GEOL483.

3
GEOL882.3

Refraction seismic
Method
Field techniques
Inversion for refractor velocity, depth,
and dip
Delay time
Interpretation
Basic-formula methods
Delay-time methods
Wavefront reconstruction methods

Reading:
➢
Sheriff and Geldart, Chapter 11
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Field techniques

 In-line shooting
 May shoot segments (e.g., C-D, D-E, E-F,
etc. below) in order to economize
 Depending on the target, longer or shorter
profiles, with or without recording at
shorter offsets
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Refraction Interpretation
Reversed travel times

 One needs reversed recording (in opposite

directions) for resolution of dips.
 The reciprocal times, TR, must be the the
same for reversed shots.
 Dipping refractor is indicated by:
Different apparent velocities (=1/p, TTC slopes)
in the two directions;
➢ determine V2 and α (refractor velocity and
dip).
Different intercept times.
determine hd and hu (interface depths).
t
➢

TR pd =
sin i c 
V1
sin i c −
pu=
V1

2z u cosi c
V1

2z d cosi c
1
V1 slope= p1 =
V1 x
S R
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Determination of Refractor
Velocity and Dip

 Apparent velocity is Vapp = 1/p, where p is the

ray parameter (i.e., slope of the travel-time
curve).
Apparent velocities are measured directly from
the observed TTCs;
Vapp = Vrefractor only in the case of a horizontal
layering.
For a dipping refractor:
V1
V d=
➢
Down dip: sini c  (slower than
V1); V1
V u=
sin i c −
➢
Up-dip: (faster).
 From the two reversed apparent velocities, ic
and α iare determined:
=sin
−1 V 1
, i −=sin
−1 V 1
c c
Vd V u.

1 V V
i c = sin−1 1 sin−1 1  ,
2 Vd Vu

1 −1 V 1 −1 V 1
= sin −sin .
2 Vd Vu

V1
 From ic, the refractor velocity is: V 2=
sini c
.
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Determination of Refractor
Depth

 From the intercept times, td and tu,

refractor depth is determined:
V 1t d
hd= ,
2 cos i c
V t
h u= 1 u .
2 cos i c

x
S R

hd
ic

ic
A hu
V1
B α (dip)
V2>V1
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Delay time
(the basis for most refraction
interpretation techniques)

 Consider a nearly horizontal, shallow interface with

strong velocity contrast (a typical case for
weathering layer).
 In this case, we can separate the times
associated with the source and receiver
vicinities: tSR = tSX + tXR.

 Relate the time tSX to a time along the refractor, tBX:

tSX = tSA – tBA + tBX = tS Delay+x/V2. Note that V2=V1/sinic

SA BA hs h tan i c hs h cosic
t S Delay = − = − s = 1−sin 2 i c = s
V 1 V 2 V 1 cos i c V2 V 1 cos i c V 1.

 Thus, the source and receiver delay times are:

h s , r cosi c SR
t S , R Delay = and t SR=t S Delay t R Delay
V 1. V 2.
x
S
h/cosic
R
h s ic hr
A X V1
B V2>V1
htanic
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Basic-formula
interpretation
(The ABC method)
 Combine the refraction times recorded along
A-C, B-C, and A-B:
A C B

V1

V2
2h C cos i c
t AC t CB −t AB≈2 t DelayC =
V1
 Therefore:

V1
h C≈  t AC t CB −t AB  .
2 cos i c
 Note the typical time-to-depth conversion
factor:
V1 V1 V 1V 2
= = 2 .
cosi c 1−sin i c V 2−V 1
2 2
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Delay-time methods
Barry's method

 Note that the ABC formula applies to the

intercept times, with any value of V2
assumed:
int x
t =t−
V2
int int int2h C cos i c
t t −t ≈2 t Delay C =
AC CB AB
V1
S1 S2 G1 G2

V1

A B
C V2
 Thus the shot delay at C is:
1 int int int
t Delay C ≈
2
 t CB t AC −t AB 

 And geophone delay at B:

1 int int int
t Delay ( B)=t int
CB −t Delay (C )≈
2
( t CB−t AC +t AB )
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Delay-time methods
Barry's method

1) Plot the time-reduced travel times.

2) Calculate the geophone delay times.
3) Plot the delay times at the “offset geophone”
positions.
4) Adjust V2 until the lines from reversed profiles
are parallel.
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Delay-time methods
Wyrobek's method
A series of unreversed
profiles is used

1) Plot the time-reduced travel times.

2) Calculate the geophone delay times.
3) Plot the delay times at the “offset geophone”
positions.
For each geophone
4) Adjust V2 until the lines from reversedvarious
the profiles
shots form
an equivalent of a reversed
are parallel. profile.
The delay times are
combined into a composite
delay-time curve

With properly
adjusted V2, the
composite delay times
match
the half-intercept times
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Plus-Minus Method
(Hagedoorn)
 Assume that we have recorded two headwaves in
the opposite directions, and have estimated the
velocity of the overburden, V1.
How can we map the refracting interface?
t
S1 D(x) S2 TR
tS2 D
tS1 D
V1

x
S1 D S2
 Solution:
x
Profile S1 → S2: t S D= t t D ;
V2 S
➢ 1 1

 S 1 S 2 −x 
➢ Profile S2 → S1: t S D= t S t D.
2
V2 2

Form PLUS travel-time:

S1S2
t PLUS =t S D t S D = t S t S 2t D =t S S 2t D.
1 2
V2 1 2 1 2

1
Hence: t D = t PLUS −t S S .
2 1 2

To determine ic (and depth), still need to find V2.

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Plus-Minus Method
(Continued)
 To determine V2:
Form MINUS travel-time: this is a constant!

2x S 1 S 2
t MINUS =t S D −t S D= − t s −t s .
1 2
V2 V2 1 2

2
Hence: slope[t MINUS  x]= .
V2

The slope is usually estimated by using the

Least Squares method.
 Drawback of this method – averaging over the pre-
critical region.

t
S1 D(x) S2 TR
tS2 D
tS1 D
V1

x
S1 D S2
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Generalized
Reciprocal Method
(GRM)
 Introduces offsets ('XY') in travel-time readings in the
forward and reverse shots;
so that the imaging is targeted on a compact interface
region.
 Proceeds as the plus-minus method;
 Determines the 'optimal' XY:
1) Corresponding to the most linear velocity analysis function;
2) Corresponding to the most detail of the refractor.
XY t
TR
S1 D S2 tS2 D
tS1 D
V1
x
S1 D S2
 The velocity analysis function: XY
1
t V = t S D−t S Dt S S  , should be linear, slope = 1/V2;
2 1 2 1 2

 The time-depth function:

1 XY
t D = t S D t S D −t S S − .
2 1 2 1
V2 2

tD V 1 V 2
hD=
this is related to the desired image: V 2
2
−V 12
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Wavefront reconstruction
methods

 Head-wave wavefronts can be propagated

back into the subsurface...
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Wavefront reconstruction
methods

 ... and combined to form an image of the

refractor:
 Refractor is the locus of (x,z) points
such that:
t Forward  x , z t Reversed  x , z=T Reciprocal
 Note the similarity with the PLUS-
MINUS method!

Head wave Head wave

from source A from source B

Line on which tA + tB = const