THERESPI

RATORYSYSTEM
Ther
espi
rat
orys
yst
emsi
ncl
udet
hel
ungswhi
char
eint
het
hor
ax,t
het
rachea
whi
ch i
sint
he neck r
egi
on and t
he compl
ex ofai
rpas
sagesi
nthe head i
s
col
lect
ivel
ycal
ledt
he upperr
espi
rat
iont
ract

DESCRI
PTI
ONOFTHERESPI
RATORYPASSAGEWAYANDLUNGS.
NOSTRI
LSANDNASALPASSAGES:
Thenos
tri
lsar
eimpor
tanti
nlet
sforai
rdur
ingbr
eat
hingt
heys
ervet
ohumi
dif
y
i
ncomi
ngai
randf
orcommuni
cat
ion.Onl
ythecamelamongdomes
ticmammal
s
can compl
etel
ycl
oset
henos
tri
ls.Humi
dif
icat
ionofai
risofi
mpor
tancet
othe
s
ens
eofs
mel
lorol
fact
ion.
Ai
rismovedf
orcef
ull
ythr
oughapr
opor
tional
lys
mal
lopeni
ng,t
henos
tri
ls,i
nto
a l
argers
pace,t
henas
alpas
sagebyi
nhal
ati
on.

THERESPI
RATORYSYSTEM
I
NTRODUCTI
ON
The t
erm r
espi
rat
ion i
s gener
all
y made up of t
wo pr
oces
ses
. (
i)
ext
ernal r
espi
rat
ory,whi
chi
stheabs
orpt
ionofoxygenandr
emovalofcar
bon
di
oxi
def
rom t
he body.(
ii
).I
nter
nalr
espi
rat
ory,whi
chi
stheut
il
izat
ionofO2 and
pr
oduct
ionofCO2 by cel
lsand t
hegas
eousexchangesbet
weent
hecel
lsand
t
hei
rfl
uidmedi
um.
Ther
espi
rat
orys
yst
em i
ncl
udest
hel
ungswhi
char
eint
het
hor
ax,t
het
rachea,
whi
chi
s i
nneckr
egi
onand t
hecompl
exofai
rpas
sagei
nthehead,whi
chi
s
col
lect
ivel
ycal
led t
heupperr
espi
rat
oryt
ract
.

(
a)DESCRI
PTI
ONOFTHERESPI
RATORYPASSAGEWAYSANDLUNGS
Ther
espi
rat
orypas
sagewayscons
istoft
henas
alcavi
ty,phar
ynx,l
arynx,t
rachea
and br
onchi
,whi
chl
eadi
ntot
hel
ungs
.

NASALCAVI
TY:
Thenas
alcavi
ti
es,oneoneachs
ideoft
hehead,conductt
heai
rtoand f
rom
t
he phar
ynxandt
hroat
.Thenos
tri
lsar
eimpor
tanti
nlet
sforai
rdur
ingbr
eat
hing;
t
hey s
erve t
o humi
dif
yincomi
ng ai
rand f
orcommuni
cat
ion.Onl
ythe camel
among domes
ticmammal
scancompl
etel
ycl
oset
henos
tri
ls
Thehor
se,ox,s
heepandpi
g,donothabi
tual
lybr
eat
hei
nanyot
hermannert
han
by t
henos
ebutt
heymay,uponoccas
ion,r
espi
rebyt
hemout
handt
hedogdoes
t
his al
wayswhenoutofbr
eat
handpant
ing.Ai
rent
eri
ngt
hel
ungsi
sther
efor
ein
near
ly al
lci
rcums
tances
,compel
led t
o pas
sthr
ough t
he nos
tri
ls and nas
al
pas
sageandany obs
truct
ioni
nthes
eismor
eser
ioust
hani
nmanwher
emout
h-
br
eat
hingi
seas
y.

PHARYNX:
The phar
ynx i
sa chamberatt
he back oft
he mout
h cavi
ty,s
ituat
ed wher
e
t
he r
espi
rat
oryanddi
ges
tivepas
sagescr
osseachot
her
.Ithasmus
cul
arwal
ls
whi
char
e us
edi
nswal
lowi
ng.
Forpur
pos
esofdes
cri
pti
oni
tcanbedi
videdi
ntoanor
ophar
ynxvent
ral
lyand
a nas
ophar
ynxdor
sal
.
I
nthe nor
malbr
eat
hing condi
ti
on t
hes
etwo di
vis
ions ar
esepar
ated by t
he
s
oft pal
ate,acar
til
agi
nousext
ens
ionoft
hehar
dbonypal
ateandt
heepi
glot
ti
sof
t
he l
arynx.Dur
ing br
eat
hing t
he epi
glot
ti
s over
laps t
he s
oftpal
ate and t
he
openi
ngt
o t
heoes
ophagusi
scl
osedbyt
oni
cmus
cul
arcons
truct
ion.
Thus
,ai
rdi
rect
lycr
oss
est
henas
ophar
ynxf
rom t
henas
alpas
saget
othel
arynx.

LARYNX:
Thel
arynx orvoi
cebox guar
dst
heupperend oft
het
rachea.I
tisacompl
ex
s
truct
ure mechani
cal
ly s
peci
ali
zed t
o pr
oduce s
ound and i
s compos
ed of
car
til
agest
hatgi
ve s
uppor
ttot
hevocalcor
ds.I
tisext
remel
ysens
iti
ve,i
rri
tat
eof
whi
chr
esul
tina cough,wi
tht
heobj
ectofexpel
linganyi
rri
tantbodyormat
eri
al.
Fr
om t
hel
arynx,t
he t
racheacar
riest
heai
ronwar
dst
owar
dst
heches
tcavi
ty.

TRACHEA
The t
rachea i
s a car
til
agi
nous f
lexi
blet
ube,compos
ed of a number of
i
ncompl
ete r
ings
,whos
eci
rcumf
erencei
scompl
eted by a s
tri
p ofmus
cleand
whi
char
ehel
dto eachot
herbyaf
ibr
ousmembr
ane,t
hewhol
ebei
ngl
inedont
he
i
nsi
deby a cont
inuousmucousmembr
ane.Thet
rachea r
unsf
rom t
hel
arynx
downt
hemi
ddl
e oft
hel
owerpar
toft
heneck,ent
erst
het
hor
ax and endsby
s
pli
tt
ingi
ntot
woor t
hreebr
onchiast
hecas
emaybe(
i.
e2i
nthehor
seanddog
and3i
ntheox,s
heep andpi
g).

BRONCHI
-BRONCHI
OLES
Thebr
onchi
,int
hei
rupperpar
tar
eofs
imi
lars
truct
uret
othet
rachea,butt
hey
s
oon s
pli
tupi
ntobr
onchi
oles
,whi
chl
osemuchoft
hei
rcar
til
ageast
heydi
vide
and s
ubdi
vide.Theygi
veof
fal
argenumberofbr
onchi
alt
ubeswhi
chr
adi
ate
t
hrought
he whol
eoft
hel
ungs
,becomi
ngs
mal
lerands
mal
lert
il
lfi
nal
lyt
hey
openi
ntot
heai
r al
veol
ioft
hel
ungs
.

LUNGS:
Thes
etwo or
gans ar
e of cour
se concer
ned wi
thr
espi
rat
ion i
n whi
ch CO2
i
s exchangedf
orO2.Thel
ungi
scompos
edofver
yhi
ghl
yel
ast
ict
iss
uewhi
ch
cons
ist
sof mul
ti
tudesoft
inys
acs(
i.
eal
veol
i)ar
rangeatt
het
ermi
nalpar
tsoft
he
s
mal
les
tof t
hebr
onchi
olesand whi
chcol
laps
ewhent
hebal
anceofpr
ess
ure
bet
weent
heai
rin t
hes
acsandont
heout
sideoft
hel
ungss
urf
acei
sdi
stur
bed.
Thusa l
ung s
hri
nkst
oaboutone-
thi
rd ofi
tsnor
mals
izewhenr
emoved f
rom
t
he ches
tcavi
ty.
Thel
ungsar
efi
rml
yanchor
edi
npos
iti
onbyt
hei
rroot
stot
hehear
tandt
rachea
and byt
hepl
eur
atol
ongi
tudi
nals
ept
um r
unni
ngver
tical
lyf
rom f
rontt
oback
cal
ledt
he medi
ast
inum.
The pul
monar
y ar
ter
y,car
ryi
ng i
mpur
e bl
ood t
othe l
ungs
,di
vides i
ntot
wo
l
arge br
anches
.Eachoft
hes
ebr
anchesent
ersi
ntot
hef
ormat
ionoft
her
ootoft
he
l
ung, andt
her
e,begi
nst
odi
videupi
ntoaver
ylar
genumberofs
mal
lerves
sel
s.
Theys
ub- di
videmanyt
imesunt
ilt
hef
inalcapi
llar
iesar
egi
venof
far
oundt
he
wal
lsoft
heai
r-s
acs
.Fr
om t
hes
e,t
hebl
ood af
teroxygenat
ioni
scar
ried by
l
argerandl
argervei
ns,t
il
litevent
ual
lyl
eavest
hel
ungbyoneoft
hes
ever
al
pul
monar
yvei
ns.

(
b).MECHANI
SM OFRESPI
RATI
ON
Theactofbr
eat
hing ai
rint
oand outoft
hel
ung i
sknownasvent
il
ati
on.The
pr
oces
s of vent
il
ati
on cons
ist
s of i
nspi
rat
ion (
breat
hing i
n and expi
rat
ion
(
breat
hingout
).

I
NSPI
RATI
ON:
Ai
risi
nspi
red by t
he expans
ion of t
he ches
twal
l.Ther
eis cont
ract
ion of
t
he di
aphr
agm andt
hei
nter
coas
talmus
cles
,sot
hatt
her
ib-
cagei
sli
ftedupand
t
hel
ung expandsandai
rgoesi
n.Dur
ingt
hispr
oces
sthei
ntr
a-t
hor
aci
cpr
ess
urei
s
r
educed, s
othatai
rfl
owsi
n.

EXPI
RATI
ON:
Thi
sisduet
otheel
ast
icr
ecoi
loft
hedi
aphr
agm andi
nter
cos
talmus
cles
.Thei
ntr
a
-t
hor
aci
c pr
ess
urer
ises t
oit
sini
ti
al l
evel and t
he i
ncr
eas
ed pr
ess
ured
compr
ess
est
he ai
rint
hel
ungss
othatai
rfl
owsout
.

THEDI
APHRAGM:
The di
aphr
agm i
s a mus
cul
otendi
nous s
truct
ure compl
etel
y s
epar
ati
ng t
he
t
hor
aci
c and abdomi
nal cavi
ti
es.The t
hor
aci
c cavi
tyi
sa s
pace encl
osed
caudal
ly by t
he di
aphr
agm,l
ater
all
y by mos
tof t
he r
ibs
,dor
sal
ly by t
he
t
hor
aci
cver
tebr
aeand vent
ral
ly by t
hes
ter
num.I
tisi
mpor
tantt
ost
res
sthat
muchoft
hes
pacei
nsi
det
he r
ib cagei
sact
ual
ly occupi
ed by t
heabdomi
nal
cavi
ty.Thi
sisbecaus
ethedi
aphr
agm cur
vescr
ani
all
yint
hemi
d-l
ines
othat
,
al
thoughi
tisat
tachedt
othel
astf
ew r
ibs l
ater
all
y,medi
all
yitcanext
endasf
ar
f
orwar
dast
hes
ixt
hri
b.Thi
scr
ani
al-
mos
t ext
entoft
hedi
aphr
agm i
scal
ledt
he
di
aphr
agmat
ic s
ummi
t. The di
aphr
agmat
ic s
ummi
t i
s t
endi
nous whi
le
per
ipher
all
ythedi
aphr
agm i
smor
emus
cul
ar.
Dur
ing i
nspi
rat
ion,t
he di
aphr
agmat
ics
ummi
tmovescaudal
ly,r
esul
ti
ng i
nthe
l
ungs bei
ngpul
ledcaudal
ly,t
her
ebyexpandi
ngt
hel
ungsi
nsi
zebybr
ingi
ngi
n
ai
r. Dur
ing expi
rat
ion t
he mus
cles of t
he di
aphr
agm r
elaxes and t
he
di
aphr
agmat
ics
ummi
tret
urnst
oitmor
ecr
ani
alpos
iti
onunderpr
ess
ureoft
he
heavyabdomi
nalvi
scer
a.

MUSCLESOFBREATHI
NG:
Dur
ing t
he i
nspi
rat
ion phas
e of br
eat
hing t
he r
ibs ar
e pul
led l
ater
all
y and
cr
ani
all
y.
Asar
esul
toft
his
,coupl
ed wi
tht
hecont
ract
ionoft
hedi
aphr
agm,t
hewi
dthof
t
he t
hor
aci
ccavi
tyi
sincr
eas
ed.Ast
het
hor
aci
ccavi
tyi
senl
arged a negat
ive
pr
ess
urei
s cr
eat
edont
hel
ungsandi
tcons
equent
lyexpandspul
lingmor
eai
rint
o
i
tsbr
onchi
al s
yst
em andal
veol
i.
Mus
cles whos
e act
ions i
ncl
ude movi
ng t
he r
ibs cr
ani
all
y and l
ater
all
y ar
e
cal
led mus
cles of i
nspi
rat
ion,whi
let
hos
ethatmove t
he r
ibs caudal
ly and
medi
all
yar
e mus
clesofexpi
rat
ion.Thepr
imar
ymus
clesofi
nspi
rat
ionar
ethe
ext
ernaland i
nter
nali
nter
coas
talmus
clespul
lther
ibscr
ani
all
ytoenl
arget
he
t
hor
ax.Thepr
imar
y mus
clesofexpi
rat
ionar
ethemus
clesoft
heabdomi
nal
wal
l.

I
NTERCHANGEOFGASESWI
THI
NTHELUNGS:
Bet
ween t
hepr
oces
sofi
nspi
rat
ion and expi
rat
ion t
heexchangeofgas
est
ake
pl
ace.
The i
nter
changi
ng occur
s bet
ween t
he bl
ood i
n t
he capi
llar
y net
wor
k
whi
ch s
urr
oundt
heal
veol
iandt
heai
rint
heal
veol
us.Dur
ingt
hisi
nter
change,
oxygendi
ffus
est
hroughaconcent
rat
iongr
adi
entf
rom t
heal
veol
usi
ntot
her
ed
bl
oodcel
lin t
hebl
oodcapi
llar
y.Car
bondi
oxi
det
hrought
hemechani
smi
sal
so
excr
etedi
ntot
he al
veol
us.

NERVOUSCONTROLOFRESPI
RATI
ON:
Res
pir
ator
yisus
ual
lyanaut
omat
icactundert
hecont
roloft
her
espi
rat
orycent
re
i
n t
he medul
la obl
ongat
a.Res
pir
ati
on i
sal
sol
iabl
eto be cont
rol
led by t
he
hi
gher cons
ciouscent
res
.Thi
siss
eenpar
ticul
arl
ywel
linhumanbei
ngs
,wher
eit
i
spos
sibl
e t
o"Hol
dtheBr
eat
h"ori
nhi
bitr
espi
rat
ionf
orcons
ider
abl
eper
iodsf
or
exampl
e whendi
vingunder
wat
er.

RATEOFRESPI
RATI
ON:
Thes
peedoft
her
espi
rat
ionsvar
ieswi
thmanyi
nter
nalandext
ernalf
act
ors
.It
i
sfas
terdur
ingf
ever
saf
tervi
olentexer
cis
eorevenaf
termi
ldexer
cis
e(t
hough
i
tsoon r
etur
nst
onor
maluponces
sat
ion)
;dur
ingpower
fulemot
ions
,suchasf
ear
anger and s
exualexci
tement
;dur
ingver
ycol
d orver
yhotweat
her
;whent
he
body condi
ti
oni
sver
yfat
,orwhenr
adi
ati
oni
sobs
truct
ed,t
hrought
oot
hinka
cover
ingof wool
,furort
oomuchofcl
othi
ng.Res
pir
ati
oni
ssl
owert
hannor
mal
dur
ing r
est
ing, ei
ther when mer
ely l
ying or when s
leepi
ng: i
n cas
es of
uncons
cious
nes
s

Thenor
malr
atesi
nadul
tdomes
ticat
edani
mal
sar
easf
oll
ows
:
Hor
se 1
0-1
4br
eat
h/mi
nut
e
Ox 1
7-45
Sheep&Goat 1
6-34
Pi
g 32-58
Dog 1
8-34
I
neachcas
e,t
hel
argert
hepar
ticul
arani
mal
,thes
lowerdoesi
tbr
eat
he, ot
her
t
hingsbei
ngequal
;al
sot
heyoungofanys
peci
esbr
eat
hef
ast
ert
hant
he adul
ts;
andf
emal
esbr
eat
hef
ast
ert
hanmal
es-
especi
all
ydur
ingpr
egnancy.

QUANTI
TYOFAI
R:
The l
ungs do not by any means compl
etel
y empt
y t
hems
elves at each
expi
rat
ion andr
efi
llateachi
nspi
rat
ion.Whati
slef
taf
termaxi
mum expi
rat
ioni
s
cal
led t
he r
esi
dual vol
ume.The vol
ume of ai
r exchanged dur
ing nor
mal
br
eat
hing(
i.
e.pas
singi
n andoutoft
henos
e)i
sthet
idalvol
ume.I
tisabout5
l
it
resi
nthehor
se.Thevol
ume ofai
rint
heai
rwaysl
eadi
ngt
otheal
veol
ioft
he
l
ungsi
stheanat
omi
caldeads
pace.
Ai
ravai
labl
efort
hes
uppl
y ofoxygeni
nthel
ungsi
sthet
idalvol
umemi
nus
t
he anat
omi
caldeads
pace.