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New Trends in Eco-efficient and
Recycled Concrete
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Woodhead Publishing Series in Civil
and Structural Engineering

New Trends in
Eco-efficient and
Recycled Concrete

Edited by

Jorge de Brito
Francisco Agrela
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Contents

List of Contributors xvii

Foreword xxi

1 Construction and demolition waste 1

Jorge de Brito, Francisco Agrela and Rui Vasco Silva
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Processing of construction and demolition waste 2
1.2.1 Treatment processes for construction and demolition waste 3
1.2.2 Main types of recycled aggregates from construction and
demolition waste 4
1.3 Influence of recycled aggregates on the fresh-state performance
of concrete 5
1.4 Influence of recycled aggregates on the mechanical performance
of concrete 7
1.5 Influence of recycled aggregates on the durability performance
of concrete 10
1.6 Influence of recycled aggregates on the time-dependent
deformation of concrete 12
1.7 Concluding remarks 14
References 15

2 Biomass fly ash and biomass bottom ash 23

Francisco Agrela, Manuel Cabrera, Marı´a Martı´n Morales,
Montserrat Zamorano and Mazen Alshaaer
2.1 Energy from biomass, and biomass ashes (BA) 23
2.1.1 Biomass to produce energy, a renewable alternative 23
2.1.2 Sources of biomass for power generation 25
2.1.3 Advantages and disadvantages of biomass energy 27
2.1.4 Technologies for converting biomass into useful energy 28
2.1.5 Ash production from biomass combustion 29
2.1.6 Environmental and health aspects of biomass ashes 30
2.2 Overview of biomass ash characteristics 32
2.2.1 Classification of biomass ashes 32
2.2.2 Chemical composition of BA 34
2.2.3 Physical and microstructural properties of BA 35
2.2.4 Leaching characteristics of BA 37
2.2.5 Processing and improvement techniques of BA 40
vi Contents

2.3 Utilisations of biomass fly ash (BFA) and biomass bottom

ash (BBA) in concrete design 40
2.3.1 The design of concrete with biomass ash: general
properties for design 41
2.3.2 Influence of BA on concrete’s fresh-state properties:
density and slump 41
2.3.3 Physical-mechanical properties of mortars and concrete
with BA 42
2.3.4 Durability-related properties: water absorption
(by immersion and capillarity), carbonation resistance
and chloride penetration, sulphate and acid attack 44
2.3.5 Technological properties: thermal and acoustic insulation 45
2.4 Biomass ash-based geopolymer: clean production, properties
and applications 46
2.4.1 Geopolymer concrete. A green concrete 46
2.4.2 Limits and opportunities of biomass ash to produce
geopolymer concrete 47
2.4.3 Stabilisation of biomass ashes using geopolymerisation:
leaching characteristics 49
2.4.4 Properties of geopolymer concrete produced with
biomass ash 49
2.4.5 Adsorption characteristics of BA-based geopolymers
towards micropollutants 51
2.4.6 Use of BA-based geopolymers for thermal and acoustic
insulation 51
2.5 Concluding remarks 52
References 53
Further reading 58

3 Recycled plastic 59
Aliakbar Gholampour and Togay Ozbakkaloglu
3.1 Introduction 59
3.2 Material properties of recycled plastics used in concrete 60
3.3 Preparation and physical properties of recycled plastic concrete 60
3.4 Mechanical properties of recycled plastic concrete 66
3.4.1 Compressive properties 66
3.4.2 Flexural and tensile properties 69
3.5 Durability properties of recycled plastic concrete 73
3.5.1 Water absorption and air/water permeability 73
3.5.2 Degradation in alkaline environment 74
3.6 Time-dependent properties of recycled plastic concrete 75
3.6.1 Creep 75
3.6.2 Shrinkage 76
3.7 Other properties 77
3.7.1 Resistance to elevated temperature 77
3.7.2 Thermal conductivity 78
Contents vii

3.8 Final remarks 79

References 80
Further reading 85

4 Waste rubber aggregates 87

Valeria Corinaldesi and Jacopo Donnini
4.1 Introduction 87
4.2 Waste rubber aggregate characterisation 88
4.2.1 Chemical properties 88
4.2.2 Physical properties 89
4.2.3 Geometrical properties 89
4.3 Properties of rubberised mixes in the fresh state 89
4.3.1 Workability, setting time, segregation and bleeding 89
4.3.2 Density 92
4.4 Properties of rubberised mixes at the hardened state 93
4.4.1 Hardened density 93
4.4.2 Mechanical strength 94
4.4.3 Toughness, ductility and strain capacity 102
4.4.4 Impact energy and abrasion resistance 104
4.5 Durability of concrete with crumb rubber 106
4.5.1 Water absorption porosity 106
4.5.2 Carbonation and chloride ion penetration 107
4.5.3 Drying shrinkage and cracking resistance 108
4.5.4 Freeze/thaw and ageing resistance 109
4.5.5 Resistance to aggressive environment 110
4.5.6 Fire and high-temperature resistance 110
4.6 Functional properties of concrete with rubber particles 111
4.6.1 Thermal insulation 111
4.6.2 Sound absorption 112
4.6.3 Electrical resistance 112
4.7 Fields of application 112
4.8 Conclusions 113
References 114
Further reading 119

5 Sewage sludge ash 121

Jordi Payá, Jose´ Monzó, Marı´a Victoria Borrachero and Lourdes Soriano
5.1 Introduction 121
5.2 Production of sewage sludge ashes 124
5.3 Characteristics of sewage sludge ash 124
5.4 Reactivity of sewage sludge ashes in Portland cement mixtures 135
5.5 Effect of sewage sludge ash on the rheology of concrete 137
5.6 Mechanical and durability properties of concrete containing
sewage sludge ash 138
5.7 Alternative binders containing sewage sludge ashes 145
viii Contents

5.8 Other applications of sewage sludge ashes in construction

materials 146
5.9 Conclusions 148
References 149

6 Recycling of waste glass in construction materials 153

Jian-Xin Lu and Chi Sun Poon
6.1 Waste glass situation in Hong Kong 153
6.2 Background on the use of waste glass in cement-based materials 154
6.3 Application of waste glass in cement mortar 155
6.4 Application of waste glass in paving blocks 157
6.5 Application of waste glass in OPC concrete 160
6.6 Current and potential applications of waste glass in construction
industries 161
6.7 Conclusion 163
Acknowledgement 164
References 164

7 Steel slags 169

Carlos Thomas, Julia Rosales, Juan Antonio Polanco
and Francisco Agrela
7.1 Steel manufacturing 169
7.1.1 By-products of steel manufacturing 169
7.1.2 Types and classification of steel slags 170
7.2 Steel slags from electric arc furnace 174
7.2.1 Morphology and mechanical behaviour 175
7.2.2 Specific gravity and absorption 176
7.2.3 Concrete using EAFS aggregate 177
7.3 Stainless steelmaking slags 180
7.3.1 Application of steel slags 180
7.3.2 Application of stainless steel slags 181
7.4 Geopolymer synthesised by the activation of steel slags 182
7.4.1 Principles of geopolymers 183
7.4.2 Possible use of steel slags in the manufacturing
of geopolymers 183
7.4.3 Future research lines of steel slags in geopolymer
production 185
7.5 Concluding remarks 186
References 186

8 Recycled mollusc shells 191

Caroline Martı´nez-Garcı´a, Bele´n González-Fonteboa,
Diego Carro-López and Fernando Martı´nez-Abella
8.1 Introduction 191
8.2 Mollusc shells 192
Contents ix

8.3 Mollusc shell as aggregate for concrete 194

8.3.1 Recycling treatment of mollusc shells 194
8.3.2 Experiences in the use of mollusc shells as aggregates 194
8.4 Effect of mollusc shell in concrete properties 197
8.4.1 Hardened density 197
8.4.2 Fresh state 198
8.4.3 Compressive strength 199
8.4.4 Tensile strength 201
8.4.5 Concrete microstructure 201
8.5 Concluding remarks 203
References 204

9 Life cycle assessment applied to recycled aggregate concrete 207

Desire´e Rodrı´guez-Robles, Philip Van den Heede and Nele De Belie
9.1 Introduction 207
9.2 Ecological background of the concrete sector 208
9.2.1 Environmental impacts 208
9.2.2 Concrete sustainability through recycled aggregates 219
9.3 Life cycle assessment: considerations for recycled aggregate
concrete 225
9.3.1 Goal and scope 226
9.3.2 Inventory analysis 233
9.3.3 Impact analysis 233
9.3.4 Interpretation 234
9.4 Conclusions 238
References 244

10 Comparative studies of the life cycle analysis between

conventional and recycled aggregate concrete 257
Snežana Marinković and Vedran Carević
10.1 Introduction 257
10.2 State-of-the-art 258
10.3 Modelling in comparative LCA of concrete 258
10.3.1 Selection of the functional unit 258
10.3.2 System boundaries: attributional versus consequential
modelling 259
10.3.3 Influence of CO2 uptake during primary and
secondary life of concrete structures 261
10.4 Case study: reinforced concrete floor slab in residential
building made of conventional and recycled aggregate concrete 266
10.4.1 Design 267
10.4.2 LCA model 274
10.4.3 Life cycle impact assessment 278
x Contents

10.5 Results and discussion 281

10.5.1 Quality of recycled concrete aggregate 281
10.5.2 Durability 282
10.5.3 LCI modelling approach 283
10.5.4 CO2 uptake 284
10.6 Conclusions 286
References 287

11 Equivalent functional unit in recycled aggregate concrete 293

Jorge de Brito, Luı´s Evangelista and Jose´ D. Silvestre
11.1 Introduction 293
11.2 Definition of declared unit and functional unit 294
11.2.1 LCA analyses and balanced comparisons 294
11.2.2 Definition of the concepts of declared unit
and functional unit 295
11.2.3 Integration of these concepts in an LCA 296
11.2.4 Ways of defining equivalent functional units 296
11.2.5 Application to concrete 296
11.3 Relative performance of recycled aggregates concrete versus
conventional concrete 297
11.3.1 Recycled aggregates 297
11.3.2 Influence on the properties of fresh concrete 299
11.3.3 Influence on the mechanical properties of concrete 299
11.3.4 Influence on the durability and long-term performance
of concrete 300
11.4 Methodology for the definition of equivalent functional unit
for recycled aggregate concrete 300
11.4.1 Properties to take into account 301
11.4.2 Simplified approach (based on the compressive
strength classes only) 302
11.4.3 Discussion of a multi-criteria approach
(based on structural functionality) 303
11.5 Proposal of an equivalent functional unit for recycled
aggregate concrete 303
11.5.1 Practical rules to compare different properties
of RAC and NAC 303
11.5.2 Limit states 305
11.6 Calculation of the equivalent functional unit 306
11.6.1 K as function of durability 306
11.6.2 K as function of long-term deflection SLS 306
11.6.3 K as a function of bending ULS 308
11.6.4 K as a function of cracking SLS 309
11.6.5 Multi-criteria analysis 309
Contents xi

11.7 Application to slabs and validation of the method: case studies 309
11.7.1 Missing data 311
11.7.2 Case studies 312
11.7.3 Exclusions and limitations 313
11.8 Application in LCA studies 316
11.8.1 State-of the art on the comparison between RCA
and NCA 316
11.8.2 Comparison between RCA and NCA based on
compressive strength as functional unit 318
11.9 Concluding remarks 322
References 323
Further reading 327

12 Leaching issues in recycled aggregate concrete 329

Manuel Cabrera, Adela Pe´rez Galvı´n and Francisco Agrela
12.1 Environmental risks of recycled aggregate concrete 329
12.1.1 Legal regulations for environmental assessment
of recycled aggregate concrete 329
12.1.2 Assessment of potential environmental risk. Main
factors to consider 331
12.1.3 Concepts and mechanisms which control release 333
12.2 Leaching characteristics of unbound recycled materials 334
12.2.1 Leaching behaviour of powdered recycled materials 336
12.2.2 Leaching behaviour of fine recycled materials 337
12.2.3 Leaching behaviour of coarse recycled materials 338
12.2.4 Applications based on environmental behaviour 339
12.3 Leaching assessment of recycled concrete 340
12.3.1 Concrete degradation by water effects 341
12.3.2 Leaching of concrete and cement-based materials 342
12.3.3 Evaluation of leaching behaviour on different recycled
concrete types 343
12.3.4 Standards and methods of leaching tests of concrete
and cement-based materials 344
12.3.5 Leaching limits in the assessment of Recycled
Concrete: testing the tank 347
12.3.6 Previous leaching studies in recycled aggregate
concrete 348
12.4 pH-dependent leaching of constituents in concrete 349
12.5 Conclusion 350
References 351
Further reading 355
xii Contents

13 Application of alkali-activated industrial waste 357

Jordi Payá, Francisco Agrela, Julia Rosales, Marı´a Martı´n Morales
and Marı´a Victoria Borrachero
13.1 Alkali-activated cement and concrete 357
13.1.1 Necessity to develop low-carbon cement and concrete 357
13.1.2 Alkali-activated materials (AAMs): a definition 358
13.1.3 Role of precursors and alkaline activators 359
13.1.4 Performance of AAMs cement and concrete:
rheology, mechanical behaviour and durability 360
13.2 New precursors and activators from wastes 361
13.2.1 Precursors based on wastes 362
13.2.2 New alkaline activators 391
13.2.3 Alkaline activators with total replacement
of the synthetic reagent 394
13.3 Reuse of recycled aggregates in alkali-activated mortars
and concrete 397
13.3.1 Composition and content of alkali-activated slag
mortars and concrete (AASm and AASc) 397
13.3.2 Rheology of new mortars and concrete 399
13.3.3 Mechanical behaviour: compressive and flexural
strengths 403
13.3.4 Stability (shrinkage) and durability of new alkaline
mortar and concrete 405
13.4 Concluding remarks 406
Acknowledgments 407
References 407
Further reading 424

14 Microstructural studies on recycled aggregate concrete 425

Luı´s Evangelista and M. Guedes
14.1 Introduction 425
14.2 Tools for microstructural characterisation of concrete 426
14.2.1 Optical microscopy 426
14.2.2 Scanning electron microscopy 427
14.2.3 Transmission electron microscopy 429
14.2.4 Atomic force microscopy 429
14.2.5 X-ray diffraction 430
14.2.6 Mercury intrusion porosimetry 430
14.3 Overview of microstructural features of natural aggregate
concrete 431
14.3.1 The microstructure of hydrated cement paste 431
14.3.2 The microstructure of paste/natural aggregate
interfacial transition zone 437
14.4 Microstructural and morphological features of CDW recycled
aggregates 440
Contents xiii

14.5 The microstructure of paste/recycled aggregate interfacial

transition zone 442
14.6 Conclusion 443
References 444

15 Meso-structural modelling in recycled aggregate concrete 453

C. Medina, J. Sánchez, I.F. Sáez del Bosque, M. Frı´as
and M.I. Sánchez de Rojas
15.1 Introduction 453
15.2 Interfacial transition zone in conventional and recycled concrete 454
15.3 Meso-structural modelling 457
15.3.1 Phases in concrete meso-structural modelling 457
15.3.2 Prior meso-structural modelling 459
15.3.3 Model proposed to study the meso-structure of concrete
bearing recycled ceramic aggregate 466
15.4 Conclusions 471
Acknowledgements 472
References 472

16 Sequestration of carbon dioxide by RCAs and enhancement

of properties of RAC by accelerated carbonation 477
Dongxing Xuan and Chi Sin Poon
16.1 Introduction 477
16.2 Estimation of CO2 sequestration by RCAs 479
16.2.1 Materials and experimental 479
16.2.2 Influence of various carbonation factors on CO2
uptake of RCAs 482
16.3 Performance of RAC with carbonated RCAs 485
16.3.1 Properties of NRCAs by accelerated carbonation 485
16.3.2 Static compressive strength 487
16.3.3 Dynamic compressive strength 488
16.3.4 Flexural strength 489
16.3.5 Microhardness of ITZ of RAC with C-NRCAs 489
16.3.6 Durability 491
16.3.7 Performance improvement of RAC prepared
with C-NRCAs 494
16.4 Conclusion and recommendations 495
Acknowledgement 495
References 496

17 Sulphur content of recycled aggregates applied in concrete

production 499
Carlos Thomas, Ana Cimentada, Jokin Rico and Jesús Setie´n
17.1 Introduction 499
17.2 Methods of identification of sulphur in recycled aggregates 500
xiv Contents

17.3 Influence of sulphur on recycled concrete production 502

17.3.1 Flexural and compressive strength 502
17.3.2 Durability 503
17.4 Conclusions 506
References 506

18 Legal regulations of recycled aggregate concrete in buildings

and roads 509
Jorge de Brito, Francisco Agrela and Rui Vasco Silva
18.1 Introduction 509
18.2 Overview of existing normative documents: RA classification
and requirements 510
18.2.1 Recycled aggregate concrete in buildings 510
18.2.2 Recycled aggregate concrete in road pavement
construction 513
18.3 Field of application of recycled aggregate concrete in buildings 518
18.3.1 Brazil 518
18.3.2 China 518
18.3.3 Germany 518
18.3.4 Japan 518
18.3.5 Korea 519
18.3.6 RILEM 519
18.3.7 The Netherlands 519
18.3.8 Portugal 520
18.3.9 United Kingdom 520
18.4 Field of application of recycled aggregate concrete in road
pavement construction 521
18.5 Concluding remarks and proposals for the future 521
References 524
Further reading 526

19 Helping structural designers to use recycled aggregate concrete 527

Rui Vasco Silva and Jorge de Brito
19.1 Introduction 527
19.2 Characterisation of recycled aggregates 528
19.3 Properties of recycled aggregate concrete and design
implications 528
19.3.1 Compressive strength 528
19.3.2 Tensile strength 530
19.3.3 Modulus of elasticity 530
19.3.4 Creep 531
19.3.5 Carbonation and chloride ion penetration 531
19.4 Description of the structural elements 532
19.5 Design of recycled aggregate concrete elements 534
Contents xv

19.6 Conclusions 536

Acknowledgements 537
References 537

20 Structural reliability of recycled aggregate concrete 541

João Pacheco and Jorge de Brito
20.1 Fundamental reliability concepts 541
20.2 Partial safety factor calibration of reinforced concrete 543
20.2.1 Sources of variability 543
20.2.2 Variability of concrete properties 544
20.2.3 Partial safety factors 548
20.3 Heterogeneity and reliability of RAC 550
20.4 Is recycled aggregates concrete less reliable than natural
aggregates concrete? 551
20.4.1 Material variability 551
20.4.2 Model uncertainties 553
20.4.3 Reliability analyses 555
20.5 Case studies of structural reliability of recycled aggregates
concrete 556
20.5.1 Experimental campaign on the variability of RAC 556
20.5.2 Reliability analysis of NAC and RAC beams:
methodology 561
20.5.3 Reliability analysis: ultimate limit-state 562
20.5.4 Reliability analysis: serviceability limit-state 566
20.6 Concluding remarks 567
References 568
Further reading 572

21 Real-scale applications of recycled aggregate concrete 573

Rui Vasco Silva, J.R. Jime´nez, Francisco Agrela and Jorge de Brito
21.1 Introduction 573
21.2 Laboratory versus real-scale experiments 574
21.2.1 Road pavement construction 574
21.2.2 Structural and non-structural building applications 575
21.3 Case studies on the use of recycled aggregate concrete in road
pavement construction 577
21.3.1 Centre for pavement and transportation technology
at the University of Waterloo, Canada 577
21.3.2 Rigid pavement in St. Louis, Missouri, USA 577
21.3.3 Section Interstate-10 in Houston (Texas), USA 577
21.3.4 Austrian Salzberg-Vienna A1 concrete motorway 578
21.3.5 Biotechnology park in Dundee, United Kingdom 579
21.3.6 Rabanales bike lane in Córdoba, Spain 579
xvi Contents

21.4 Case studies on the use of recycled aggregate concrete

in building applications 580
21.4.1 Decorative concrete elements in Magdeburg, Germany 580
21.4.2 Hong Kong Wetland Park 581
21.4.3 The ‘Recycled House’ in Odense, Denmark 582
21.4.4 ‘Waldspirale’ building project in Darmstadt, Germany 582
21.4.5 The environmental building at BRE in Watford,
United Kingdom 583
21.4.6 Strong Floor at BRE Cardington Laboratory,
United Kingdom 584
21.4.7 Samwoh eco-green building in Singapore 584
21.5 Concluding remarks 585
References 585

Index 591
List of Contributors

Francisco Agrela Construction Engineering Area, University of Cordoba,

Leonardo Da Vinci Building, Rabanales Campus, Cordoba, Spain

Mazen Alshaaer Plasma Technology and Material Science Unit (PTMSU),

Department of Physics, College of Science and Humanitarian Studies, Prince
Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, Al-Kharj, Saudi Arabia

Marı́a Victoria Borrachero Chemistry in Building Materials Research Group

(GIQUIMA), Concrete Science and Technology Institute (ICITECH), Universitat
Politècnica de València, Valencia, Spain; Institute of Science and Technology of
Concrete (ICITECH), Universitat Politècnica de València, Valencia, Spain

Manuel Cabrera Construction Engineering Area, University of Cordoba,

Leonardo Da Vinci Building, Rabanales Campus, Cordoba, Spain

Vedran Carević Faculty of Civil Engineering, University of Belgrade, Belgrade,

Serbia

Diego Carro-López Civil Engineering School (Escuela de Ingenieros de Caminos,

Canales y Puertos), University of A Coruña, Coruña, Spain

Ana Cimentada LADICIM (Laboratory of Materials Science and Engineering),

University of Cantabria, E.T.S. de Ingenieros de Caminos, Canales y Puertos,
Santander, Spain

Valeria Corinaldesi Department of Materials, Environmental Sciences and Urban

Planning, Università Politecnica delle Marche, Ancona, Italy

Nele De Belie Magnel Laboratory for Concrete Research, Department of Structural

Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Ghent University, Tech Lane
Ghent Science Park, Campus A, Ghent, Belgium

Jorge de Brito CERIS-ICIST, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa,

Lisboa, Portugal

Jacopo Donnini Department of Materials, Environmental Sciences and Urban

Planning, Università Politecnica delle Marche, Ancona, Italy
xviii List of Contributors

Luı́s Evangelista ISEL-IPL, Department of Civil Engineering, Instituto Superior

de Engenharia de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal; CERIS-ICIST, Instituto Superior
Técnico, Lisboa, Portugal; CERIS-ICIST; ISEL, Instituto Superior de Engenharia
de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal

M. Frı́as Department of Cements and Recycling of Materials, Spanish National

Research Council (CSIC), Madrid, Spain; UEX-CSIC Partnering “SOSMAT”,
Cáceres, Spain

Adela Pérez Galvı́n Construction Engineering Area, University of Cordoba,

Leonardo Da Vinci Building, Rabanales Campus, Cordoba, Spain

Aliakbar Gholampour School of Civil, Environmental and Mining Engineering,

The University of Adelaide, Australia

Belén González-Fonteboa Civil Engineering School (Escuela de Ingenieros de

Caminos, Canales y Puertos), University of A Coruña, Coruña, Spain

M. Guedes CDP2T and Department of Mechanical Engineering, Setúbal School of

Technology, Instituto Politécnico de Setúbal, Setúbal, Portugal; CeFEMA, Instituto
Superior Técnico, Lisboa, Portugal

J.R. Jiménez Construction Engineering Area, University of Cordoba, Leonardo Da

Vinci Building, Rabanales Campus, Cordoba, Spain

Jian-Xin Lu Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The Hong

Kong Polytechnic University, Kowloon, Hong Kong

Snežana Marinković Faculty of Civil Engineering, University of Belgrade,

Belgrade, Serbia

Fernando Martı́nez-Abella Civil Engineering School (Escuela de Ingenieros de

Caminos, Canales y Puertos), University of A Coruña, Coruña, Spain

Caroline Martı́nez-Garcı́a Civil Engineering School (Escuela de Ingenieros de

Caminos, Canales y Puertos), University of A Coruña, Coruña, Spain

C. Medina Department of Construction, School of Engineering, Graduate degreee

in Civil Engineering, University of Extremadura (UEx), Institute for Sustainable
Regional Development (INTERRA), Cáceres, Spain; UEX-CSIC Partnering
“SOSMAT”, Cáceres, Spain

José Monzó Chemistry in Building Materials Research Group (GIQUIMA),

Concrete Science and Technology Institute (ICITECH), Universitat Politècnica de
València, Valencia, Spain
List of Contributors xix

Marı́a Martı́n Morales Department of Building Construction, University of

Granada, Granada, Spain; Civil and Building Engineering Schools, University of
Granada, Granada, Spain

Togay Ozbakkaloglu School of Engineering and Technology, University of

Hertfordshire, United Kingdom

João Pacheco CERIS-ICIST, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa,

Lisboa, Portugal

Jordi Payá Institute of Science and Technology of Concrete (ICITECH),

Universitat Politècnica de València, Valencia, Spain; Chemistry in Building
Materials Research Group (GIQUIMA), Concrete Science and Technology Institute
(ICITECH), Universitat Politècnica de València, Valencia, Spain

Juan Antonio Polanco LADICIM (Laboratory of Materials Science and

Engineering), University of Cantabria, E.T.S. de Ingenieros de Caminos, Canales y
Puertos, Santander, Spain

Chi Sin Poon Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The Hong
Kong Polytechnic University, Kowloon, Hong Kong

Chi Sun Poon Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The Hong
Kong Polytechnic University, Kowloon, Hong Kong

Jokin Rico INGECID S.L. (Ingenierı́a de la Construcción, Investigación y

Desarrollo de Proyectos), University of Cantabria. E.T.S. de Ingenieros de
Caminos, Canales y Puertos, Santander, Spain

Desirée Rodrı́guez-Robles School of Agricultural and Forestry Engineering,

Department of Engineering and Agricultural Sciences, University of León, León,
Spain

Julia Rosales Construction Engineering Area, University of Cordoba, Leonardo

Da Vinci Building, Rabanales Campus, Cordoba, Spain

I.F. Sáez del Bosque Department of Construction, School of Engineering,

Graduate degreee in Civil Engineering, University of Extremadura (UEx), Institute
for Sustainable Regional Development (INTERRA), Cáceres, Spain

J. Sánchez Department of Prestacional Development of Concretes, Structural,

Reliability and Risk Analysis, Eduardo Torroja Institute for Construction Science,
Spanish National Research Council (CSIC), Cáceres, Spain
xx List of Contributors

M.I. Sánchez de Rojas Department of Cements and Recycling of Materials,

Spanish National Research Council (CSIC), Madrid, Spain; UEX-CSIC Partnering
“SOSMAT”, Cáceres, Spain

Jesús Setién LADICIM (Laboratory of Materials Science and Engineering),

University of Cantabria, E.T.S. de Ingenieros de Caminos, Canales y Puertos,
Santander, Spain

Rui Vasco Silva CERIS-ICIST, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de

Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal

José D. Silvestre CERIS-ICIST, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de

Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal

Lourdes Soriano Chemistry in Building Materials Research Group (GIQUIMA),

Concrete Science and Technology Institute (ICITECH), Universitat Politècnica de
València, Valencia, Spain

Carlos Thomas LADICIM (Laboratory of Materials Science and Engineering),

University of Cantabria, E.T.S. de Ingenieros de Caminos, Canales y Puertos,
Santander, Spain

Philip Van den Heede Magnel Laboratory for Concrete Research, Department of
Structural Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Ghent University,
Tech Lane Ghent Science Park, Campus A, Ghent, Belgium

Dongxing Xuan Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The Hong

Kong Polytechnic University, Kowloon, Hong Kong

Montserrat Zamorano Civil and Building Engineering Schools, University of

Granada, Granada, Spain
Foreword

New Trends in Eco-efficient and Recycled Concrete is a stand-by-itself, unique

book on eco-efficient concrete in the sense that it is focused mostly on fundamental
issues that have not been tackled in previous related books: eco-efficiency evalua-
tion, non-exploited research fields and upscaling the use of new eco-efficient con-
crete types. Therefore, it is useful to all stakeholders involved in the concrete
industry: authorities, promoters, designers, contractors and maintenance managers,
as well as the entire academic community.
The book comprises four sections: (1) Materials recycled in concrete production,
where stabilised knowledge on the use of various waste types is summarised;
(2) life cycle analysis of recycled aggregate concrete, which deals with the funda-
mental scientific demonstration of the sustainability of every concrete variety;
(3) new trends in recycled aggregate concrete research, where the most promising
research lines involving eco-efficient concrete are presented; and (4) upscaling the
use of recycled aggregate concrete, showing the path from research to day-to-day
application of more sustainable and eco-friendly concrete.
Many wastes have been tried as replacement of various components of concrete:
aggregates, fillers, binders and reinforcement. The most common ones are construc-
tion and demolition waste, various types of ashes, plastics, rubber, glass, slags and
bio-wastes. The book presents the state-of-the-art on the use of these wastes in con-
crete, which is now fairly established. In other words, the technical feasibility of
recycled aggregate concrete has been demonstrated beyond reasonable doubt.
Quite often, it is claimed that a given concrete mix is ‘sustainable’. However, in
most cases, this claim lacks scientific demonstration. That is why the second section
of this book is dedicated to life cycle analysis, starting with the basics and existing
comparative studies, and moving on to fundamental issues in sustainability assess-
ment, such as the definition of an equivalent functional unit and leachability.
Not everything has been sufficiently researched in recycled aggregate concrete.
The book presents some of the issues from this area that the contributors consider
still have a great research potential: alkali-activated waste materials, microstructural
and mesostructural studies, sequestration of carbon dioxide and sulphur content.
The book ends with a contribution to the most pressing issue of eco-efficient
concrete today: applying the knowledge generated from research into current prac-
tice. The authorities, promoters, designers, contractors and all the remaining stake-
holders on concrete’s use need guidance on how to apply, in a reliable manner,
these sustainable materials. Therefore, the final section of the book addresses such
issues as legal regulations on the use of these materials, simple-to-use guidance to
xxii Foreword

structural designers, structural reliability of recycled aggregate assemblies and real-

scale successful applications.
Now that the basic research is available, it is time to move forward to implement
the wide-scale use of concrete with lower environmental impacts and contribute to
a more sustainable and eco-friendly construction industry.

Jorge de Brito
Lisbon, August 2018
Construction and demolition
waste 1
Jorge de Brito1, Francisco Agrela2 and Rui Vasco Silva1
1
CERIS-ICIST, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal,
2
Construction Engineering Area, University of Cordoba, Leonardo Da Vinci Building,
Rabanales Campus, Cordoba, Spain

1.1 Introduction
There has been a considerable investment in the construction sector as a result of
the economic growth in several countries, particularly China, India and Brazil. This
has led to a worldwide increasing demand for construction aggregates (Freedonia,
2012) and, thus, has encouraged the ongoing extraction of natural resources with
severe environmental repercussions. Recent statistics showed that the global
demand for aggregates was expected to increase from 45 billion tonnes, in 2017, to
66 billion tonnes by the end of 2025 (PMR, 2017) thereby demonstrating their
substantial role in the construction industry.
Conversely, this sector is also responsible for the heaviest and most voluminous
waste stream when compared to other main economic activities (De Brito and
Silva, 2016; Silva et al., 2017). In China, the estimated amount of construction and
demolition waste (CDW) was about 2185 million tonnes in 2011 (Lu, 2014), but
other sources suggested that, in that same year, it was somewhere between 600 and
800 million tonnes (Duan et al., 2015). In India, a report released in 2010 stated
that the amount of CDW produced annually was 10
12 million tonnes, correspond-
ing to 8.3
10.0 kg per capita per year (MEF, 2010). However, for the city of
Chennai alone, the amount of CDW produced corresponded to about 175 kg per
capita per year (Ram and Kalidindi, 2017), revealing a considerable discrepancy. In
the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency estimated the generated
amount of CDW in 2014 to be around 484 million tonnes (USEPA, 2016). In the
European Union, in 2014, this value was of 868 million tonnes, accounting for 35%
of the total amount generated in all economic sectors (Eurostat, 2017). It is clear
that the inconsistency in some of this data may have been due to insufficient waste
management policies, undeclared values or uncontrolled operations, leading up to
misrepresentative indicators. Nevertheless, the trend regarding the considerable
quantities of CDW generated worldwide is still very much real, thus, demonstrating
the considerable urgency to take further action to incorporate greater amounts of
beneficiated CDW in current construction practice and close the loop of the supply
chain (De Brito and Silva, 2016).

New Trends in Eco-efficient and Recycled Concrete. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-102480-5.00001-4

© 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
2 New Trends in Eco-efficient and Recycled Concrete

1.2 Processing of construction and demolition waste

In general, CDW includes a wide variety of materials that are generated from dif-
ferent sources, such as concrete, bricks, bituminous materials, soil, steel, wood and
gypsum that may come from the construction of new buildings, roads and bridges
and other structures, renovation-related activities, demolition of end-of-life struc-
tures and also from natural or man-caused disasters (USEPA, 2016; Arisoy and
Sgem, 2016; Woolley, 1994). CDW that is normally taken to treatment plants can
be classified into three types depending on their nature and composition (Fig. 1.1):
G
Concrete blocks: this type of CDW is the most studied and applied to obtain high-quality
recycled aggregates (RAs). In general, this type of CDW is extracted during the demoli-
tion process of concrete structures as bridges, concrete buildings, breakwaters, walls,
among others.
G
Mixed and clean CDW: this waste contains mainly concrete, masonry or bituminous mate-
rials. This type of CDW is usually obtained with source identification, separating different
waste in the demolition process.
G
Mixed demolition debris: this type is usually associated with lack of selection at the
source and needs to receive specific pre-treatment for the elimination of some
components.
Ideally, the treatment processes applied to CDW should depend on their initial
characteristics as well as on the intended quality of RA. However, experience has
shown that the processes implemented in some CDW recycling plants are inade-
quate for the production of RA, wherein some do not apply effective segregation of
different constituents or even crushing processes (Rodrigues et al., 2013). Typical
processing steps required for CDW in treatment plants in order to achieve appropri-
ate RA include the following (Hiete, 2013):
1. Separation of the different fractions of waste (e.g., removing wood, plastics, metals from
aggregates, garbage remains, paints);
2. Removal of contaminated waste (e.g., asbestos, gypsum, heavy metals);
3. Pre-screening process (segregation of fine fractions containing soil and lightweight
particles);
4. Screening to achieve appropriate particle sizes;
5. Sorting devices, such as air separators, to remove light particles;
6. Electromagnets for metal separation; and
7. Hand-picking lines to eliminate materials that are difficult to be removed with other
techniques.

Figure 1.1 Main types of CDW: concrete blocks (left); mixed and clean (middle); mixed
demolition debris (right). CDW, Construction and demolition waste.
Construction and demolition waste 3

A different combination of these processes can be seen in different plants; the

implementation or removal of those steps depends on the quality of the input CDW.
If the original CDW has high quality, lower quantity of treatments may be applied
to obtain adequate RA. In this way, if selected concrete blocks with lower contami-
nation content are used as input CDW, it is possible that, apart from the crushing
and screening stages, only an additional electromagnetic separation would be
required to produce high-quality recycled concrete aggregates (RCAs). On the other
hand, in the case of low-quality CDW with different types of components, a greater
complexity of treatments would be required to obtain suitable RA, including pre-
screening, air separation and manual separation. Under these circumstances, a
mixed RA (MRA) would be expected to result from this process.

1.2.1 Treatment processes for construction and demolition

waste
The appropriate treatment varies according to the original CDW that is delivered to
the recycling plant. If it is mostly comprised of concrete blocks, it is fairly easy to
obtain good-quality RCA with a reduced number of treatment steps and, thus, at
lower cost. Fig. 1.2 presents an example of a simple treatment scheme for the pro-
duction of RCA from selected concrete blocks. After an initial pre-screening stage
to eliminate possible contaminants, the material’s size is usually reduced with a jaw
crusher. Afterwards, an electromagnet is used to extract ferrous metals from the

Concrete

Pre-screening

Particles
< 4 mm Jaw
crusher

Electromagnetic
separation
Screening

Scrap steel

Fine RCA Coarse RCA

Figure 1.2 Basic treatment process of a concrete-based CDW batch. CDW, Construction and
demolition waste.
4 New Trends in Eco-efficient and Recycled Concrete

fragmented material, followed by a final screening stage to obtain an appropriate

particle size distribution in coarse, fine or all-in RCA.
On the other hand, severely heterogeneous batches will require a larger number
of treatment steps to produce a RA with sufficient quality for concrete, resulting in
a more expensive process. After the initial pre-screening, which probably removes
a higher number of contaminants when compared with the previous type of CDW,
the material goes through a jaw crusher followed by an electromagnetic separation
stage. The second screening stage may also contain an air-sifting process to remove
the likely presence of lightweight particles (e.g., gypsum).
Other steps may also be implemented depending on the initial batch’s level of
contamination and intended output quality. For example, secondary and tertiary
crushing stages may be applied to coarse particles. This results in fragments with a
rounder shape and with lower adhered mortar content. An Eddy-current separator
may also be part of the process to remove non-ferrous metals from the CDW after
going through the electromagnetic separator.

1.2.2 Main types of recycled aggregates from construction and

demolition waste
In spite of the mass existence of other constituents resulting from CDW activities
and potentially adequate for some construction applications (e.g., asphalt planings),
there are three main types of RA from CDW (Fig. 1.3) that are suitable for use in
the production of RA concrete (RAC) (Silva et al., 2014b):
1. RCA: according to many specifications, this RA is usually comprised of a minimum of
90%, by mass, of concrete fragments and natural stone [Rc and Ru, respectively, as per
EN-933-11 (2009)].
2. Recycled masonry aggregate (RMA): Masonry rubble is a collective designation for vari-
ous mineral building materials resulting from the CDW of buildings and civil engineering
structures (Hansen, 1992). This type of RA is composed of a minimum of 90%, by mass,
of these materials [Rb according to EN-933-11 (2009)].
3. MRAs: This material is composed of varying amounts of crushed and graded concrete (Rc 1 Ru)
and masonry rubble (Rb) within the limits of the two previous RA. This type is the most likely
to be obtained from CDW recycling plants, since there is still a generalised lack of material
segregation at the origin, thereby resulting in a material with a fairly complex composition.

Figure 1.3 Types of RA: RCA (left); RMA (centre); MRA (right). RA, Recycled aggregate;
RCAs, Recycled concrete aggregates; RMA, Recycled masonry aggregate; MRA, Mixed
recycled aggregate.
Construction and demolition waste 5

Aside from the properties that are also typically assessed for natural aggregates
(NA), some innate to RA also have to be evaluated to ascertain their feasibility in
concrete production. The standard EN-933
11 (2009) presents a simple method for
the examination of coarse RA with the purpose of identifying and estimating the
relative proportions of constituent materials separated in the following six
categories:
G
Rc—concrete and products thereof;
G
Ru—unbound NA;
G
Rb—ceramic bricks and tiles, calcium silicate masonry units;
G
Ra—bituminous materials;
G
Rg—glass; and
G
X—other materials (includes gypsum plaster, plastic, metals, rubber, soil, wood).

1.3 Influence of recycled aggregates on the fresh-state

performance of concrete
The workability of RAC, being one of the fundamental properties of fresh concrete,
apart from being influenced by the concrete’s mix design, is also considerably
affected by the replacement ratio of NA with RA, physical properties of RA and
their moisture content. Most of the literature shows that a worse workability is
likely to be observed with increasing RA content (Etxeberria et al., 2007; Barra and
Vázquez, 1998; Khatib, 2005; Buyle-Bodin and Hadjieva-Zaharieva, 2002; Yang
et al., 2008). Assuming that the water absorption of the RA is not compensated, the
decrease in consistence is probably lower when using RCA than when using MRA
and RMA, which contain more porous particles capable of absorbing the mixing
water.
The quality of the original material can vary significantly, which also influences
the water absorption capacity of the resulting RA. The RA resulting from the bene-
ficiation of high-strength concrete or ceramic bricks tend to present lower water
absorption in comparison with those obtained from lower strength products and,
thus, do not have such a great influence on the workability loss of the resulting con-
crete (Khalaf and DeVenny, 2004; Pedro et al., 2014; Otsuki et al., 2003).
Conversely, finer RA fractions, which are generally looked upon as lower-quality
material, typically present higher water absorption levels when compared to corre-
sponding coarser fractions (Teranishi et al., 1998). This occurs as a result of the
fragmentation of particles during the CDW’s beneficiation process, wherein the
adhered mortar and other porous constituents tend to accumulate in the finer frac-
tion (Rodrigues et al., 2013).
To offset the workability loss due to the RA’s higher water absorption, the most
implemented approach and with the best results in terms of workability over time
has been through the addition of compensation water. This can be achieved by pre-
saturating the RA before the mixing process or by incorporating more water during
the process itself. The latter is likely to produce RAC with more stable consistence
6 New Trends in Eco-efficient and Recycled Concrete

values in comparison with concrete containing pre-saturated RA (Ferreira et al.,

2011). The water compensation method consists of using additional water during
the mixing process corresponding to the amount absorbed by RA throughout the
mixing stage until the slump test (Fonseca et al., 2011; Pereira et al., 2012a;
Ferreira et al., 2011; Bravo et al., 2017b). Poon et al. (2004) studied the influence
of concrete containing 100% RCA at different moisture conditions and with similar
total w/c ratio. The results showed that RAC containing dry RCA and with greater
amount of mixing water presented higher initial slump values when compared to
natural aggregate concrete (NAC) whereas RCA at a saturated and surface-dry state
produced concrete with similar slump values to those of the control mix.
Nevertheless, after 15
30 min, all mixes, regardless of the RCA’s moisture state,
presented equivalent slump levels to those of the NAC indicating that most of the
RCA’s water absorption capacity had been reached.
Naturally, aside from the addition of extra water, it is possible to offset the
workability loss of RAC mixes with equivalent total w/c ratio to that of a corre-
sponding NAC with the use of water reducing admixtures. However, it is likely that
this only occurs at an initial stage as the uncompensated RA will absorb much of
the free water after the mixing process (Domingo-Cabo et al., 2009, 2010), resulting
in a progressively stiffer mix over time regardless of the water reducing admixture
content. Furthermore, even in circumstances where the RA’s water absorption is
partly compensated, the admixture’s effectiveness may decrease with increasing
replacement levels due to the RA’s rougher surface and thus higher surface area
(Cartuxo et al., 2015, 2016; Pereira et al., 2012a,b; Teranishi et al., 1998; Meddah
and Sato, 2010; Pedro et al., 2017a).
Stability properties, such as bleeding and segregation, are more likely to be
affected as cases where the mixes are more fluid and with higher w/c ratios.
Although this intuitively would not pose a problem in RA-containing mixes due to
their rough surface and absorption of the mixing water, as most of the literature
indicates (Kutegeza and Alexander, 2004; Koulouris et al., 2004; Yanagibashi
et al., 2002; Kou and Poon, 2009b; Corinaldesi and Moriconi, 2011; Dhir et al.,
1999; Van Der Wegen and Haverkort, 1998; Yang et al., 2008; Carro-Lopez et al.,
2017; Kumar et al., 2017), since complete water compensation approaches may be
implemented, the resulting mixes may present some stability-related issues. It was
ascertained that the incorporation of saturated and surface-dry RA, obtained through
pre-saturation, is more likely to cause some bleeding when compared to correspond-
ing NAC mixes (Dhir et al., 1999; Debieb and Kenai, 2008). Furthermore, this phe-
nomenon may also occur in cases where the RA’s absorption capacity is completely
compensated through the addition of extra water during the mixing process (Poon
et al., 2004).
There is a consensus in the literature that increasing the replacement ratio results
in a linear decrease of the fresh density of concrete. An average loss in density of
about 5% is expected with the incorporation of 100% coarse RA (Amorim et al.,
2012; Buyle-Bodin and Hadjieva-Zaharieva, 2002; Cachim, 2009; Ferreira et al.,
2011; Park, 1999; Vieira et al., 2011; Thomas et al., 2013; Casuccio et al., 2008;
Adams et al., 2016; Akca et al., 2015; Malešev et al., 2010; Pickel et al., 2017;
Another random document with
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eat that too. He had eaten so
much, though, that he couldn’t; so
he put it into his pocket. “It will do
for my breakfast,” he thought.
Poor Tursio was much ashamed of
the marionette, and Marsovino
was not less so. If they had only
known that Pinocchio was so rude
as to take things from the table
and put them into his pocket, they
would never have invited him to
dinner. Still they did not say a
word.
“Run along, now, children. Mr.
Beluga and I must talk about
business, and we cannot have you
around.”
 “‘It will do for my Breakfast,’ he thought.”

The two boys left the dolphins together and went off. While enjoying
themselves looking around, Marsovino picked up something which
looked like a chain. It was made of small round balls all alike, and
transparent. He handed it to Pinocchio.
“Tell me,” he said, “do you know what this is?”
“Why, yes, it is a bead chain. It is easy enough to know that.”
“Are you sure?”
“Yes, of course. I have seen them
many times around little girls’ necks.”
“And if I told you that they are eggs—”
“Eggs?” murmured Pinocchio. “Eggs?
This thing?”
“Yes, sir, that is what they really are;
the eggs of a halibut. It is a bad habit,
Pinocchio, to make believe you know
a thing when you do not. I am afraid I
am not going to be your friend.”
“Not my friend?” came from the poor
shamefaced marionette.
“No. Mr. Tursio has always told me to keep away from boys who—”
“Tell lies, I suppose you want to say,” finished Pinocchio.
“I was told to go with boys who are polite,” continued Marsovino.
“And instead I even take the plates away with me when I am invited
to dinner,” said Pinocchio.
“I was told to make friends with educated children.”
“And I—yes, I might as well confess it—I have hardly ever seen the
inside of a classroom in my life. Well, Marsovino, I will try to make
myself your friend. Will you try me again?”
“Very well, I will. Now let us return.”
The dolphins were still talking busily when the boys came up to
them. They seemed very much in earnest.
“Here we are, father,” called Marsovino.
“At last! Where have you been? We have important things to say to
you. Come here, both of you!”
“What is it? We are all ears.”
“My friend Beluga has been telling me that while I have been away
from home I have lost much money. He has told me of a great
treasure that is to be found in an old ship far away from here. As I
need it very much just now, I do wish I could get hold of it.”
“Well,” answered Marsovino, “why can’t we go for it?”
“Because it is miles and miles away. Not only that, but we should
have to travel as far up as the polar seas, and into the great oceans.
We could never do it. You see, I am getting old. I could hardly
attempt to cross those icy waters. Still, I need the money so much
that I am afraid I shall have to try the journey.”
“Why couldn’t Globicephalous and I go instead of you, father?”
asked Marsovino.
“And I also,” timidly added Pinocchio.
“Globicephalous is too old. And as for you two, my dear boys, you do
not know what you are saying. Do you know that for months and
months the polar seas are in darkness? That the sun is seen only in
the spring and summer?”
“I know, but it is now winter, and we should reach those seas just at
the right time. We should be back before the fall.”
“And are you not afraid of the cold?”
“It will not be cold. I will swim deep in the water, and there the water
will be warm. I will come to the surface only long enough to breathe.”
“What about the ice? What about those monsters of the seas, the
whales, the sharks, the narwhals?”
“You need the treasure. I have made up my mind to go,” answered
Marsovino, firmly.
“You might escape all the dangers I mention, my boy, and reach the
ship. But how could you ever get hold of the gold inside?”
“I might tear a hole in the ship with my strong tail,” began Marsovino.
“A ship a block long, and all made of iron? It is of no use, my boy.”
The young dolphin was silent. How could he get into the ship? He
thought and thought, but he could find no answer.
“May I go, too?” here began Pinocchio.
“You?” asked Tursio and Marsovino, at the same time.
“Yes, I. Why not? If Marsovino cannot get into the ship because he is
too big, I am so small I can get into any hole,” continued the
marionette.
“That isn’t a bad idea, is it, father?”
“No, but do you really feel courageous enough, you two, to
undertake such a journey?”
“We’ll do our best,” answered Marsovino.
“Well, then, all right. Let us return to Globicephalous, and then you
will get ready to start. Beluga, I will be with you again soon. I might
as well wait here with you for Marsovino and Pinocchio to return.”
After saying good-by to Beluga the young dolphin followed Tursio,
who seemed in haste to get to Globicephalous.
Sitting on the dolphin’s back,
Pinocchio was thinking how good he
had been in offering to go with
Marsovino. But he soon forgot this in
another surprise. In front of him, not
far away, he saw a number of animals
rise out of the sea.
They rose, shook their colored wings
gaily, and then fell back again into the
water. No sooner had they
disappeared than others came, and
then again others. How beautiful they
were! Red, blue, and green, and
shining brightly in the sun.
“Birds in the sea! Oh, they will drown!”
screamed Pinocchio.
“Oh, no, these birds will not drown. They live in the sea, my boy.
They are called flying fish,” explained Tursio.
“When shall I stop hearing news?” wondered Pinocchio. “So there
are also birds in the sea!”
“Almost birds, but not quite. These fish have very strong fins and
with them they can leap very high. As you see, they even leap out of
the water. Why do they do this, do you think? Because they want to
escape from the large fish, which follow them to eat them.”
Pinocchio had nothing to say. Meanwhile, the three friends had
reached the place where Globicephalous was waiting. Tursio told
him in a few words what Marsovino and Pinocchio had planned to do
to help him.
Very soon the two boys were ready to start.
“Well, good-by, boys,” said Tursio, after telling them how to reach the
ship. “I will no longer try to stop you from going. Only be careful.
Keep to yourselves, and you will meet with little trouble. Do not stop
on your way. Hasten back, or I shall be worried. Above all, never get
out of the water. The tide might go out, and you, Marsovino, would
be in great danger.”
Marsovino and Pinocchio listened carefully; and then, with a cheerful
good-by, they were off.
A few hours later Tursio and Globicephalous were with Beluga, and
Marsovino and Pinocchio were speeding away towards the great
oceans, treasure hunting.
 CHAPTER XII
Marsovino and Pinocchio traveled swiftly. They
passed a strait, crossed a canal, left beautiful lands
behind them, and at last came out fearlessly into
the great ocean. They never stopped.
When the moon shone they traveled on the surface
of the water. If the sky was dark and gloomy, the
dolphin plunged deep into the sea. There the two
friends had plenty of light. Great medusæ and sun
fishes made the water light and bright. Very often,
too, the wonderful phosphorescence of the sea
aided them in seeing their way. Pinocchio felt satisfied when
Marsovino explained the cause of this phosphorescence to him. At
first, though, he could hardly believe his ears.
“When the Moon shone they traveled on the Surface of the
Water.”

The journey was very peaceful, and nothing came to trouble the two
little heroes.
“What is that dark blue streak there, Marsovino?” asked Pinocchio,
one day. He was pointing out a wide band of dark blue water, which
stood out distinctly from the lighter green of the ocean.
“That? Oh, that is the Gulf Stream,” answered Marsovino.
“The Gulf Stream? What are you talking about? A stream running in
the ocean! Water running in water!”
“Yes, of course it is all water. But there is a difference between ocean
water and Gulf Stream water. The first, in general, is quiet, the
second is moving. That stream is just like a river flowing between
two valleys. The waters of the two never mix. If you try, you will find
that the ocean is much the colder of the two.”
“But what is the use of it?”
“Why, it is of great use. This stream carries warmth to the cold
regions of the north. It cools the hot countries of the tropics. Without
this saving current, life would not be pleasant in many countries.”
“Hurrah for the river in the middle of the sea, then!” shouted
Pinocchio. He had understood little, so he thought it better not to
speak further on the subject.
Towards noon of the same day the sea began to be filled with
herrings. They were on all sides. Our two travelers were surrounded.
Pinocchio enjoyed being with the silvery animals.
Soon, however, there were so many that Marsovino found it hard to
move. Still, the kind little fellow, seeing that Pinocchio was enjoying
himself, did not try to get away. After a while, however, the herrings
became so numerous that the ocean looked like a sea of silver, not
of water. Pinocchio and the dolphin were being pushed and shoved
around without mercy.
“I am being killed, stifled,” whispered Pinocchio. Yes, he whispered.
If he had opened his mouth a herring could easily have slipped into
it. This might not have been very pleasant.
Marsovino finally saw that the herring had become as thick as a
stone wall. So with a few strong strokes of his tail, he made his way
to the surface of the water.
“Ah! now I can breathe!” exclaimed
Pinocchio. “In that fishy world I
thought I should die.”
As night had come, and as it was very
dark, our friends began to think of
sleep. Anyway, even if they had tried
to move, they could hardly have
passed through that multitude.
Just as the sun rose, Pinocchio
opened his eyes. He had had a very
good sleep on the back of his
swimming horse. Looking around, he
could not help crying out in surprise.
“Marsovino! Wake up!” he called. “Just
look! Yesterday we were swimming in a sea of silver. To-day we are
floating in milk.”
It was really the truth. No sign of herrings was left. But as far as eye
could reach one could see only a thick heavy liquid as white as milk.
“Oh, how splendid!” cried Pinocchio. “Now I can have as much milk
as I want. It looks good.”
Marsovino had awakened, but he never said a word. He wanted to
see what Pinocchio would do. The marionette, thinking himself right,
bent over and took a long drink of milk, as he thought. But he had no
sooner had a taste than he made a wry face.
“Why, it is salty.”
“Of course it is. Is this the first time you have heard of the sea being
salt?”
“But this is not water. Look how white it is. It looks like milk.”
“Do you know why it is so? The water looks white because of the
eggs left in it by the herrings of yesterday.”
“Eggs? But there must be thousands of them?”
“Yes, and millions.”
“But the sea will soon be full of herrings, then.”
“No fear of that, Pinocchio. Think of the many large fish that are in
the sea. They live on these eggs and on small fishes. Why, they can
and they do swallow hundreds of eggs at a time. The sea is big
enough to hold all its fish and more. You don’t think we are crowded,
do you?”
“Last night we certainly were.”
“One night is not every night. You see, herrings travel in great
numbers, and we happened to meet a school of them.”
“Oh, they go to school, do they? Well, I never before thought a fish
had to go to school, too!” mumbled Pinocchio to himself.
After traveling a long time through the milky sea, the two travelers at
last came out of it.
Soon after a long, sharp, flat blade rose suddenly out of the water. It
looked like a sword, and Pinocchio, of course, thought it was one.
“What have we here?” he asked. “A soldier battling in the sea? And
is that thing his sword?”
“You can hardly be blamed for thinking it a sword. It looks very much
like one,” said Marsovino. “It is the long upper jaw of a fish, and from
this it receives its name, swordfish. With this weapon, as it is very
strong, the fish can defend himself against much larger animals. I
hope he won’t come near us.”
Luckily for the two friends, he did not. The sword disappeared into
the sea, and the travelers continued their journey.
“I must dive now, to see where we are,” said Marsovino; and soon
Pinocchio found himself at the bottom of the sea. Curious as ever,
the marionette looked around, peering here and peering there.
Seeing some cuplike objects hanging on the rocks,
he put out his hands for them. They looked very soft
and were full of holes. But as soon as Pinocchio
touched them, the holes disappeared, and the cups
clung tightly to the rocks.
“Oh, excuse me,” begged Pinocchio, “I thought you
were sponges.”
“And what are they, if not that?” laughingly asked Marsovino.
“But they move just as if they were alive!”
“And is not the sponge an animal?”
“Really? Do you mean it?”
“Why, yes. The sponge is not only one animal, but a number of
animals living together. And what do you think hides in that cuplike
sponge you see there, to live a quiet happy life in it?”
“What?”
“The pearl oyster.”
“Honestly? Oh! Do you think I could get some? I know how precious
pearls are. Why, I could make myself rich! I could buy houses and
horses and automobiles and—Oh! Oh!” and Pinocchio started to
dance a jig on the sandy floor.
Marsovino was laughing.
“You may try. You may have luck.”
Pinocchio did not have to be told twice. He searched and searched
every sponge he could lay his hands on. As a result, he found a
great many shells.
“And what now?” he asked.
“Now you must open them, to see if any pearls are inside.”
“What is the use of opening them? You said these were all pearl
oysters. I’ll carry them and open them later.”
“But many of them may have no pearls
at all. You see,” continued Marsovino,
opening a shell, “this one has none. But
do you see this coating of many colors
on the inside of the shell? That is a
substance which comes from the body
of the mollusk. It is called mother of
pearl. When the oyster opens its shell, a
grain of sand may get into it. The oyster
does not like this, as the stone hurts her,
but she can’t throw it out. So she covers
it up with this substance from her body.
When the little stone is all covered up,
we have a lovely pearl.”
“Who would ever have thought such a thing
possible!” thought Pinocchio, getting to
work. He soon had a large number of
oysters; but when he opened them he found
only a few small balls.
“Come here, Pinocchio. You may have
better luck in this corner,” and Marsovino
led the way to a nook in the rocks. “Look in
there.”
Again Pinocchio searched, and soon a
great many shells lay at his feet ready to be
opened. Without mercy, he went at them,
tearing and pulling the poor little creatures from their homes. His
search finished, he threw them aside. The sand was soon covered
with the dead and the dying.
“Poor little beings!” observed Marsovino. “After they have given you
their pearls, is that the way to treat them? Could you not be more
careful?”
Pinocchio had a kind soul. He was only thoughtless. So he went to
work and tried to undo the wrong he had done. Those oysters which
were only slightly hurt he put back into their shells; while he ate the
others, and so ended their sufferings.
This work finished, he went on with his search for pearls. In a short
time he had a small pile of beautiful pearls. Some were large, some
small, some globular, and others shaped like drops of water.
In color, too, they were different. Almost all were white, some faintly
pink, a few grayish, and one was all black.
“Well, Pinocchio, you have enough. With them you will be as rich as
the king of China. Come now. We must go on with our journey.”
“But these pearls, where shall I put them? I wish I had a bag or a
box.”
“It will not be so hard to find that. Let’s look around.”
The dolphin swam around. He did not stay away long. Soon he came
back, holding a small object out to Pinocchio. It was a little cubical
body, and seemed like a strange-looking box.
“Here is the box, my friend,” he called.
“Well, what is this?” asked Pinocchio, looking at the object. It was
hard and dark, and reminded him of the shell which had saved his
life.
“That was a fish.”
“A fish? That box?”
“Exactly. This is only its shell, but once a fish lived in it. It is called
the sea urchin. That box you have there helps him to defend himself.
Do you notice how hard it is?”
“Well, the sea is certainly a wonderful place. Once upon a time I
hated it. Now I should like to be a fish, so as to live in it always.”
 CHAPTER XIII
The journey was progressing rapidly. Blue skies
and green countries had disappeared. Gone were
the many-colored fish. Sea and sky were of a dark
gray color. Why all this? Because our two friends
had reached the cold north, where for so many
months no sun shines.
Luckily, though, spring had begun. The sun showed
itself for a while every day. And every day it showed
itself a little longer. In the summer it would be there even at midnight.
The cold was very great. Pinocchio had a fur suit which Tursio had
given him, but still he was almost freezing. Marsovino also suffered.
“It will be better for us if we dive deep into the sea,” he observed.
“We shall find it warmer there.”
“Please wait awhile,” begged Pinocchio.
“I want to see that island first,” and with
his hand Pinocchio pointed to a high
mountain still far away. It was as white
as snow, and seemed almost to touch
the sky.
“Oh, you want to see that island,”
repeated Marsovino, chuckling to
himself. “Very well.”
“Yes, it does look queer, doesn’t it? I
wonder if there are people on it?”
“Perhaps. We shall see.”
It seemed as if the island had heard
Pinocchio speak. Strange to say, it was
coming to meet the dolphin and his friend. And with it were two
others.
“Look! look!” shouted Pinocchio. “The islands at the pole walk! This
is fun!”
“Yes, they are taking a walk, as you see,” answered Marsovino, who
was enjoying himself, too. “But if they come nearer, our journey will
end right here.”
He had not finished speaking when a
terrific noise was heard. The sound
was deafening. Pinocchio found
himself thrown from his horse into the
water. When he opened his eyes—he
always closed them when he was
frightened—no islands were to be
seen.
“Marsovino! Marsovino! Help! Help!”
he cried, fearing he had lost his friend.
“Here I am! Come!”
Swiftly the marionette swam to the
dolphin, and again climbed on his
back.
“Will you please tell me what happened to those islands? Or are we
in fairyland? I never knew lands could disappear in a minute like
that!”
“Those were not islands, my dear Pinocchio. They were icebergs.
These great mountains of ice, when they come against each other,
are broken into bits. See, all that is left of them are pieces of ice;”
and Marsovino pointed to ice which was floating on the sea.
The next day Pinocchio had another surprise. In front of him, as far
as he could see, was a city of ice. Everything was flat, everything
was white.
Immense landscapes, snowy white, met his eye wherever he turned.
Mountains of ice could be seen in the distance. And, wonderful to
see, the ice was so clear and transparent that it looked like glass.
When the sun shone on it, it sparkled and showed all the colors of
the rainbow.
Pinocchio thought himself in fairyland. But as he was looking, a
strong wind rose suddenly; and then the icebergs fell and broke with
deafening noise.
Finally, Marsovino thought it best to
swim far under water. He was afraid of
losing his life in the midst of all those
icebergs.
Two days later the two boys rounded
the southern point of Greenland. On
the sandy shore of this island
continent could be seen a large
number of animals. They had round
clumsy bodies, each having a small
head with two small bright eyes.
Where we have arms, they had what
looked like very strong fins.
These animals were seals. Their bodies were covered with reddish-
brown fur. Lying on the sand, they were enjoying the warmth of the
sun. The young ones were playing with one another and enjoying
themselves, too.
Pinocchio paid little attention to them. But suddenly out of the water
came another band. The newcomers were somewhat different from
the seals, but they belonged to the same family.
Their fur was almost black, not brown, and their heads were larger.
They were walruses. From their mouths two long, thick ivory teeth
protruded. They looked very fierce, and soon they showed their
fierceness.
Seeing that the beach was occupied, and wanting it for themselves,
they started to fight for it. The seals fought very bravely, but what
could they do against those terrible teeth? The poor wounded beasts
struggled and kept up cries of “pa—pa—pa—pa.”
“Listen to that. They are calling ‘papa.’ I never thought fish could
talk,” said Pinocchio.
“First of all, seals are not fish, but mammals. And
then there are some fish which do produce sounds.
Tunnies, when out of the water, cry like children.
Some poulpes, when caught, groan. Others make a
sound like a whistle.”
“I am ready to believe anything,” Pinocchio said
very weakly. “But what is a poulpe?”
“Oh, that is another name for the octopus or
devilfish,” was the reply.
The fight continued, but the seals were soon conquered. The
victorious walruses were not to enjoy their victory, however.
While the fight was still waging, some fishermen had quietly come up
to the field of battle. Before long many of the combatants lay dead,
and were carried away into boats. The few that were left forgot the
fight, and were happy enough to escape into the water.
 CHAPTER XIV
The boys traveled two weeks longer, and at last
Marsovino thought himself near his destination. So
he dived into the water to a great depth.
After a while, as he sank deeper and deeper into
the sea, Pinocchio became frightened. They were
down so far that no light from the sun could reach
them.
“Where are you carrying me to, my dear?” he
asked. “If we go any farther, we cannot possibly live. How could we,
with this immense amount of water over us?”
“We’ll be all right, my boy, never fear. If little fish like that can live
here, why, so can we.”
Marsovino was pointing to many horrible dark objects which were
swimming around him. They had a round head, great black bodies,
no eyes, and from their heads a long thread moved about in the
water. At the end of the threads were small lights.
“What ugly things!” said Pinocchio. “What are they, and why do they
have those small lights on their heads?”
“If you look closely, you will see that those little beings have no eyes.
So they depend on these lights for their food. Other animals are
drawn to the lights. When they are near enough these animals feel
them. Then they are seized and eaten.”
“The sea is wonderful,” nodded Pinocchio, drowsily, “but don’t you
think that we might take some sleep? I am very tired.”
“Very well,” said Marsovino.
Pinocchio threw himself on the sand, and in a few minutes both
friends were asleep.