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Distributed Sensor Arrays
Localization
Distributed Sensor Arrays
Localization

By
Prabhakar S. Naidu
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 Dedication

This work is dedicated to the memory of my mentor, the

late Professor B.S. Ramakrishna, who shaped my career
in the Department of Communication Engineering,
Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India.
Contents
Preface.......................................................................................................................xi
Acknowledgments................................................................................................... xiii
Author....................................................................................................................... xv

Chapter 1 Distributed Sensor Arrays.....................................................................1

1.1 Regular Sensor Array.................................................................1
1.2 Wired Sensor Array....................................................................2
1.2.1 DSA Response...............................................................3
1.2.2 Focused Beam............................................................... 4
1.2.3 Boundary Array............................................................ 7
1.3 Autonomous Wireless Sensor Network ..................................... 7
1.3.1 Wireless Sensor Network (WSN)................................ 10
1.4 Types of Sensors....................................................................... 12
1.4.1 Thermal Sensor........................................................... 13
1.4.2 Microphone................................................................. 14
1.4.3 Hydrophones................................................................ 15
1.4.4 Accelerometer............................................................. 16
1.4.5 Electromagnetic (EM) Sensors................................... 19
1.4.6 Electric Sensors........................................................... 19
1.4.7 Magnetic Sensors........................................................ 19
1.4.8 Hall Effect...................................................................20
1.4.9 Nanosensors................................................................ 21
References........................................................................................... 22

Chapter 2 Basic Inputs......................................................................................... 23

2.1 Received Signal Strength......................................................... 23
2.2 Lighthouse Effect.....................................................................25
2.2.1 Beam Generation.........................................................26
2.2.2 Prototype.....................................................................28
2.2.3 Events with Large Propagation Speed Difference......28
2.3 Time of Arrival.........................................................................28
2.4 Time Difference of Arrival...................................................... 31
2.4.1 TDoA with a Reference Transmitter........................... 32
2.5 Frequency Difference of Arrival.............................................. 32
2.6 Direction of Arrival ................................................................. 36
2.7 Phase Change........................................................................... 38
2.8 Instantaneous Frequency.......................................................... 39
2.9 Summary.................................................................................. 39
References...........................................................................................40

vii
viii Contents

Chapter 3 Estimation of ToA/TDoA/FDoA........................................................ 41

3.1 Generalized Cross-Correlation................................................. 41
3.2 Time Delay as FIR Filter.......................................................... 45
3.3 Eigenvector Approach.............................................................. 49
3.4 Subspace Approach.................................................................. 54
3.5 Capon’s Minimum Variance..................................................... 57
3.6 Adaptive Notch Filter...............................................................60
3.6.1 Adaptation Scheme......................................................64
3.6.2 Delay Estimation.........................................................64
3.7 Instantaneous Frequency Spectrum......................................... 67
3.8 Phase-Based Methods............................................................... 69
3.8.1 Multitone Signaling..................................................... 71
3.8.2 Sliding FDFT.............................................................. 73
3.9 Frequency Difference of Arrival.............................................. 76
3.9.1 Adaptive Frequency Detector...................................... 77
3.9.2 Computational Complexity......................................... 82
3.10 Summary.................................................................................. 82
References........................................................................................... 83

Chapter 4 Localization......................................................................................... 85
4.1 Received Signal Strength......................................................... 85
4.1.1 Transmitter Coordinates.............................................. 87
4.1.2 Estimation Errors........................................................90
4.2 ToA Measurements................................................................... 93
4.2.1 Simple Method............................................................ 93
4.2.2 Iterative Method..........................................................94
4.3 TDoA Measurements...............................................................99
4.3.1 Re-Minimization.........................................................99
4.3.2 Treat Range as a Variable.......................................... 103
4.3.3 Annihilation of Range Variable................................ 105
4.3.4 Direction Cosines...................................................... 106
4.4 FDoA Measurements.............................................................. 108
4.4.1 Differential Doppler.................................................. 112
4.5 DoA Measurements................................................................ 113
4.5.1 Errors in Node Position............................................. 114
4.5.2 Errors in DoA............................................................ 115
4.5.3 Analysis of Bias ........................................................ 118
4.5.4 Total Least Squares (TLS)........................................ 119
4.6 Compressive Sensing.............................................................. 120
4.6.1 Compressive Sampling Matching Pursuit
(CoSaMP)...................................................................... 122
4.6.2 Localization .............................................................. 123
4.6.3 Far Field..................................................................... 123
4.6.4 Near Field.................................................................. 128
Contents ix

4.6.5 One-Bit Quantized Measurements ........................... 130

4.7 Summary................................................................................ 135
References......................................................................................... 136

Chapter 5 Hybrid Methods for Localization...................................................... 137

5.1 Combined Use of FDoA and TDoA....................................... 137
5.1.1 Narrow Band............................................................. 137
5.1.2 Annihilating Matrix.................................................. 139
5.2 Direct Position Determination................................................ 140
5.3 DoA from Distributed Sensors............................................... 145
5.4 Expectation-Maximization Algorithm................................... 156
5.4.1 Expectation Step (E-Step)......................................... 158
5.4.2 Maximization Step (M-Step).................................... 160
5.4.3 Estimation of Transmitted Signal.............................. 162
5.5 Localization in a Multipath Environment.............................. 163
5.5.1 Time Domain............................................................ 163
5.5.2 Frequency Domain.................................................... 169
5.6 Summary................................................................................ 173
References......................................................................................... 175

Chapter 6 Self-Localization............................................................................... 177

6.1 Anchor-Based Localization.................................................... 177
6.1.1 Cooperative Localization.......................................... 182
6.1.2 Subspace Positioning Approach................................ 184
6.2 Anchor-Free Localization...................................................... 189
6.2.1 Multidimensional Scaling......................................... 189
6.2.2 Basis Point MDS....................................................... 194
6.2.3 1D Space.................................................................... 195
6.2.4 2D Space................................................................... 195
6.2.5 3D Space.................................................................... 197
6.2.6 Missing Data............................................................. 199
6.2.7 Computational Load.................................................. 199
6.3 Clock Synchronization...........................................................200
6.3.1 Single Reply.............................................................. 201
6.3.2 Double Reply.............................................................202
6.3.3 Linear Model............................................................. 203
6.3.4 Joint Estimation of Offset, Skew (Drift), and Delay..... 206
6.3.5 Estimation of Travel Time.........................................208
6.4 Summary................................................................................ 211
References......................................................................................... 212

Index....................................................................................................................... 213
Preface
Uniformly distributed sensor arrays are impractical, as there is every likelihood that
placement errors will lead to the response function veering off the theoretical response.
In the extreme case, the sensors may be arbitrarily distributed, as when an array is
launched from the air. Such an array is a distributed sensor array (DSA), the subject
matter of the present work. The primary objective of any array processing is simply the
localization of one or more transmitters and the estimation of the transmitted signal.
In DSA, there is an additional twist as the sensor position is unknown. We need to
localize both transmitter and sensors from the same observations. A DSA may consist
of a few tens to a few hundred sensors. A sensor may be able to communicate with its
immediate neighbor(s) and relay the information it has received from a transmitter(s).
Different types of information of interest from the point of localization are covered
in Chapter 2. The most important and relatively simple ones are relative signal strength
(RSS), time of arrival (ToA), and time difference of arrival (TDoA), which we discuss
in Chapters 3 and 4. When a transmitter is moving with respect to an array (gen-
erally assumed to be stationary), there is an additional piece of information known
as frequency difference of arrival (FDoA). A transmitter is the point source and the
wavefield is sampled by a randomly spaced sensor array. This situation is an ideal
candidate for the application of compressive sensing, which we describe in Chapter 4.
Two or more parameters may be estimated at the same time using the sensor outputs,
either directly or recursively, as in an expectation–maximization (EM) algorithm. This
aspect is covered in Chapter 5. Finally, in Chapter 6, we look into the possibility of
self-localization with topics, such as cooperative localization and multidimensional
scaling. We also look into clock synchronization, in particular how to reduce the effect
of synchronization error by means of single- or double-reply approaches.
This work will be of interest to those working in the area of array signal processing,
particularly when confronted with large distributed arrays. As the book covers prac-
tically all popular and not-so-popular methods, it will be of interest to all those who
are just approaching the topic of distributed sensor array. This volume can also be
used as a reference book for courses on array signal processing.
I have maintained the same style of presentation as in my previous works. All ideas
are presented in mathematical language with illustrative examples, wherever required.
MATLAB® is a registered trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. For product informa-
tion, please
contact:
The MathWorks, Inc.
3 Apple Hill Drive
Natick, MA 01760-2098 USA
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Web: www.mathworks.com

xi
Acknowledgments
The significance of distributed sensor arrays struck my mind while teaching and
researching regular arrays and their applications for over a decade. But in the real
world, arrays are rarely perfect. Small to large imperfections, very common in prac-
tical setup, can lead to serious errors in the modeled response. This has led to sensor
array where all sensors are indeed assumed as randomly distributed. The problem
now turns out to be localization of both transmitter and sensors. I pursue this line of
research at MVGR College of Engineering in Vizianagram, Andhra Pradesh, India,
as a visiting professor. Many students contributed to this endeavor. It is difficult to
name them all, but here are a few names of those who made important contributions:
Soujanya, Kiran, Keertan, Mrudula, Surekha, Tejaswi, Vysalini, Venkataramana,
Sagarika, Anuradha, Prithviraj, Sagar, and Chaitenya. Finally, I would like to thank
the management of MVGR College, in particular, Professor K.V.L. Raju, for giving
me this opportunity.

xiii
Author
Prabhakar Naiduhas pursued research and teaching in signal processing for over
30 years at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. His basic training has
been in geophysical signal processing. His earlier published books are Modern
Spectral Analysis of Time Series (CRC Press, 1996), Analysis of Geophysical
Potential Fields: A DSP Approach (Elsevier, 1998), Modern Digital Signal
Processing: An Introduction (Narosa, 2003), and Sensor Array Signal Processing
(CRC Press, 2001). Dr. Naidu is currently a visiting professor at MVGR College
of Engineering, Vizianagram, Andhra Pradesh, India, and his e-mail address is
psnaidu101@gmail.com.

xv
 1 Distributed Sensor Arrays

There are many engineering applications where it is difficult to build a regular array
because of practical limitations, in the case of a forest fire or for flood control, for
example. During war, to monitor enemy troop movement, wireless sensors are often
used by projecting them into enemy territory. In such a situation, it is impossible to
build a regular sensor array. Likewise, in wireless communications, non-invasive
localization of a tumor in biomedical investigation, when tracking a moving vehicle,
leakage of crude oil from a pipeline, or in seismic exploration for hydro-carbons,
placement of sensors is often constrained by the accessible space.
This chapter explores different localization techniques where the sensors are ran-
domly distributed. Since time synchronization is a difficult task in distributed sensor
arrays (DSAs), we emphasize methods that do not require time synchronization.
Toward this end, we provide details of localization methods based on received signal
strength, lighthouse effect, frequency difference of arrival (FDoA) measurements,
and phase difference estimation.
DSAs are considered wired when all sensors are connected to a central processor,
either through physical wire or microwave communication (wireless). In the first cat-
egory, we have a regularly shaped array, for example, linear, rectangular, or circular
arrays of known geometry. There are irregularly distributed but wired sensors; for
example, randomly distributed sensors at known locations, connected to a central
processor. When the array is very large and is populated with many tiny sensors with
limited power source, it is no longer possible for sensors to individually communi-
cate to the central processor. Either a sensor communicates with its nearest neighbor
or at utmost with a local processor, also known as an anchor. But the sensor position
is generally not known. Such a sensor array is known as an ad hoc array. In this chap-
ter, we shall consider the response functions of various types of sensor distributions.

1.1 REGULAR SENSOR ARRAY

A standard sensor array is a linear, rectangular, or circular array with equispaced sen-
sors. There are variations of these geometries devised for specific applications, such
as an L-shaped array in seismic monitoring or a towed array for naval applications.
Some examples of regular planar array of sensors are shown in Figure 1.1. An
important requirement is that the sensor spacing and the geometry of the array must
be precisely controlled. Phase difference between successive sensors must be con-
stant and its magnitude must be less than π . This requires the sensor spacing to
be less than half-wavelength, λ /2 (except for circular array [1]). Random errors in
the sensor spacing can result in large side lobes in the array response. Similarly,
individual sensor response, required for defining the steering vector, must be care-
fully estimated. This is known as array calibration. These are some of the nagging
problems faced by any sensor array designer. These issues have been discussed in
an earlier companion publication [2]. In the present work, we relax some of these

1
2 Distributed Sensor Arrays: Localization

Linear array L-shaped array

Uniform square array Cross array

Triangular array Circular array

FIGURE 1.1   Some examples of regular planar arrays.

stringent requirements. The sensors are no longer required to be arranged in any

specific order. Often, we have many redundant sensors, allowing a kind of trade-off
between a precisely controlled array of a small number of sensors versus an array of
a large number of randomly placed sensors.

1.2 WIRED SENSOR ARRAY

In many applications, it is not possible to achieve an ordered distribution of sensors,

particularly when we have a very large number of sensors over a large area. But the
location of sensors is precisely known. A recent example of such a large array is the
Distributed Sensor Arrays 3

largest radio telescope in the world, consisting of 25,000 small antennas distributed
over Western Europe (aperture ≈ 1000 km). Sometimes, the constraints of space, for
example in biomedical applications, demand sensors to be distributed over available
space. In a distributed array of the previously mentioned type, all sensors are wired (or
alternatively connected wirelessly) to a central processing unit where most of the sig-
nal processing tasks are carried out. Sensors, however, perform signal conditioning,
A/D conversion, and so on. Each sensor is also able to communicate with the central
processor. The location of all sensors is known, but the location of the transmitter and
the emitted signal waveform are unknown. Wired sensor arrays of this type are usu-
ally small, with a limited number of sensors strategically placed surrounding a target
of interest. Sometimes it becomes necessary to keep the target away from the sensor
array for safety or security reasons. Location estimation is based on ToA information
at each sensor. ToA estimation requires the transmitter to send out a known wave-
form at a fixed time instant. The time of arrival at each sensor is measured relative
to the instant of transmission. The clocks of all sensors and the clock at transmitter
must be synchronized to get correct ToA estimates. In addition, the transmitter must
be a friendly one so that it may be programmed to transmit a waveform at a prepro-
grammed time instant. When this is not possible (e.g., with an enemy transmitter), we
can use TDoA at all pairs of sensors whose clocks are synchronized. One advantage
of using of ToA or TDoA for localization is that it is not necessary to maintain λ /2
spacing between sensors as in a regular array. Nor is it necessary to calibrate sensors.
When a sensor is not equipped to estimate ToA/TDoA, the received signal
would be sent to the central processing unit, which will then take over the tasks
of ToA/TDoA estimation and target localization. In this case, the ToA/TDoA will
include the time of communication from the sensor to the central processing unit. As
the distance between each sensor and the central processing unit (anchor) is known,
it is easy to estimate this communication time and subtract it from the measured
ToA. This correction, however, is insignificant when we are dealing with acoustic or
seismic arrays— as the speed of a sound wave is much lower than that of electromag-
netic waves— used for communication from a sensor to the central processing unit.

1.2.1 DSA Response

As in a regular sensor array, we can think of directivity or the beam pattern of a DSA.
In a simple delay-and-sum beam formation, the outputs of all sensors, after suitable
delay, are summed up to estimate the signal emanating from the chosen test point.
Such a beam is also known as a focused beam [2]. The output power in the beam will
represent a measure of our ability to detect the presence of a transmitter at the focal
point. Thus, we can compute the array response at each point of space in the region
of interest around the sensors. A large power peak at some point reveals the prob-
able presence of a transmitter at that location. Indeed, this is the basis of mapping
microwave energy emitted by numerous stars. Preparation of such an energy map is
a highly computer-intensive task requiring a large mainframe-dedicated computer
system. It is unlikely that a large computing power will be available in most applica-
tions where a DSA is employed. Moreover, there is the other serious issue of large
side lobes found in the directivity pattern of random array. To demonstrate this, we
4 Distributed Sensor Arrays: Localization

shall consider the response of a randomly distributed sensor array (see Figure 1.2).
The sensors cover a square region with a dimension of 4λ × 4λ where λ is the wave-
length. The transmitter is placed at (40λ , 0). We have computed the response of the
random array and a regular square array of the same size. The response (magnitude)
was computed along the y-axis passing through the transmitter position.
The response functions are shown in Figure 1.3 for both randomly scattered and
regularly distributed sensors. It is interesting to observe that, while the main lobes
are identical, the side lobes of the scattered array are much larger.

1.2.2 Focused Beam

Each sensor output is delayed by an amount equal to the computed ToA. The sum of
all delayed sensor outputs is calculated thus:

N N r

∑ ∑∫
∞
1 1 jω( t + τi )−ω i
x foc (t ) = xi (t ) = X (ω)e c dω
N i =1
N i =1
−∞

N r

∑
∞
1 jω( τi − i )
=
∫
−∞
X (ω)e jω t
N i =1
e c dω

∞
=
∫
−∞
X (ω)e jω t H foc (ω)d ω

where r i (r ) is the distance between the test location r and the i th sensor, c is the wave
speed, τ i is the observed ToA at the i th sensor, X (ω ) is … , and

FIGURE 1.2   Randomly placed sensor array. Sensors (25 sensors) are scattered over a
square space of the size 4λ × 4λ . Sensor locations are known.
Distributed Sensor Arrays 5

0.8

0.6

0.4

#1
0.2

#2
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
Distance in units of l/10

FIGURE 1.3   Responses of randomly distributed sensor array of 100 sensors (curve #1) and
regular square array of 100 sensors in the same area (curve #2). The transmitter is placed at
the far field point (40λ ,0). Response is computed along the y-axis passing through the trans-
mitter location. Notice the presence of large side lobes in the case of the randomly distributed
sensor array.

N r

∑
1 i 2 π( ω0 τi −ω0 i )
H foc (ω) = e c
N i =1

This is the response function of the focusing action. The magnitude of the response
function is of interest for localization of the transmitter. With H foc (ω) ≤ 1 ∀ω
except at the actual location of the transmitter, where it is equal to one.
The response function is computed using the previously estimated ToA from
the transmitter to every individual sensor. The ToA may be estimated by cross-­
correlating sensor output with the transmitter output, which is known. Let τ i    =  1,… N
be actual ToA at N sensors. Consider a transmitter at some test location r , where
we wish to compute the response. Compute the ToA ri ( r ) /c, i = 1,…, N , from the
test location to each individual sensor. The magnitude– response functions of the
random and uniform arrays are shown in Figure 1.3. While the main lobe responses
are identical, the side lobe response of the random array is much higher. The side
lobe structure, however, depends upon the actual placement of sensors. The side lobe
structure also depends upon the number of sensors. In Figure 1.4, responses of two
random arrays, with 100 sensors (curve #1) and 1000 sensors (curve #2), are shown.
The size of arrays is the same as in Figure 1.1; that is, 4λ × 4λ . In Figure 1.5, we show
the response when the transmitter is at the center of an array with 100 randomly
distributed sensors in a 4λ × 4λ square.
6 Distributed Sensor Arrays: Localization

0.8

Response magnitude

0.6

0.4

0.2
#1
#2
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
Distance

FIGURE 1.4   Response of randomly distributed array of 100 sensors (curve #1) compared
with that of 1000 sensors (curve #2). Array dimensions and other parameters are the same as
in Figure 1.3.

0.9

0.8

0.7
Response magnitude

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

5 10 15 20
Distance

FIGURE 1.5 Response (magnitude) when the transmitter is at the center surrounded by 100
sensors uniformly distributed inside a square of 4λ × 4λ . Response is computed along the
y-axis passing through the transmitter location. The distance is measured in units of λ /10.
Distributed Sensor Arrays 7

FIGURE 1.6 Rectangular boundary array of size 4λ × 2λ. There are 64 sensors on the ­boundary
plus one reference sensor close to the control room (large gray square). All ToA are measured with
respect to the reference sensor. The small gray block represents the transmitter (intruder).

1.2.3 Boundary Array

We consider sensors distributed over a boundary, for example, over a compound wall
enclosing a secured building. The goal here is to detect and track an intruder in real
time. A similar situation will arise in monitoring a reactor to avoid a possible explo-
sion caused by excessive heat. Let the sensors be placed on the rectangular boundary
but at arbitrary locations, as in Figure 1.6. An intruder, as he walks or whispers,
generates an acoustic signal that is well within the reach of the acoustic sensors.
The waveform received by each sensor is sent to a central processor. It is assumed
that all sensors are wired to the central processor. As in distributed planar array,
the processor essentially computes focused beams and estimates regions of energy
concentration, which are likely locations of one or more intruders. The response of
the array along the x-axis passing through the transmitter is shown in Figure 1.7, and
that along the y-axis is shown in Figure 1.8. Distance, in both figures, is measured in
units of λ /25. Notice that the responses along the x-axis and y-axis are quite differ-
ent. There are many large side lobes and one sharp main lobe in the response func-
tion along the x-axis, but there is only a wide main lobe without any side lobes in the
response function along the y-axis.

1.3 AUTONOMOUS WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORK

There is a growing need for low-powered sensors capable of sensing the surrounding
environment and communicating information, often to the nearest neighbor. Many such
sensors (a few hundreds to thousands) are used for monitoring inaccessible, hostile, or
dangerous environments. Such wireless DSAs are often known as ad hoc sensor net-
works and sensors as nodes. Here “ad hoc” refers to the fact that the network is not pre-
planned. The sensor position is unknown as it may also be constantly changing to meet
the changing risk assessment. Sensors are often dropped from the air or projected into
8 Distributed Sensor Arrays: Localization

0.9

0.8
Response magnitude

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0 20 40 60 80 100
Distance

FIGURE 1.7 Response (magnitude) of boundary array along x-axis passing through the
transmitter, which is located at (3λ , 0.8λ ). Distance is measured in units of λ /25.

0.9

0.8

0.7
Response magnitude

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0 20 40 60 80 100
Distance

FIGURE 1.8 Response (magnitude) of boundary array along y-axis passing through the
transmitter, which is located at (3λ , 0.8λ ). Distance is measured in units of λ /25.

enemy territory using firepower. Each sensor acts on its own without being under the
command control of a central computer. Thus, the sensors are autonomous. However,
they are within communication distance of their immediate neighbors. All sensors in an
ad hoc sensor network depend on their own battery power supply to receive and transmit
capability. Hence, they have to be extremely frugal in power consumption. Each sensor
carries one or more sensing elements. Micromachining has allowed researchers to pack
Distributed Sensor Arrays 9

many microsensors into a small space while maintaining performance levels similar
to or better than those of conventional sensors. These include thermal sensors, accel-
erometers, microphones, radiation detectors, and so on. Because of power limitations
and also cost, it is not possible to employ a global positioning system (GPS) receiver for
position information, which is essential in any environment-probing mission. However,
in any large sensor network, there are a few anchors or reference nodes whose loca-
tion is precisely known, probably through a GPS receiver. Since the sensors (other than
anchor sensors), also known as blind sensors, are necessarily inexpensive—for the obvi-
ous reason of cost reduction—they have only limited computing power. This means
that the blind sensors can carry out only simple calculations. Naturally, all advanced
signal-processing techniques for direction finding, ToA estimation, and so on, are out of
reach for the blind sensors. All blind sensors have a radio frequency (RF) receiver and a
transmitter (transceiver), but with limited power. They can only receive/transmit a mes-
sage to/from their immediate neighbors. Each blind sensor has an environment-sensing
(e.g., temperature) unit and a range estimator unit. An on-board processor with storage
memory controls all three units. A schematic diagram of a typical blind sensor is shown
in Figure 1.9. The transceiver shown in Figure 1.9 uses RF radiation.
Apart from the large power requirement, the size of the antenna needs to be a signifi-
cant multiple of the wavelength to be at all efficient. To achieve milliradian collimation
at 1 GHz, as in an inexpensive laser pointer, would require a 100 m antenna [4], which is
indeed impossible in any tiny sensor used in a wireless sensor network (WSN). Another
disadvantage of RF communication is rapid decay of power with range.
For ground-based communication, such as mobile telephones, the average power
decay is ∝ 1/distance4 .
Free-space optical communication provides an attractive alternative to wire-
less communication. Laser diodes and mirrors can be made very small, of the
order ­   – 0.03 µ m3 . Another advantage of optical communication is low power decay,
of the order ∝ 1/distance2 . There are many other benefits accruing from the use of

RSS / ToA estimator

Sensing unit

Sensor ADC Processor Transceiver

Storage

Power unit

FIGURE 1.9 Basic structure of a sensor node. There are three units: (a) range estimator, (b)
environment sensors, and (c) transceiver. All three units are connected to a processor with mem-
ory. A power unit consisting of a battery supplies power for all three units and the processor.
(Adapted from L. M. P. Leao de Brito, and L. M. R. Peralta, Polytechnical Studies Review, vol. 8,
no. 9, 2008, pp. 1–27 [3].)
10 Distributed Sensor Arrays: Localization

optical communication. The only disadvantage is the need for line-of-sight commu-
nication. There are two approaches to free-space optical communication: the passive
reflective system and the active-steered laser system.
The passive reflective system consists of three orthogonal mirrors that form the
corner of a cube, hence the name corner-cube retro reflector (CCR), whose interest-
ing property is that a beam entering from any direction is reflected back parallel to
the incident beam (Figure 1.10). By tilting a single mirror of the CCR by angle δ , the
direction of the outgoing beam will be offset. When the bottom mirror is actuated by
5.7 mrad, the return beam is split into two beams, each directed 11.4 mrad away from
the optical axis, well away from the telescope entrance aperture [5]. A lens is used
to collect the diffracted light and converted into electrical pulses (see Figure 1.11).
Since CCR is a passive device, it does not draw any power from the sensor. Power is
derived from the radiator (i.e., anchor). This arrangement is not only quite suitable for the
WSN, but it can also be used to estimate the range from received signal strength (RSS),
which we shall discuss in Chapter 2. The laser rangefinder, if available in the anchor node,
can be used to estimate the range to each sensor node. Location estimation will, however,
require three or more anchor nodes communicating with the same CCR. Note that in this
passive approach, node-to-node communication is not possible. However, in the active
beam-steered method, there is no such limitation. A very low-power-consuming on-board
light source, such as a vertical cavity surface emitting laser (VCSEL), a collimating lens,
and MEMS beam-steering optics [4], are used to send a tightly collimated light beam
toward an intended receiver, thus facilitating peer-to-peer communication [4].

1.3.1 Wireless Sensor Network (WSN)

The anchor sensors have the benefit of a large power battery; hence, they are equipped
with a GPS receiver, on-board computer, radio frequency (RF) beacon, and so on.
Each anchor broadcasts the signal to as many blind sensors as possible and enables
them to estimate their relative distances from the transmitting anchor. When a blind
sensor can measure its relative distance from three or more anchors, it is possible to
estimate its position coordinates using a method of triangulation or multilateration.
Localization (along with time synchronization) of sensors is essential in any applica-
tion of an autonomous WSN. Some well-known applications are

Reflected

Incident

FIGURE 1.10 Corner-cube retro reflector. A beam entering from any direction is reflected
back parallel to the incident beam.
Distributed Sensor Arrays 11

Telescope lens

Photodetector CCR

Bandpass
filter
Uplink data out Laser Uplink data in
L
(a)

1 200 mv 2 5.00 V 0.00s 20.0 m/s 2 Run

Waveform 2 2

Waveform 1

(b)

FIGURE 1.11 Corner-cube reflector installed in the sensor is used to reflect the laser beam
back to the transmitter after modulating it with data bits from the sensor; (a) Optical setup with
CCR for uplink free-space optical communication and (b) Results of transmission. Waveform
1 is transmitted bits. Bottom mirror is modulated with this sequence. Waveform 2 is detected
400 bits/sec at a distance of 180 m. (From Zhou, L. et al., Journal of Microelectromechanical
Systems, 12, 233–242, 2003.)

1. Detection, localization, and tracking of a transmitter of acoustic or electro-

magnetic energy, intruder, wild animal under observation, military troop
movement, and submarine detection and tracking, and so on.
Measurement of environmental parameters, such as temperature, humid-
ity, rainfall, radioactivity, presence of dangerous gases, and so on, is readily
carried out by a sensor network. Each measurement must be tagged with
location information. An autonomous WSN can play the unique role of tak-
ing measurements in a hazardous environment, such as a reactor chamber,
a furnace, a radioactive reactor, and so on.
2. Detection and localization information and the observed environmental param-
eters along with location information are required to be transmitted by the sen-
sor nodes to a central information processor, which fuses the sensor information
and transmits it to a more distant command center via the Internet. Since the
available power at each sensor node is limited, we should choose the shortest
multihop communication link connecting a node to the information receiver.
12 Distributed Sensor Arrays: Localization

A WSN has many blind sensors randomly distributed around an object of interest
(e.g., a forest fire). Location of all blind nodes has been previously estimated. There
is one or more anchor nodes (previously used in the localization step) equipped with
large battery power for transmission of data received from the neighboring blind nodes
in a single hop or multiple hops. Anchors in turn communicate with other anchors
and finally to the Internet via a gateway. The data is now made available to a distant
computer for advanced processing. The overall structure of a typical WSN is shown
in Figure 1.12. There are many possible distributions of nodes and anchors depending
upon the specific application. Primary concerns in the design of a WSN are to reduce
power consumption, reduce delay in transmission, increase reliability, and a few oth-
ers as discussed in a recent review article [6]. Implementing energy efficient protocols
may maximize network lifetime. Further, fault tolerance can be improved through a
high level of redundancy by deploying more nodes than the minimum number required
when all nodes are functioning properly. The transmission delay (latency) largely
depends upon the network topology; it is low where nodes are connected to the anchor
directly through a single hop, as in star topology; and it is high in large networks where
two or more hops are required to reach the nearest anchor.

1.4 TYPES OF SENSORS

Sensors of common interest are those used for measurement of temperature, wind speed
and direction, rain fall and soil humidity for agricultural applications, and water level in
reservoirs or rivers for flood prediction. Another area of application is in forest fire pre-
diction and control. Here, we basically need to measure the temperature, humidity, and

Anchor

Anchor
Internet Target
Gateway

Blind
sensor

Computer
Anchor

FIGURE 1.12 Wireless sensor network (WSN). Target may be any source of energy, such as
a vehicle or an intruder (including a wild animal) or a forest fire.
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"That's good, I don't know how very well."
"You never go out much, do you? That is, you haven't until lately."
"Why, no. I've been too busy—until lately. Perhaps that was a
mistake."
"Perhaps," said Julie cryptically as she turned to the dance floor.
"You're looking very beautiful," said Marc.
"Am I?" Julie continued to look away but she couldn't restrain a faint
smile.
Marc found himself with nothing to say, but continued to stare at Julie.
He couldn't get over the change in her. His mind wandered off into a
lovely, imaginary land without night clubs, in which he and Julie were
the only inhabitants.
 Jack danced on, completely at ease while around him people
started to edge away with startled glances....

This was extremely unfortunate for, out on the dance floor, Jack Snell
suddenly found himself dancing, inexplicably and most
embarrassingly, alone. Toffee had suddenly vanished into thin air. He
also found himself alarmingly confronted by Mrs. Claribel Housing, a
matron of tremendous prominence, in more ways and places than
one. Mrs. Housing understood any misdemeanor perpetrated in the
Spray Club as a personal affront, to be dealt with personally. After all,
it did cast unflattering reflections on her "Set."
"Young man," she boomed. "I wonder if you realize what a disgusting
exhibition you are presenting. I should think that if you must get
roaring drunk, you could do it somewhere less public."
Jack turned to her dazedly. "But I had a girl," he said unhappily. "I
seem to have lost her."
A soft light came into Mrs. Housing's eyes. "He's gone mad," she
shouted, turning to her partner. "He's lost his girl, and it's driven him
crazy."
If there was anything that put life into Claribel Housing, it was
"straightening out" someone else's life. She looked on Jack with the
air of the practiced social worker.
"There, there, son," she roared. "Don't take on so about it. I'm sure
she wasn't half good enough for you." She placed a beefy arm about
his shoulder, and nodded to her partner. "Everett, we must do
something for this poor soul."
Everett Housing had learned to accept his wife's "projects" with
resigned good humor.
"Yes, dear," he sighed, and followed obediently as his wife led the
hapless Jack from the dance floor. It didn't seem to concern the
matron that the dancers were stopping to observe their progress.

Back at the table, Julie, noticing the excitement, reached for Marc's
sleeve.
"Something's happening to Jack and Toffee!" she cried, jumping up.
Marc, jolted from his reverie, followed after her. They reached the
group on the dance floor just in time to witness Toffee's
reappearance.
"What's going on here?" screamed Toffee, confronting Mrs. Housing.
"Please get out of my way," said Mrs. Housing regally.
"Get out of your way!" Toffee flared. "You should be ashamed of
yourself! Picking up a girl's man when her back is turned—and on
public dance floors too! And at your age!"
Mrs. Housing seemed to explode.
"How dare you! I should think that you had caused enough trouble,—
you little floosey!" It was apparent to her that this was the young lady
who had unseated Jack's reason. At this point Jack did, indeed,
appear somewhat demented. Through the ensuing uproar, he tried
valiantly but vainly to make himself heard, and seemed merely to be
babbling to himself. Toffee was beside herself with rage.
"Why, you—you—you old back issue," she yelled. "You outsized pick-
up!" She swung her foot behind her and calculated the distance to
Mrs. Housing's shin. Unfortunately, her heel caught on the rung of Mr.
Kently's chair. That good gentleman, unconcerned of the tumult
raging just behind him, was, at the moment, determinedly offering a
toast to his wife on the occasion of their twenty-fifth anniversary. He
lifted his glass, and with the words: "And to you, my dear—," tossed
its entire contents neatly into Mrs. Kently's face. Toffee had jerked the
chair swiftly from under him. Mrs. Kently shot out of her chair with a
scream designed for blood chilling.
Across the room, a guest, somewhat befogged by too much drink,
raised a heavy head and shouted: "Murder!" at the top of his lungs.
Across from him, his companion looked up with startled eyes and
quietly slid under the table, unconscious. The man looked down at
her without concern.
"Can't stand the sight of blood," he explained to no one in particular.
The center of this excitement suddenly dissipated itself with the
stately, if hurried, departure of Mrs. Housing and her obedient
husband, but the fever of hysteria had already spread to the
remaining guests and was raging unabated. The orchestra, caught in
the spirit of the occasion, struck up a raucous rendition of "The Beer
Barrel Polka." Several guests, similarly inspired, rapped their partners
rather ungently over the head with whatever bottles were at hand.
The door to the manager's office opened briefly and slammed to.
Finally, Marc managed to fight his way through to Toffee.
"Now, see what you've done!" he yelled.
"So this is night clubbing," squealed Toffee delightedly.
"We have to get out of here," Marc guided her away from the dance
floor.
"Just when things were really getting started?" asked Toffee. "Where
are Jack and Julie?"
"They've gone and we'd better do the same."
"Just a moment," replied Toffee and disappeared into the crowd
again. Marc made a grab for her but missed. Presently she returned,
beaming triumphantly. Under her arm, she carried a bottle of
champagne.
"I don't see why we should let it go to waste," she explained. Marc
groaned and hurried her off toward the entrance.
Outside, they were greeted not only by the cool, evening air, but also
by what appeared to be the entire police force. The manager of the
Spar Club stood behind them.
"There they are, boys!" he yelled excitedly. "Grab 'em!"

Toffee was delighted to find herself, once more, the center of

attention. She looked up at the judge with a disarming smile. She felt
a little sorry for the poor little man—he seemed so perplexed by
everything. Marc stood beside her, wondering vaguely if he weren't
dead, and if not, why not. The judge fixed Toffee with a baleful stare.
"Who did you say your parents were?" His voice was that of a martyr.
"A moonlit night and a yearning spirit," said Toffee blandly. The
judge's eyes rolled ceilingward.
"Oh, good Lord," he sighed in pure supplication.
"What she means—," began Marc.
"You stay out of this!" snapped the judge. "I'll hear from you later."
"But judge," said Toffee. "I don't know how I can make it clearer."
"Never mind," replied the judge hotly. "Let's hear no more about it. I
sincerely wish I hadn't brought it up in the first place. Now, perhaps,
you'll tell me what went on in the Spar Club this evening, and never
mind the poetry."
"Well," said Toffee brightly, "it all started when this old fright tried to
steal Mr. Snell from me—right there on the dance floor, too." An
earnest expression crept over her face. "She should be locked up,
judge."
Marc's thoughts raced wildly. If ever there was a time for Toffee to
fade, this was unquestionably it. He clamped his eyes tightly shut and
tried frantically to picture peaceful, pastoral scenes in an attempt to
induce sleep. However, what occurred to him most frequently were
bleak countrysides strewn with assorted wreckage, symbolic of his
future.
"Exactly what is your relationship with this man?" The judge nodded
in Marc's direction without looking at him.
"Well," said Toffee. "You see, I sort of belong to him, in a way."
"You mean he's your guardian?" This appealed to Toffee and she
nodded vigorously. The judge turned to Marc.
"Young man—," he began, then looked questioningly at Toffee.
"What's the matter with him?"
Toffee turned to Marc and sudden anger flashed in her eyes.
"You double-crosser!" she hissed. Swiftly her hand shot to Marc's
unsuspecting rear and two fingers closed wickedly. Instantly, Marc's
eyes flew open and stared wildly at the judge as a piercing scream
rent the courtroom and he leaped frantically forward. A small cry of
terror was heard from the frightened judge as he disappeared
beneath the bench.
"He's attacking me!" he screamed from the floor. "Get him out of here!
Get them both out of here! Lock them up before they kill someone!"
As two official brutes closed in on them, Marc angrily faced Toffee.
"If you ever do anything like this again, I'll deliberately contract
sleeping sickness!" he shouted.
Marc awoke wondering how long he had been asleep, and, in the
grey morning light, began to inspect his quarters without enthusiasm.
The cell that he occupied was like any other, but he had been lucky
enough to have it all to himself. He lay, face up in the lower section of
the steel, double-decker and reviewed the preceding night's activities.
Suddenly, he started forward and propped himself up on one elbow.
There was a form clearly outlined in the mattress above him. He tried
to remember if anyone had been brought into the cell during the
night. As he was thinking about it, the form stirred. Slowly, he
advanced a hand to the mattress and prodded it gingerly. His
suspicions were immediately confirmed.
"Good morning," called Toffee with a hateful cheerfulness as she
peered down at him from the upper.
"I thought they put you in the women's quarters."
"They did, but I decided to materialize here, to be with you."
"But, if they find you here—," Marc gave it up. Things couldn't get any
worse. "I hope you're happy about this." He waved his hand tragically
at the cell.
"Well," said Toffee slowly. "I can think of better places. Let's leave."
"And how do you propose to get out of here?"
"You mean they intend to keep us here?"
"It is likely, considering your performance before the judge last night,
that we shall rot in this place."
"We'll just have to get out." Toffee's brow wrinkled sternly.
Marc looked grieved but made no reply. After several moments of
concentrated thought, his face lit up.
"Now, look Toffee," he said, "You say that you can materialize
anywhere. Suppose I doze off for a while, do you suppose you could
manage to "come to" outside and get the keys to this trap? After all,
they don't have our names, our real ones, on any of the records yet."
"I could do it with my eyes closed," Toffee cried happily.
"Well, don't get fancy about it."
Marc stretched out on the bed and closed his eyes, and everything
became quiet in the cell for a time. Toffee waited expectantly but
nothing happened. Marc swung his legs over the edge of the bed and
cupped his chin in his hands.
"It's no use," he sighed. "I've too much on my mind.
"Try again," urged Toffee.
"It's no use I tell you."
Toffee sat up and glanced down at Marc. Slowly an intense
expression crept over her face. Quietly, she reached down and
removed one of her shoes, and regarded it sadly. She leaned over
the edge of the bed and poised it over Marc's head. Closing her eyes,
she swung the shoe downward as swiftly as she could. Marc slumped
to the floor soundlessly.

Marc had been right in assuming that Joseph wouldn't be there to

open the door for them. He fitted the key into the lock and turned it.
"You needn't have hit me so hard," he grumbled. Toffee looked hurt.
"I got you out of there, didn't I? Of course, maybe I shouldn't have left
that note for the judge." Marc looked alarmed.
"What note?"
"Well, the poor dear was so disturbed about my parentage that I left a
note explaining the whole thing. I guess it wasn't such a good idea."
"What did you tell him?"
"That my father was a Welsh." Toffee smiled mysteriously and
crossed to inspect herself in the mantle mirror.
"I'm a wreck. You miss me while I fix up a bit?"
Marc fell into a chair as she left the room. He sat there regarding the
apartment listlessly. It seemed to reflect his own life. Orderly,
dignified, unexciting and infinitely lonely. Suddenly his reverie was
interrupted by a knock at the door. He crossed and opened it. There,
looking particularly miserable, stood Julie.
"I hope you'll excuse my coming here," she said timidly. "I've been
waiting at the office for you all morning. I tried to call you here several
times but there wasn't any answer. I decided to come over and wait
for you. Its odd that Joseph didn't answer the phone.
"He wasn't in," said Marc. "Is something wrong?"
"Well, no—not exactly." Julie hesitated. "It's just that—well—it's just
that—I want to quit my job with you, Mr. Pillsworth.
"What?" Marc's eyes widened with surprise.
"Yes, Mr. Pillsworth, I want to quit." The words came in a rush. "Now
—today. I don't want to ever have to go back."
"But you mustn't leave." There was an immediacy in Marc's tone.
"How would I get on without you? If it's a matter of salary—."
"No, it isn't that. You give me more than enough to get by on. As a
matter of fact, I don't know where I'll ever get a better job."
Marc looked at her questioningly.
"Well, I don't know just how to explain it. It's just something that's
come over me all of a sudden. I've a strange feeling that I'm wasting
my life there, as if something were closing in on me to cut me off from
everything I really want—as though the job itself were a menace to
my happiness. I guess it came over me yesterday when your cousin
—
"Niece," interrupted Marc.
"—When your niece was in the office. She seemed so gay, so much
that I should be, but am not. It seemed only fair to talk to you first,
before leaving." Marc glanced nervously toward the bedroom door.
"But what has the agency to do with it?"
"I wish I knew," said Julie. "It's just a feeling that I have."
"But I can't let you go, Julie." The note of urgency crept back into
Marc's voice. "And you mustn't envy Toffee. You see, she's just
escaping a dull existence herself—and only momentarily. She'll be
returning soon. Perhaps right away." A sudden light came into Julie's
eyes. "Besides, I know what you feel. I've felt the same thing myself
for years. The trouble was that I let myself get used to it and after a
time, I didn't know the difference. I'm sure I know how to help myself
now and I think that I could help you too—if you'll let me—if you'll
stay. Please don't leave, Julie."
As Julie listened to Marc, her expression became softly radiant.
"Perhaps you're right, Marc," she said quietly.
Marc reached out and took her hand in his. Suddenly, from behind
the bedroom door, came the soft hiss of a shower. Instantly, Julie
drew back.

"Joseph must be back," said Marc quickly.

"Taking a shower?"
"Oh, yes—he often takes showers this time of day. Very clean man.
Says cleanliness is next to Godliness, or something of the sort. Very
clean—spotless, you might say." Marc began to realize that he was
babbling and stopped short.
"Of course," said Julie, smiling. "I should have remembered Joseph. It
gave me rather a start, I thought we were alone.
"You'll be back in the morning then?" Marc asked anxiously. "Please
say you will."
Julie regarded Marc thoughtfully.
"Yes," she said slowly. "It doesn't seem now that there was ever
anything wrong." She turned toward the door.
"Julie—"
"Yes?" She turned, and as she did so Marc caught her in his arms.
He kissed her briefly and released her, stepping back embarrassedly.
Julie smiled up at him for a moment and then said quickly:
"It's a wonderful job, I wouldn't quit for anything." The door closed
softly behind her.
When Toffee entered the living room she found Marc staring out of
the window with a curiously foolish grin. She stood beside him for a
moment and looked out at the city.
"Go put some clothes on," he said. Toffee was wrapped in a huge
towel, draped precariously over one shoulder.
"What for? At this moment, more of me is covered, than at any time
since we met."
"Yes I guess so." For a moment they stood silently before the window.
"Toffee—," Marc began.
"Yes, Marc?"
"Why are you here? What is it you want—really?"
"My wish is for you Marc, it has been from the beginning. If I've
caused you trouble, perhaps it was because you needed it. I'll be
returning soon, but I can't help wanting to linger for a while."
"But how will your return be accomplished?"
"You'll know when the times comes." She smiled up at him. "Maybe
it's time I put those clothes on after all." She went into the bed room.
Marc slumped into a chair. In a way he had enjoyed Toffee and her
trouble, but now she would be in the way. "You'll know when the time
comes," she had said. He was certain that the time had arrived, but
he still hadn't any idea about sending her back to the subconscious.
Perhaps it would be best to go back to the beginning. How had it
started? He reviewed the strange occurrence over and over again.
For the fifth time, he went back to the beginning. Suddenly, he
brought his fist down on the arm of the chair.
"Of course, that's it," he murmured. "Her father was a Welsh." He
laughed shortly. "It's so simple, I should have known all along."
After a time, the bed room door flew open. Toffee was making a
grand entrance. As she moved toward him, Marc thought briefly that
he had never seen her so beguiling. At the center of the room, she
paused.
"Isn't it wonderful? I like it even more than the black one."
"You might say, it leaves everything to be desired," said Marc.
"Oh?"
"—by some young swain," he added.
"Marc there just isn't any hope for you."
"I'd have agreed with you two days ago."
"And now?"
"Who knows?"
"I'm sure I don't."
"That's as it should be." Marc started for the bed room. "I could use a
little sprucing up myself." At the door he turned back. "Suppose we
make a special occasion of dinner tonight—go somewhere, where the
food is especially good? I know a place that serves a wonderful welsh
rarebit. I was there just night before last." Toffee's smile immediately
disappeared and for a moment her eyes searched Marc's face, which
had, suddenly, become quite serious. Her smile reappeared as
suddenly as it had faded, but it seemed a bit more set.
"I'm sure I'll love it," she said.
Marc spoke slowly and his voice carried a touch of sadness.
"And remind me to stop by the drug-store for sleeping tablets. I ran
out the other night."
"Sure Marc." Toffee looked away toward the window as Marc left the
room.
The countryside had somehow reassembled itself—as lovely and
serene as before, with a blue mist playing about the trees. Toffee and
Marc moved down the hillside toward a small valley obscured by the
mist.
"I should be angry with you," said Toffee. "You didn't waste any time
in sending me back, once you knew how."
"You said I'd know when the time came."
"How did you find out?"
"I kept wondering where it had all started, and then I remembered
that foods sometimes cause certain kinds of dreams. Then too, I
remembered that you had said that your father was a Welsh. I didn't
have to be clever to put it all together and get welch rarebit,
especially since it was the very thing I had eaten the first night. It all
seemed pretty silly, but somehow it sort of fitted in with what's
happened. You're not angry are you?" He looked down at her
affectionately.
"Of course not, Marc. There's something you've forgotten. I exist only
in your mind. I am as you see me. If I had stayed longer, if I had come
to stand in the way of your happiness, I should have become ugly
and wretched. I've served my purpose and it's time for me to return.
Really, you haven't so much to do with it as you suppose. It's been a
wonderful adventure for me, Marc."
"I'm glad, Toffee," Marc said simply. "I'll never forget what you've done
for me."
"Just remember Marc, that I'm not so unlike other, ordinary women.
There is none of us who can remain lovely unless she does so in the
eyes of a man whom she loves. Be good to Julie."
"You knew about Julie?"
"Of course," laughed Toffee. "I knew from the beginning, before you
did. I know more about you than you do yourself. That's another point
I hold in common with other women."
They had reached the edge of the valley and suddenly Toffee
stopped.
"This is where I have to leave you." She smiled up at Marc. Suddenly,
he took her in his arms, very tenderly, and kissed her. As he released
her, the bell began to ring in the distance, as it had before.
"Goodbye," Toffee said softly, starting toward the valley.
As she moved, the earth seemed to dissolve behind her, leaving a
narrow chasm between them. With each step the bell became more
and more distinct. Suddenly, impulsively, Marc turned toward her.
"Wait!" he called, and reached out a hand to her.

Marc's hand fell to the alarm clock and he awakened to a bright, new
morning with a vague sense of loss. Suddenly he swung his legs over
the edge of the bed and got to his feet.
Julie would be at the office. He didn't want to be late.
*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK I'LL DREAM OF
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