture and is of short focal
M= × ′ ′= × ′ ′
AB AB AB AB length (fe ) . Also the first clear image is formed at D
A′ B ′
Also
υ
= uo = m0 = magnification of object lens (least distance of distinct vision = 25cm)
AB o
Magnifying power of refracting telescope
( υo & uo = Image & object dist. from object lens)&
A′′ B′′ υe 𝐀𝐧𝐠𝐥𝐞 𝐦𝐚𝐝𝐞 𝐛𝐲 𝐢𝐦𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐨𝐧 𝐞𝐲𝐞 (𝐰𝐡𝐞𝐧 𝐤𝐞𝐩𝐭 𝐚𝐭 𝐃)
= = me = magnification of eye lens =
A′ B ′ ue 𝐀𝐜𝐭𝐮𝐚𝐥 𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐥𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐨𝐛𝐣𝐞𝐜𝐭 𝐨𝐧 𝐞𝐲𝐞
(υe & ue = Image & object distance from eye lens)
So, 𝐌 = 𝐦𝐨 × 𝐦𝐞 … (ii)

34.a - Magnifying power - When image is

formed at D(least distance of distinct vision).
Now, for the eye lens, the lens equation may be
written as
1 1 1 υe υe Thus, ∠A′ CB ′ = α may be considered as the angle
− + = or =1−
ue υe fe ue fe subtended by object at the eye.
So putting value for me we have, Let ∠A′ C′ B ′ = β. Then, by definition,
υe
me = 1 − … … … … (iii) β
fe M=
α
Applying the new Cartesian sign conventions:
Since the angles α and β are small,

APNI KAKSHA 21
(Physics) RAY OPTICS & OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
α ≈ tan α and β ≈ tan β
tan β In the equation (i), substituting for tan α and tan β,
∴M= … (i)
tan α we have
A′ B ′
From the right angled △ CA′ B ′ , tan α =
CA′
C ′ A′
A′ B ′ =
and from the right angled ΔC ′ A′ B ′ , tan α = ′ ′ B ′ /CA′
CA
In the equation (i), substituting for tan α and tan β,
we have
S
′ ′ ′ ′ ′
A B /C A CA
M= ′ ′ ′
= ′ ′ … (ii)
A B /CA CA
Magnifying power - When image is formed at
infinity .
(Note: Remember the first clear image is always seen
at D only)
Applying the new cartesian sign conventions:
CA′ = +fo and C ′ A′ = −fℯ
Substituting for CA′ and C ′ A′ in the equation (ii), we
have
𝐟𝐨
𝐌=−
𝐟𝐞

APNI KAKSHA 22
(Physics) WAVE OPTICS
36. Laws of Reflection on Wave Theory Let ML be a beam of light that refracts to second
[𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟖, 𝟐𝟎] medium from XY boundary.
Let ML be a beam of light that reflects back from Here PA is wave front for incident beam and P’A’ is
surface XY. wave front for refracted beam.
Here PA is wave front for incident beam and P’A’ is Let time taken (t) by light to go from the point P to
wave front for reflected beam. If c is velocity of P′ and in same time let A reaches to A’ after
light, then time taken (t) by light to go from the refraction.
point P to P′ and by light to go from A to A’ will be ∠LAN = i , ∠N ′ AA′ = r (angle of refraction)
same as both lie on wave fronts. By using properties of complementary angle
∠PAP′ = i , ∠AP′A′ = r
We have
PP′ AA′
sin i = & sin r = ……… (i)
AP′ AP′
Here PP’ = ct and AA’ =c’t
c = speed of light in air
c’ = speed of light in denser medium
c
∠LAN = i , ∠NAA′ = r (angle of reflection) μ= = refractive index of denser medium ……. (ii)
c′
By using properties of complementary angle so, from equation (i) & (ii)
∠PAP′ = i , ∠AP′A′ = r sin i PP′ ct c
= = = =μ
We have sin r AA′ c′t c′
PP′ AA′ 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐢
sin i = AP′ & sin r = AP′ ……… (i) = 𝛍
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐫
Here PP’ = ct and AA’ =ct
Hence, the laws of refraction (Snell’s law ) is proved
putting the values in (i)
on the basis of the wave theory.
ct ct
sin i = & sin r =
AP′ AP′
so, sin i = sin r 38. Conditions for Constructive and Destructive
or i = r Interference
i.e. the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of [𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟐]
reflection. (laws of reflection ) Let a source of monochromatic light S illuminates
37. Refraction on The Basis of Wave Theory two narrow slits S1 and S2 . The two illuminated slits
[𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟗, 𝟐𝟏] act as the two coherent sources. At the centre O of
the screen, the intensity of light is maximum and it
is called central maximum.
Condition for maximum and minimum.
Let the displacements of the waves from the
sources S1 and S2 at point P on the screen at any
time t be given by
y1 = a1 sin ωt
and y2 = a2 sin(ωt + ϕ),
where ϕ is the constant phase difference between
the two waves.

APNI KAKSHA 23
(Physics) WAVE OPTICS
So superimposed wave will be For Destructive interference.
y = y1 + y2 = a1 sin ωt + a2 sin(ωt + ϕ) From equation (iv) it follows that the intensity of
y = (a1 + a2 cos ϕ) sin ωt + a2 sin ϕ cos ωt … (i) light at point P will be minimum, if
Let a1 + a2 cos ϕ = Acos θ … (ii) cos ϕ = −1 or ϕ = π, 3π, 5π, ….
and a2 sin ϕ = Asin θ … (iii) or ϕ = (2n + 1) π,
Then, the equation (i) becomes where n = 0,1,2, …
y = Acos θ sin ωt + Asin θ cos ωt Also, from the equations (vi) and (viii), we have
or y = Asin(ωt + θ) 2π
x = (2n + 1)π
Also Squaring and adding both sides of the λ
𝛌
equations (ii) and (iii), we obtain or 𝐱 = (𝟐𝐧 + 𝟏)
𝟐
where n = 0,1,2 … . . n
A2 cos 2 θ + A2 sin2 θ = (a1 + a2 cos ϕ)2 + a22 sin2 ϕ
or A2 = a21 + a22 ,
(cos2 ϕ + sin2 ϕ) + 2a1 a2 cos ϕ
or A2 = a21 + a22 + 2a1 a2 cos ϕ ….. (iv)
For constructive interference the intensity of light
will be maximum so , A=max
So, cos ϕ = 1
𝟐𝛑
So , 𝛟= 𝐱 = 𝟐𝐧𝛑 , or 𝐱 = 𝐧𝛌 where
𝛌

n = 0,1,2,3….. n

APNI KAKSHA 24
22
(Physics) ATOMS
39. Distance of Closest Approach If m and v are mass and orbital velocity of the
The value of the distance of closest approach gives electron, then the centripetal force required by the
an estimate of the size of the nucleus. electron to move in circular orbit of radius r is given
mv2
by Fc = r
… (ii)
The electrostatic force of attraction (Fe ) between
the electron and the nucleus provides the necessary
centripetal force (Fc ) to the electron.
Therefore, from the equations (i) and (ii), we have
mv 2 1 e2 1 e2
= ⋅ 2 or mv 2 = ⋅ … (iii)
r 4πε0 r 4πε0 r
Consider that an α-particle of mass m possesses
According to Bohr's quantization condition, angular
initial velocity u, when it is at a large distance from
momentum of the electron,
the nucleus of an atom having atomic number Z. At
h nh
the distance of closest approach, the kinetic energy mvr = n or v = … (iv)
2π 2πmr
of the α-particle is completely converted into In the equation (iii), putting the value of v, we have
potential energy. Mathematically,
nh 2 1 e2
1 1 2e(Ze) m( ) = ⋅
mu2 = ⋅ 2πmr 4πε0 r
2 4πε0 r0
𝐧 𝟐 𝐡𝟐
1 2Ze2 or 𝐫 = 𝟒𝛑𝛆𝟎 ⋅ … (v)
∴ r0 = ⋅ … (i) 𝟒𝛑𝟐 𝐦𝐞𝟐
4πε0 1 mu2
2 Since n = 1,2,3,4 … ,
The equation (i) is the expression for the distance Also
of closest approach. Energy of the electron in nth orbit of a hydrogen-like
In Geiger-Marsden experiment, α-particles of atom is given by
kinetic energy 5.5 MeV were directed towards the 1 2 2π2 Z2 me4
En = − ( ) ⋅
gold nucleus (Z = 79). By calculating the distance 4πε0 n2 h2
of closest approach r0 , an estimate of the size of the where Z is atomic number of the atom.
nucleus can be made. The calculations show that r0 nh 1 4π2 me2
v= ( ⋅ )
comes out to be 4 ⋅ 13 × 10−14 m. Thus, size of the 2πm 4πε0 n2 h2
nucleus is of the order of 10−14 m. 1 2πe2
or v = ⋅ … (vi)
40. Bohr's Theory of Hydrogen Atom 4πε0 nh
[𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟖, 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟏, 𝟐𝟐] 1
Obviously, Ek = mv 2
In a hydrogen atom, an electron having charge −e 2
revolves round the nucleus having charge +e in a Using the equation (iii), we have
circular orbit of radius r as shown in Fig. 1 e2
Ek = ⋅
4πε0 2r
1 (+e)(−e) 1 e2
Ep = ⋅ =− ⋅
4πε0 r 4πε0 r
The total energy of electron revolving round the
nucleus in the orbit of radius r is given by
1 e2 1 e2
E = Ek + Ep = ⋅ + (− ⋅ )
4πε0 2r 4πε0 r
The electrostatic force of attraction between the 1 e2
or E=− ⋅
nucleus and the electron is given by 4πε0 2r
1 e×e 1 e2 𝟏 𝟐 𝟐𝛑𝟐 𝐦𝐞𝟒
Fe = ⋅ 2 = ⋅ … (i) or 𝐄𝐧 = − ( ) ⋅
4πε0 r 4πε0 r 2 𝟒𝛑𝛆𝟎 𝐧𝟐 𝐡𝟐

APNI KAKSHA 25
(Physics) NUCLEI
41. Nuclear Density The mass defect can also be expressed in another
Let ρ be the density of the nucleus of an atom, form as explained below:
whose mass number is A. Adding and subtracting the mass of Z electrons i.e.
mass of the nucleus of the atom of mass number A Zme on the R.H.S. of equation (i), we have
= A a.m.u. = A × 1.660565 × 10−27 kg Δm = [Zmp + (A − Z)mn + Zme ] − mN ( Z X A ) − Zme
If R is the radius of the nucleus, then = [Z(mp + me ) + (A − Z)mn ] − [mN ( Z X A ) + Zme ]
4 4 1 3
Now, mp + me = m( 1 H1 ), mass of hydrogen atom
volume of nucleus = πR3 = π (R 0 A3 )
3 3
& mN ( Z X A ) + Zme = m( Z X A ), mass of the atom
4
= πR 0 3 A A
3 ZX

Taking R 0 = 1 ⋅ 1 × 10−15 m, we have Therefore,

4 𝚫𝐦 = [𝐙𝐦( 𝟏 𝐇 𝟏 ) + (𝐀 − 𝐙)𝐦𝐧 ] − 𝐦( 𝐙 𝐗 𝐀 ) … (ii)
volume of the nucleus = π(1 ⋅ 1 × 10−15 )3 × Am3
3
mass of nucleus 43. Binding energy.
Density of the nucleus, ρ =
volume of nucleus [𝟐 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟗, 𝟐𝟐, 𝟐𝟑]
A × 1 ⋅ 660565 × 10−27 Thus, the binding energy of a nucleus may be
=
4 −15 )3 × A defined as the energy equivalent to the mass defect
3 π(1 ⋅ 1 × 10
of the nucleus.
= 𝟐 ⋅ 𝟗𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟕 𝐤𝐠 𝐦−𝟑 (Independent of A)
If Δm is mass defect of a nucleus, then according to
42. Mass Defect
Einstein's massenergy relation, binding energy of
[𝟐 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟖, 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟐, 𝟐𝟑]
the nucleus = Δmc 2 (in joule)
The difference between the sum of the masses of
Binding energy = [{𝐙𝐦𝐩 + (𝐀 − 𝐙)𝐦𝐧 }
the nucleons constituting a nucleus and the rest
mass of the nucleus is known as mass defect. It is − 𝐦𝐍 ( 𝐙 𝐗 𝐀 )] × 𝐜 𝟐

denoted by Δm. Here,

Let us calculate the mass defect in case of the
nucleus of an atom ZX A. The nucleus of such an
atom contains Z protons and (A-Z) neutrons.
Therefore,
mass of the nucleons = Zmp + (A − Z)mn
If mN ( Z X A ) is mass of the nucleus of the atom Z X A,
then the mass defect is given by
mN ( Z X A ) is mass of the nucleus of the atom Z X A.
mp = mass of proton ,
mn = mass of neutron
A = Mass number , Z = Atomic number
1amu × 𝑐 2 =931.5 Mev (All masses are kept in amu)
The mass defect can also be expressed in another
form:

𝚫𝐦 = [𝐙𝐦𝐩 + (𝐀 − 𝐙)𝐦𝐧 ] − 𝐦𝐍 ( 𝐙 𝐗 𝐀 ) … (i) Δm = [Zm( 1 H1 ) + (A − Z)mn ] − m( 𝐙 X A )

Here, Binding energy = [{𝐙𝐦( 𝟏 𝐇𝟏 ) + (𝐀 − 𝐙)𝐦𝐧 }

mN ( Z X A ) is mass of the nucleus of the atom Z X A. − 𝐦( 𝐙 𝐗 𝐀 )] × 𝐜 𝟐
mp = mass of proton , Here m( 1 H1 ) = mass of hydrogen atom
mn = mass of neutron m( Z X A ) = mass of the atom Z X A
A = Mass number , Z = Atomic number

APNI KAKSHA 26