DMS 1-5 Merged

Amity School of Engineering & Technology (CSE)
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Module I:
❑ Proposition,
❑ Propositional Calculus-
Propositional Variables and
❑ Compound propositions,
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1.5 OBJECTIVES
After completing this section, you will be able to
1.5.1 Explain Proposition
1.5.2 Differentiate between simple and compound sentences
1.5.3 Understand basic logical operators
1.5.4 Propositional calculus
1.5.5 Well formed formula(WFF) [A Syntax for Compound

Proposition]
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Proposition
A Proposition (or sentence) is a declarative

statement whose truth value is either True or
False but not both.
These two values “True” and “False” is denoted by “T” and “F”
respectively. Sometimes it is also denoted by 1 and 0.
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Proposition…
Proposition (Example) Truth value
1. Two is an even integer. T
2. Delhi is the capital of India. T
3. A triangle has four sides. F
4. 3+4=8 F
5. Washington DC is the capital of the United States T
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Type of Proposition:
Proposition
Simple Compound
❖ A statement which has no logical connectives (and, or, not etc.) is

called a Simple (atomic) sentences.
For example all the statements in Example1 are all simple statements.
❖ A statement which is made up of two or more simple statements using

a logical connective (such as “and”, “or”, “Not” , “if..then” or “ if and only
if”) is called a compound statement.
Example: “Two is an even integer” and “Delhi is the capital of India” is a
compound statement
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Logical connectives:
Given a atomic propositions (denoted by 𝑝, 𝑞, 𝑟..).
To form the compound propositions, the following logical
connectives are used.
Symbol Meaning Example In words Precedence
~ Negation ~𝑝 "𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑝" 1
∧ Conjunction 𝑝∧𝑞 "𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞" 2
∨ Disjunction 𝑝∨𝑞 "𝑝 𝑜𝑟 𝑞" 3
⟹ Implication 𝑝⟹𝑞 "𝑖𝑓 𝑝 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑞" 4

(conditional)
⇔ Equivalence 𝑝⇔𝑞 "𝑝 𝑖𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑓 𝑞" 5
(Biconditional)
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Propositional calculus:
Given a atomic propositions: 𝑝, 𝑞, 𝑟,……
Propositional calculus is a language of

propositions ( or a set of rules) used to
combine the atomic propositions to form the
compound propositions using the logical
connectives (~, ∧, ∨, ⟹ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ⟺).
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Propositional calculus(WFF)
Well formed formula(WFF) [A Syntax for Compound Proposition]
1. Any statement variable (𝑝, is a WFF.
2. If 𝛼 is a WFF, then ~𝛼 is also a WFF.
3. If 𝛼 and 𝛽 are WFFs then (𝛼 ∨ 𝛽), 𝛼 ∧ 𝛽 , (𝛼 ⟹ 𝛽) and (𝛼 ⇔ 𝛽) are

also WFFs
4. A WFF can be constructed only by the finite number of applications of

rule (1) to (3) above.
Note: A WFF is nothing but valid strings with statement letters,

connectives and parenthesis.
Example: (Well-formed formula in propositional logic)

F1: ∼ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ⇔ (∼ 𝑝 ∧∼ 𝑞)
F2: ((𝑝 ⇒ 𝑞) ∧ (𝑞 ⇒ 𝑟)) ⇔ (𝑝 ⇒ 𝑟)
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BNF(Backus-Naur form) grammar of sentences in

propositional logic:
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Summary
➢ Any declarative statement whose truth value is either True or

False but not both is called a proposition.
➢ Following statements are not a proposition:
Exclamation mark(!), Question mark(?), expression with variable and
Ambiguous statements.
➢ WFF is basically a syntax for writing compound proposition
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Discrete structures
Lecture Notes
Module-2 Lecture-1
Relations
Objectives
After Completing this Module-II, you will be able to:
❑ Define a Relation and various types of relations

❑ Discuss a pictorial representation of relations.
❑ Explain the closure of reflexive, symmetric
and transitive relations.
❑Define and explain the Equivalence relations and
partial order relation (POSET).
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Relation
Introduction
We start by considering a simple example.

Let S denote the set of all students at AMITY University, Noida and
Let T denote the set of all teaching staff there.
For every student sS and every teaching staff tT, exactly one of the
following is true:
❖ s has attended a lecture given by t, or

❖ s has not attended a lecture given by t.
We now define a relation R as follows.

Let sS and tT.
We say that sRt if s has attended a lecture given by t. If we now look at
all possible pairs (s,t) of students and teaching staff, then some of these
pairs will satisfy the relation while other pairs may not.
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Relation
Introduction
Formally, we define a relation in terms of these “ordered pairs”.
Relations, as noted above, will be defined in terms of ordered pairs (a, b)
of elements, where a is designated as the first element and b as the
second element.
Some definitions required to define relation

Ordered Pair:
Let A and B are two sets and let aA and bB then a set of two elements
whose elements have been listed in a specific order is called an ordered
pair. It is denoted by (a,b).
Particularly:
For different a and b: (a,b)(b,a) and
If (a1,b1)=(a2,b2)  a1=a2 and b1=b2
Thus in case of relation (a,b)(b,a) unless a=b, whereas in case of Sets,
the order of elements is irrelevant; for example {2,3}={3,2}.
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Relation
Some definitions required to define relation
Definition2: (Cartesian product of two sets):

Let A and B be two nonempty sets. The set AB = {(a,b) : aA and bB}
is called the Cartesian product of the sets A and B. In other words, AB
is the set of all ordered pairs (a,b), where aA and bB. In short this
product AB is read as “A cross B”.
Example1
Let A = {1, 2} and B= {a, b, c}. Then
AB = {(1,a),(1,b),(1,c),(2,a),(2,b),(2,c)}
BXA = {(a, 1), (a, 2) (b, 1) (b, 2), (c, 1), (c, 2)}
And AXA = {(1, 1), (1,2),(2,1),(2,2)}
Clearly, from this example, we can note down the following points:
ABBA
If A has n elements and B has m elements than AB has m.n elements.
If A= and (or) B= then AB=
If AB=BA  A=B
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Relation
RELATION
Let A and B are two nonempty sets. A binary relation or, simply, relation
from A to B is a subset of A X B i.e.
R is a relation from A to B  R (AB)
Note: Relation is derived from Cross-Product.
Example1
Let A = {1, 2,3} and B= {a, b, c}
Then AB={(1,a),(1,b),(1,c),(2,a),(2,b),(2,c),(3,a),(3,b),(3,c)}
R1={(1,a),(1,c)}
R2={(1,a),(2,a),(2,c)}
R3={(3,c)} ,……..
𝑅 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐴 × 𝐵 𝑅 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = ∅ All these are examples of relations from A to B.
Suppose R is a relation from A to B (i.e. R (AB)).

That is, for each pair aA and bB, exactly one of the following is true:
❖ (a,b)R, we then say “a is R-related to b”. We write aRb.
❖ (a, b)R, we then say “a is not R-related to b”. 6
Relation
Note:
If set A has n elements and B has m elements, how many relations are
there on the set AB.
Let |A|=n and |B|=m. We know that R (AB) and

| 𝐴𝐵| = 𝑚. 𝑛, Also set of all possible subsets of AB is power set of
AB i.e. P(AB).
Thus if | AB|=m.n, then |P(AB)|=2mn.
Hence If set A has n elements and B has m elements, then there are
2mn relations on it.
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Relation
Domain and Range of a Relation
If R (AB) is a relation from AB, then
❖ Domain(R)={a: (a,b)R} and
❖ Range(R)={b: (a,b)R}.
The domain of a relation R is the set of all first elements of the ordered
pairs which belong to R, and the range of R is the set of second
elements.
Example
Let A = {1, 2,3} and B= {a, b, c}
Then AB={(1,a),(1,b),(1,c),(2,a),(2,b),(2,c),(3,a),(3,b),(3,c)}
R={(1,a),(2,a),(2,c)}
❖ Domain(R)={1,2}
❖ Range(R)={a,c}.
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Relation
Some Examples
Example1: Let A={1,2,3,4}. Define a relation R on A by writing (x,y)R if
x < y. Then
R = {(1,2),(1,3),(1,4),(2,3),(2,4),(3,4)}.
Example2:
Let A={1,2,3}. Define a relation R on A as
R={(a,b): a is divisible by b. We have R = {(1,1),(2,1),(3,1),(2,2),(3,3)}.
Example3:
Let A be the power set of the set {1,2} in other words, A = {,{1},{2},{1,2}}
is the set of subsets of the set {1,2}. Write a relation on A, where
(P,Q)R, if PQ.
In this case we have:
R = {(,{1}), (,{2}), (,{1,2}), ({1},{1,2}), ({2},{1,2})}.
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Module II:
❑ Types of Relation
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Types of Relations
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Types of Relations
Let A be a given non-empty set then a relation RAA is called a
binary relation on A.
Binary relations that satisfy certain special properties can be very
useful in solving computation problems. So let’s discuss some of
these properties:
We have following types of properties in a (Binary) relation on a

given set A.
1. Reflexive
2. Irreflexive
3. Symmetric
4. Asymmetric
5. Anti-symmetric
6. Transitive
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Types of relations (with properties)
Reflexive ∀𝒂 ∈ 𝑨, (𝒂, 𝒂) ∈ 𝑹 Every vertex has a
self loop
Irreflexive If 𝒂 ∈ 𝑨, (a,a)∉R No vertex having
self loop
Symmetric If 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑹 ⇒ (b, a) ∈ 𝑅 If a to b is an
arrow then there
must be an
return arrow from
b to a
Asymmetric If 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑹 ⇒ (b, a) ∉ 𝑅 No return arrow
No self loop also and no self loop
Anti- If (𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑹 and (b, a) ∈ 𝑅) ⇒a=b No return arrow

symmetric (*) If ( 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑹 and 𝒂 ≠ 𝒃) ⇒ (b, a) ∉ 𝑅 but self loop
allowed
Transitive If ( 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑹 and 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑹) ⇒ (a, c) ∈ 𝑅
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Types of Relation
Reflexive
A relation R on a set A is reflexive if for every aA, aRa. that is, a relation
R in a set A is said to be reflexive if every element of A is related to itself
i.e. aRa is true for every aA.
Definition2: (In terms of directed graph): R is reflexive if there must be a

loop at each node aA.
Example:
Example1: Let A be the set of all straight lines in a plane. The relation R
“x is parallel to y” is reflexive since every straight line is parallel to itself.
Example2: Let A be the set of numbers and relation R in A is defined by
“x is equal to y” is reflexive” since each number is equal to itself.
Example3: Let A={1,2,3} and the relation R in A is defined by
R={(1,1),(2,2),(2,3)} is not reflexive because (3,3) does not belongs to R.
The given relation R will be reflexive, if every ordered pair (a,a)R for all
aA.
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Types of Relation
Example:
Consider the following five relations on the set A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}:
R1 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2,2),(2, 3), (1, 3), (3,3),(4,2),(4, 4),(5,5)}
R2 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4)}
R3 = {(1, 3), (2, 1)}
R4 = Ø, the empty relation
R5 = A X A, the universal relation
Determine which of the relations are reflexive.
≤
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Types of Relation..
Irreflexive Relations
A relations R on a set is irreflexive if (a, a)R for every a є A. Thus R is

not irreflexive if there exist at least one aA such that (a, a)R.
Definition2: (In terms of directed graph): R is Irreflexive if there is no
loop at any node aA.
Note: No self loop allowed
Example:
Example1: Let A= {1,2,3} and let R= {(1, 1),(3,2)}.
Here R is not reflexive since (2,2) or (3,3)R. Also R is not irreflexive,
since (1, 1)R.
Example2: Let A={a,b,c}be a non empty set. Let R={(a,b),(b,c),(c,a)}
Here R is irreflexive since (a,a) )R for every aA. Also note that there is
no loop at any node.
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Types of Relation
Example:
R1 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2,2),(2, 3), (1, 3), (3,3),(4,2),(4, 4),(5,5)}
R2 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4)}
R3 = {(1, 3), (2, 1)}
Determine which of the relations are Irreflexive?
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Types of Relation
Symmetric Relation
A relation R on a set A is symmetric if a,b in A, if aRb, then bRa. In

other words a relation R is symmetric if in R whenever (a, b)R then
(b, a)R.
Thus R is not symmetric if there exists a, bA such that (a, b)R but (b,
a)R.
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Types of Relation
Example:
R1 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2,2),(2, 3), (1, 3), (3,3),(4,2),(4, 4),(5,5)}
R2 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4)}
R3 = {(1, 3), (2, 1)}
Determine which of the relations are Symmetric.
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Types of Relation
Asymmetric Relation
A relation R on a set A is Asymmetric if a,b in A, if aRb, then bRa in not

allowed. In other words a relation R is Asymmetric if in R whenever (a,
b)R then (b, a)R.
Thus R is not symmetric if there exists a, bA such that (a, b)R but (b,
a)R.
Note: No bidirectional arrow. No self loop at any vertex.
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Types of Relation
Anti-Symmetric Relation
A relation R on a set A is anti-symmetric if whenever aRb and bRa then

a = b. That is if (a,b),(b,a)R then there must be the case that a=b. Thus
R is not antisymmetric if there exists a, bA such that (a, b) and (b, a)
belong to R, but
a≠b
Note: No Bi-directional arrow except self loop.
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Types of Relation
Transitive Relation
A relation R on a set A is said to be transitive if (a,b)R and (b,c)R

(a,c)R, for all a,b,cA.
In other words relation R is transitive if aRb and bRc implies that aRc, for
all a,b,cA
Thus R is not transitive if there exist a, b, c A such that (a, b), (b, c)R
but (a, c)R.
Example
R = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4)}
This relation is Transitive
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Problems:
Determine whether the relation R on set A={-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3} is

a)reflexive,
b) symmentric,
c) irreflexive,
d) antisymmetric,
e) asymmetric,
f) transitive,
where (a,b) member of R if and only if a=1.
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Problems:
Determine whether the relation R on set of people is reflexive, symmetric,

antisymmetric or transitive where aRb if
a) A is spouse of b
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Find which of the following relations are Transitive?
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Check your Progress-Transitive Relation
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Number of relations possible on a given set A having n elements

Given a set A with |A|=n elements, then the number of relation possible::
2
Total number of relation possible= 2𝑛
Total number of Identity Relations= 1
2 −𝑛
Total number of Reflexive Relations= 2𝑛
2 −𝑛
Total number of Irreflexive Relations= 2𝑛
Total number of symmetric Relations= 2𝑛(𝑛+1)/2
Total number of Anti-symmetric Relations= 2𝑛 . 3𝑛(𝑛−1)/2
Total number of Asymmetric Relations= 3𝑛(𝑛−1)/2

Total number of Reflexive and Symmetric Relations= 2𝑛(𝑛−1)/2
Total number of Transitive Relations= No formula exist
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Composition of Relations
Let A, B and C is sets, and let R1 be a relation from A to B and R2 be a
relation from B to C.
That is, R1 (AB) and R2 (BC).
Then the composite of R1 and R2 is a relation from A to C, denoted by
R1R2 and defined by
R1R2={(a,c): there exists bB such that (a,b)R1 and (b,c)R2}
The relation R1R2 is called the composition of R1 and R2.
Suppose R is a relation on a set A, that is R (AA). Then RR, the
composition of R with itself is always defined. RR is sometimes denoted by
R2.
Similarly, R3= RRR, and so on.
Thus Rn is defined for all positive n.
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Theorem 2.1: (Show that the composition of relations is Associative).
Let A, B, C and D be sets. Suppose
R is a relation from A to B,
S is a relation from B to C, and
T is a relation from C to D. Then (RS)T = R(ST)
Solution:
L.H.S.: Suppose (a,d) (RS)T  (a,c)RS and (c,d)T
Since (a,c)RS  (a,b)R and (b,c)S
Now (ST)  (b,d)ST
Since (a,b)R and (b,d)ST (a,d) R(ST). Hence proved.
Note: 1) composition of relations is Associative i.e.

(RS)T = R(ST).
2) (RS)(SR)
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Check your progress
Q.1:
Let R = {(1, 2), (3, 4), (2, 2)}and S = {(4, 2), (2, 5), (3, 1), (1, 3)}.
Compute RS, SR, R(SR), (RS)R, RRR.
Solution:
a) RS = {(1,5), (3, 2), (2, 5)}
SR = {(4, 2), (3, 2), (1, 4)}. Clearly RS≠ SR
b) R(SR)= {(3, 2)}.
(RS)R = {(3, 2)}. Clearly R(SR)= (RS)R.
c) RRR= {(1, 2), (2, 2)}
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Closure of relations
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Note: To construct Transitive closure t(R), if R contains the pairs
(a,b) and (b,c) then t(R) must contains the pair (a,b), for all a,b,cA.
Finding t(R) can take a lot of time when A has a large number of
elements. There exist an efficient way for computing t(R), known as
warshall’s algorithm (which may be discussed latter).
Example 1
Consider the following relation R on the set A = {1, 2, 3, 4}:
R = {(1, 1), (1, 3), (2, 4), (3, 1), (3, 3), (4, 3)}.
Then r( R ) = R  DA =R  {(2, 2),(4, 4)}={(1, 1), (1, 3), (2, 4), (3, 1),
(3, 3), (4, 3),(2,2),(4,4)}
and s( R) = R  R-1= R{(4, 2), (3, 4)}= {(1, 1), (1, 3), (2, 4), (3, 1),
(3, 3), (4, 3),(4,2),(3,4)
t(R)= RR2R3R4={…..}
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Note: To construct Transitive closure t(R), if R contains the pairs

(a,b) and (b,c) then t(R) must contains the pair (a,c), for all a,b,cA.
Finding t(R) can take a lot of time when A has a large number of
elements. There exist an efficient way for computing t(R), known as
warshall’s algorithm.
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Let A={1,2,3,4} and R={(1,2),(2,1),(2,3),(3,4)}. Find the Transitive

closure of R?
Solution:
1. Method1: (using formula: t(R)= RR2R3R4={………..}
2. (Method2): [Using Matrix]:
t(R)= 𝑀𝑅  𝑀𝑅2 𝑀𝑅3 𝑀𝑅4
Where (𝑀
𝑅)2 = 𝑀𝑅 . 𝑀𝑅 etc … .
First, we have to write a matrix for a given relation
0 1 0 0
1 0 1 0
𝑀𝑅 =
0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0
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2. (Method2): [Using Matrix] Type equation here.

First, we have to write a matrix for a given relation
0 1 0 0
1 0 1 0
𝑀𝑅 =
0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0
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Warshall’s Algorithm (to find Transitive closure)

• The matrix method is better than the 1st method (using formula) and can
be implemented with the help of a program, but it tends to become costly
in terms of time and space requirement in the case of large matrices. So
this method is inefficient too.
• The Warshall's algorithm as described next helps to overcome these
drawbacks.
Method (Warshall’s): first we write 𝑊0 = 𝑀𝑅, Then following steps is
performed.
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Let A={1,2,3,4} and R={(1,2),(2,1),(2,3),(3,4)}. Find the Transitive closure of R?
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Let A={1,2,3,4} and R={(1,2),(2,1),(2,3),(3,4)}. Find the Transitive closure of R?
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Summary
➢ A relation R on a set A is called reflexive if there is a self loop

at each node in directed graph of a relation.
➢ A relation R on a set A is called symmetric if there is an arrow

from 𝑎 → 𝑏 then there is a return arrow from b → 𝑎 .
➢ A relation R on a set A is said to be transitive if there is an

arrow from 𝑎 → 𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 → 𝑐 then there is an arrow from 𝑎 →
𝑐.
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Module II:
❑ Digraph Representation of
Relation
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OBJECTIVES
➢ Explain Digraph (directed graph)
➢ Understand how to make a digraph of a given relation
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Representing Relation using Digraph

Pictorial representation is an another way of
representing a relation (also known as Directed
graph or simply Digraph).
Digraph representation of binary relations:
A binary relation on a set can be represented by a digraph.

Let R be a binary relation on a set A, that is R is a subset of 𝑨 × 𝑨.
Then the digraph, call it G, representing R can be constructed as follows:
1. The vertices of the digraph G are the elements of A, and
2. <x, y> is an arc of G from vertex x to vertex y if and only if <x, y> is
in R.
49
Example
The less than relation R on the set of integers A ={1,2,3,4} is
the set {(1,2),(1,3),(1,4),(2,3),(2,4),(3,4)}
and it can be represented by the following digraph:
50
Digraph representation: Reflexive, Symmetric & Transitive

Relation:
51
52
Example
53
Summary
➢ A relation R on a set A is called reflexive if there is a self loop
at each node in directed graph of a relation.
➢ A relation R on a set A is called symmetric if there is an arrow

from 𝑎 → 𝑏 then there is a return arrow from b → 𝑎 .
➢ A relation R on a set A is said to be transitive if there is an

arrow from 𝑎 → 𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 → 𝑐 then there is an arrow from 𝑎 →
𝑐.
59
Module I:
❑ Equivalence and Partial Order
Relation
60
OBJECTIVES
➢ Define Equivalence Relation
➢ Define Partial Order Relation
➢ Differentiate Between Equivalence Relation and Partial

Order Relation
61
Equivalence Relation
A relation R in a set A is said to be an equivalence relation if
1) R is Reflexive i.e. aRa aA.

2) R is Symmetric i.e. aRabRa, a,bR.
3) R is Transitive i.e. If aRb and bRc aRc a,b,cA.
Example1: Relation R on a set A defined by “a is equal to b” is an

equivalence relation, since it is reflexive (a = a for every aA), symmetric
(If a = b, then b = a , a,bA) and transitive (If a = b and b = c, then a =
c, a,b,cA).
62
Equivalence Relation
Let a Relation R is defined on a set 𝐴 = 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 , then find which of the
following relations are Equivalence relation.
1) R1=∅
2) R2={(a,a),(b,b),(c,c)}
3) R3={(a,a),(b,b),(c,c), (b,a)}
4) R4={(a,a),(a,c),(b,a),(c,a)}
5) R5={(a,a),(b,b),(c,c), (a,b),(a,c),(b,a),(c,a)}
6) R6=AxA
63
Check your Progress1 (Equivalence Relation)
Let a Relation R is defined on a set 𝐴 = 1,2,3 , then find which of the

following relations are Equivalence relation.
1) R1=∅
2) R2={(1,1),(2,2),(3,3)}
3) R3={(1,1),(1,3),(2,1),(3,1)}
4) R4={(1,1),(1,2),(2,1), (2,3),(3,1),(3,2),(3,3)}
5) R5=AxA
64
Partial Order Relation

A relation R on a set A is called a Partial ordering or a partial order relation,
if it is:
Reflexive, i.e. aRa aA.
Anti-symmetric, i.e. If aRb and bRa a=b a,bA.
Transitive i.e. If aRb and bRc aRc a,b,cA.
The set over which a partial order is defined is called a partially ordered
set (or POSET). It is denoted by (A,R) where A is a given set and R is a
relation which satisfy the above three conditions.
Example: The relation ≤ (less than or equal to) on the set R of real
numbers is a partial order relation.
Since the relation () is:
1. Reflexive i.e. aa, aR
2. Anti-symmetric i.e. a b and b aa=b, a,bR
3. Transitive i.e ab and bc, ac a,b,cR
65
Partial Order Relation
66
Hasse Diagram- Pictorial Representation of Poset

Pictorial representation of POSET
▪ This is defined only on poset.
Step1: Since a partial order is reflexive, so every vertex in a
diagraph has a loop. To simplify matter, it will not be shown (Remove
it).
For Example: Consider a following Diagraph:
67

Step2: Since Transitive property exists: aRb,bRc → aRc
We omit (drop) an arrow from a→ c.
68
Step3: We draw connectivity always in the form of upward arrows so

drop arrows:
and finally, we replace the circle(which represents the vertices) by

dots(.)
69
70
71
72
Hasse Diagram
Example: Let Dn is the set of all divisor on n.

Draw the Hasse Diagram for
D12, D15, D20, D30.
73
Maximal and Minimal Elements
Greatest and Least element is also known as First (Maximum) and Last
(minimum) element.
74
Maximal and Minimal Elements (Example)
75
Maximal and Minimal Elements (in Hasse Diagram)
76
Maximal and Minimal Elements (Examples)
77
Minimum (first or Least) and Maximum (Last or Greatest) element
78
Minimum (Least) and Maximum (Greatest) element-Example
79
Upper Bound (UB) and Lower Bound (LB)
Note: UB, LB, LUB and GLB are defined on a subset of Given POSET.
80
Least Upper Bound (LUB) and Greatest Lower Bound (GLB)
Let B={3,4,5} then

LUB(B)=6 and
GLB(B)=3
Note: 𝐿𝑈𝐵(𝑎, 𝑏) is denoted by (𝒂 ∨ 𝒃) and call it Join of a and b,

similarly 𝐺𝐿𝐵(𝑎, 𝑏) is denoted by (𝒂 ∧ 𝒃) and call it meet of a and b.
81
Upper Bound (UB), Lower Bound (LB) and

Least-Upper Bound(LUB) and Greatest-Lower Bound (GLB)
82
Example
Q. Draw the Hasse diagram of poset ({3,5,9,15,24,45},/). Then find the following:
83
Check your Progress-1
84
Module#3
Boolean Algebra
85
Boolean Algebra
Boolean algebra as Lattice:
A lattice is said to be a BA if it is both Distributed and complemented
lattice.
Note: In distributed lattice every element has at most one complement
(means either not exist or only one complement).
And In complemented lattice every element has at least one complement.
A lattice L is said to be a BA if it has exactly one complement for each

element in L.
Ex:
86
Boolean Algebra
Let B is a nonempty set with
➢ Two binary operator (+) and (*)
➢ One unary operator ‘ (complement), and
➢ Two distinct element 0 and 1, then Boolean algebra can be represented
as a 6 tuple 𝑩, +,∗, ’, 𝟎, 𝟏 , where 0 is a least element and 1 is called a
greatest element.
➢ If the set B satisfy the following properties, then B is called
Boolean algebra:
1.Closure property: 4. Complement law
∀𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ 𝑩 𝒂 + 𝒃 ∈ 𝑩 𝒂 + 𝒂’ = 𝟏
𝒂∗𝒃∈ 𝑩 𝒂 ∗ 𝒂’ = 𝟎
2. Associative Law: 5. Commutative Law
𝒂 + (𝒃 + 𝒄) = (𝒂 + 𝒃) + 𝒄 a+b=b+a
𝒂∗ 𝒃∗𝒄 = 𝒂∗𝒃 ∗c a∗b=b∗a
3. Identity Law: Distributive law:
𝒂+𝟎=𝒂 a + (b ∗ c) = (a + b) ∗ (a + c)
𝒂∗𝟏=𝒂 (a ∗ (b + c) = (a ∗ b) + (a ∗ c)
87
Point to be remember
1. Boolean algebra is a distributed and

complemented lattice means each element of a
lattice have a unique complement.
2.The representation 𝑩, +,∗, ’, 𝟎, 𝟏 of a set B,
which satisfy the properties (1 to 6) is called a
Boolean algebra.
3.Lattice and Boolean algebra are interconnected
to each other.
88
Boolean Algebra
▪ Boolean algebra is the theoretical foundation for digital system.
▪ Boolean algebra can have only two values, 0 and 1. The Boolean
0 and 1 do not represent actual numbers, instead a state of a
voltage which is known as the logic level.
▪ Boolean algebra is used as a tool for the analysis and design of
logic circuit.
▪ Boolean algebra provides the operations and the rules for
working with the set {0,1}.
▪ In Boolean algebra, 3 operations are mostly used:
➢ Boolean Complementation (‘)
➢ Boolean Sum (+) and
➢ Boolean Product (.)
89
Boolean Algebra
• Both sets and propositions satisfy similar laws, These laws are
used to define an abstract mathematical structure called a
Boolean algebra, which is named after the mathematician
George Boole (1815–1864).
• Let B be a nonempty set with two binary operations + and ∗, a
unary operation ‘ , and two distinct elements 0 and 1. Then B is
called a Boolean algebra if the following axioms hold where a, b,
c are any elements in B:
• We will sometimes designate a Boolean algebra by 6 tuples as
(B,+, ∗,’ ,0, 1), which satisfy the following Properties:
90
Boolean Algebra
(B,+, ∗,’ ,0, 1) is a BA, if the following axioms hold where a, b, c are any elements in B.
[B1] Commutative laws: We say

(1a) a + b = b + a ▪ 0 is the zero element,
▪ 1, is the unit element, and
(1b) a ∗ b = b ∗ a ▪ a’ is the complement of a.
[B2] Distributive laws:
▪ ‘ has precedence over ∗, and ∗ has
(2a) a + (b ∗ c) = (a + b) ∗ (a + c) precedence over +.
(2b) a ∗ (b + c) = (a ∗ b) + (a ∗ c) For example,
[B3] Identity laws: ▪ a + b ∗ c means
a + (b ∗ c) and not (a + b) ∗ c;
(3a) a + 0 = a ▪ a ∗ b’ means a ∗ (b’) and not (a ∗ b)’
▪ Of course when a + b ∗ c is written a + bc
(3b) a ∗ 1 = a
then the meaning is clear.
[B4] Complement laws:
(4a) a + a =1
(4b) a ∗ a= 0
91
Boolean Algebra
Example1: Let B = {0, 1}, the set of bits (binary digits), with the binary
operations of + and ∗ and the unary operation defined by Fig.1. Then B is a
Boolean algebra. (Note simply changes the bit, i.e., 1= 0 and 0= 1.).
92
Boolean Algebra- Example
93
Example3:
Let 𝐷70 = {1, 2, 5, 7, 10, 14, 35, 70}, the divisors of 70. Define +, ∗,
and on 𝐷70 by a + b = lcm(a, b), a ∗ b = gcd(a, b), a’=70/a
Show that 𝐷70 is a Boolean algebra with 1 as a ‘zero element’ and
70 as a Unit (Greatest) element.
It is clear from these two tables a,b,c ∈ 𝐷70
94
Example3:
95
Boolean Algebra
96
Boolean Algebra
97
Boolean Algebra
98
Note Point
99
Proving Theorems of Boolean Algebra

(B,+, ∗,’ ,0, 1) is a BA, if the following axioms hold where a, b, c are any elements in B.
Theorem1: Idempotent law
∀𝒂 ∈ 𝑩
(1) 𝑎 + 𝑎 = 𝑎
(2) 𝑎. 𝑎 = 𝑎
Proof:
(1) LHS
100
Properties of Boolean Algebra
101
Let 11 and 12 be two multiplicative identity in B, then
102
103
Proving Theorems of Boolean Algebra

Theorem2: Prove that the element 0 (additive identity) and 1(multiplicative
identity) are Unique.
Proof:
104
105

Theorem3:
106
107
Theorem5: De Morgan’s Law

∀a, b ∈ 𝑩
1 𝑎 + 𝑏 ′ = 𝑎′ . 𝑏′
2 𝑎. 𝑏 ′ = 𝑎′ + 𝑏′
Proof: To prove this, we use the concept A+A’=1 and A.A’=0
For (1) we have show that:
(𝑎 + 𝑏) + 𝑎′ . 𝑏′ = 1
LHS (𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑎’). (𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑏’) = (1 + 𝑏). (1 + 𝑎) = 1.1 = 1=RHS
Also consider
(𝑎 + 𝑏). (𝑎’. 𝑏’) = (𝑎’. 𝑏’). (𝑎 + 𝑏) = (𝑎’. 𝑏’. 𝑎) + (𝑎’. 𝑏’. 𝑏)
= (0. 𝑏’) + (𝑎’. 0) = 0 + 0 = 0
108
Theorem6:
0’=1 and 1’=0
Proof: 0’=(a.a’)’=a’+(a’)’=a’+a=1
And
1’=(a+a’)’=a’.(a’)’=a’.a=0
109
Atom and Anti-atom

Atom: Immediate successor of least element
Anti-atom: Immediate predecessor of Greatest element.
In fig2,
Atom: 𝑐
Anti-atom: 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑔
110
Example2:
Consider 𝐷110 . Draw its Hasse diagram and find atoms and anti-
atom.
Atom: 2,5,11
Anti-atom: 10,22,55
111
Example3:
Consider 𝐷210 . Draw its Hasse diagram and find atoms and anti-atom.
𝐷210 = {1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 10,14, 15, 21, 30, 35, 42, 70, 105, 210}
Atom: 2,3,5,7
Anti-atom: 30,42,70,105
112
Subalgebra:
A Boolean subalgebra, or more simply, a subalgebra, of a Boolean
algebra (B, ≼) is a subset A (i.e 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵), that contains the Greatest (1)
and Least elements (0) of B , and with any elements 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐴 , it contains
𝑎 ∨ 𝑏, 𝑎 ∧ 𝑏 and 𝑎′ as well.
Note: 1) A itself be a BA, and contains 0 and 1 element
Let's consider a subset with
▪ 2 element:
{c,a}, {c,b}….., {c,d}; only {c,d} is a Boolean SA.
▪ 3 element (i.e. odd number of element)
{c,a,d},{c,b,d},{a,d,b},{a,c,b}; odd number of
Element in a subset never will be a Boolean SA in any case, because it itself not
a BA that is one extra element (say in {c,a,d}, a is not having any compliment),
so need not to check 2nd condition, least and greatest element in subset A.
▪ 4 element: {a,b,c,d} is a Boolean subalgebra.
113
Subalgebra:
❑ Any subset A (of B) having odd number of elements, will not be a BSA.
Because there will be at least one element for which complement is not
exist.
❑Any set having even number of elements may or may not be a BSA.
Example: Find all the Boolean subalgebra of D30.
{1,30}
{ _, _, _ } not a BSA (odd number of element)
{1, _, _, 30} implies {1, 2,15, 30}
{1, 5, 6, 30}
{1, 3, 10, 30}
Total 4 Boolean SA.
114
Subalgebra:
Example: Find all the Boolean subalgebra of D30, which are not a Boolean
subalgebra of having at least 4 element.
115
Subalgebra
116
Subalgebra
117
Boolean Subalgebra
118
QUIZ time (11.45-12.10 pm)
119
Amity School of Engineering & Technology
1
Contents:
❑ Basic Concepts of Graph
❑Different types of Graph
2
Objectives

1) Understand the Concepts of Graphs
2)Apply the knowledge of Graph theory in
computer science.
3
Graphs…
Graph is a non-linear Data Structure. Example:
It is a collection of nodes(vertices)
and edges(arcs) that relate nodes to
each other in the graph.
Generally, A Graph is represented as
G = (V, E)
Where,
V is the set of vertices(nodes or
points) and
E is the set of edges(links or arcs). This graph G can be defined as
G= ( V , E )
where, V= {A,B,C,D,E} and
E= {(A,B),(A,C)(A,D),(B,D), (C,D),
(B,E),(E,D)}.
4
Graph…
❖ Vertex: An individual data element of a graph is called as
vertex. Vertex is also known as node.
❖ Edge: An edge is a connecting link between two vertices.
Edges are of three types

Undirected Edge : An edge with no (A,B) is equal to
specific direction. It is Bidirectional (B, A)
Directed Edge : An edge which has (A,B) is not
specific direction. It is Unidirectional equal to (B, A)
Weighted Edge - An edge with cost

on it. 5
Graph Terminology
Adjacent Nodes: Any two nodes which are connected by an
edge are said to be adjacent nodes.
Source and Destination: If an edge is directed, its first endpoint

is origin and the other endpoint is destination of the edge.
Adjacent edges- Any two edges which are having one common
vertex
Loop or Self Loop: An edge that starts and end at the same
vertex
Parallel Edges- If more than one edge exists between the nodes
then the edges are called the parallel ledges.
6
Types of Graphs
Types of Graphs
Types of Graphs
Null Graph: A graph with no edges is
called a Null Graph.
E(G)=φ
Trivial Graph: A graph with only one vertex.
It’s a smallest possible graph. V(G)≠ φ
Finite Graph: A graph with finite

number of vertices and edges is
called as a finite graph.
Infinite Graph: A graph with V(G)=E(G)=∞

infinite number of vertices and
edges is called as a finite graph.
Types of Graphs
Multi Graph: A graph having
no self loops but having
parallel edges.
Pseudo Graph: A graph

having parallel edges
(possibly) and self loops
10
Types of Graphs
Directed Graph: A graph with

only directed edges is called as
a directed graph.
Undirected Graph: A graph with

only undirected edges is called
as a undirected graph.
Mixed Graph: A graph with

directed and undirected edges
is called as mixed graph
11
Types of Graphs
Simple Graph: A graph without

parallel edges and loops is
called as simple graph
12
Types of Graphs
Connected graph: In connected

graph, at least one path exists
between every pair of vertices.
Disconnected Graph: A graph in

which there does not exist any path
between at least one pair of vertices
is called as a disconnected graph.
13
Types of Graphs
Regular Graph: It is a graph
where each vertex has the
same degree. If degree of each
vertex is K, Then it is called a K-
regular graph
Note: Every complete graph is regular bit vice-versa is not valid
X Y
14
Types of Graphs
X Y
Note: V(G)=V(X) U V(Y) and no edge exit between
any two vertices in X or in Y
Complete Bipartite Graph(𝑲𝒎,𝒏): A

bipartite graph in which each
vertex of X is connected to each
and very vertex of Y. Y
X
Note:Complete Bi-partite graph is represented by Km,n where m,n denotes the no.of vertices in x and Y 15
Types of Graphs
Cyclic Graph: A graph with at
least one cycle is called as
cyclic graph.
Wheel Graph: A wheel graph

is obtained by adding a new
vertex to the cycle graph and
that vertex is connected to all
the other vertices of a cycle
graph.
16
Graph Terminology
Degree:( for undirected graph): Total number of edges connected to a
vertex.
In-Degree(deg(u)): Total number of edges incident at vertex u.
Out-Degree(deg(u)): Total number of edges outgoing from vertex u.
Isolated vertex: Vertex with degree zero(0).
Pendant Vertex: Vertex with degree 1
There are two types of vertices i.e the vertices with degree even and
vertices with degree odd.
Note: In-Degree and Out-degree is possible in case of Directed Graphs 17
Types of Graphs
Hand Shaking Theorem/ Sum of degree theorem

The sum of the degrees of the vertices of a graph G is
equal to twice the number of edges in G i.e.
Example: Find the sum of the degrees of the given graph
Solution:
19
Hand Shaking Theorem/ Sum of degree theorem

The sum of the degrees of the vertices of a graph G is
equal to
From the above equation , we can say that the

number of vertices with odd degree in G is always even.
20
Check Your Progress-1

Q1. A graph contains 21 edges and 3 vertices of degree 4
and all the other vertices of degree 2. Find the total number
of vertices.
Q2. A simple graph has 24 edges and degree of each vertex
is 4. Find the number of vertices.
Q3. Simple graph with 35 edges, 4 vertices of degree 5, 5
vertices of degree 4, 4 vertices of degree 3. Find the vertices
with degree 2?
Q4.
(c) Verify Hand Shaking Lemma

21
Check Your Progress-1

Q5. Find the maximum number of vertices in a simple
graph with 35 edges where degree of each vertex is at
least 3.
Q6. Find the minimum number of vertices possible in a
simple graph with 41 edges and degree of each vertex is
atmost 5
22
Practice Question
• Maximum degree of a graph >= Sum of degree of individual vertices
2E >= deg(V1) + deg(V2) + ... + deg(Vn)
2 * 35 >= 3 + 3 + ... + 3 ...(I),
70 >= 3n
23.33 >= n or 23 >= n
So the largest number of vertices are 23, with the given constraints
23
Havel–Hakami algorithm
This theorem is used to find whether a simple graph (No

self loop, no parallel edges) exists (valid) for a given
degree sequence or not.
Degree Sequence: Arrangement of degree of all the

vertices of a graph G in decreasing order(or increasing
order).
Ex: (3,3,2,2,1) , (3,2,2,1,1,1)
24
Given a degree sequence (in decreasing order)
𝑆 = (𝑑1, 𝑑2, 𝑑3, … … . 𝑑 𝑛 ) 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑑𝑖 ≥ 𝑑𝑖+1 [ Note that total n degrees are given]
Steps:
• If any 𝑑𝑖 ≥ 𝑛 then Fail. [No degree should be ≥ no. of given vertices]
• If there is an ODD numbers of odd degrees (or sum of all degrees is ODD) then
Fail
• If any 𝑑𝑖 < 0 then fail.
• If all 𝑑𝑖 = 0 [or only even no of 1’s and any no of 0’s) then report success. [This
a condition after applying algorithm]
STEP1: Reorder S in non decreasing order. Pick the vertex with highest degree
(say 𝑑1) . Lets call this value (𝑑1) = 𝐤.
STEP2: Remove 𝑑1 from S.
STEP3: Subtract 1 from the next 𝒌 elements from remaining sequence. That is
(×, 𝒅𝟐 − 𝟏, 𝒅𝟑 − 𝟏, … … . . , 𝒅𝒌+𝟏 −𝟏, 𝒅𝒌+𝟐 , … . . , 𝒅𝒏 )
STEP4: Repeat 1 to 3 until the stopping condition is met (i.e. If all 𝒅𝒊 = 𝟎 [or only
even no of 1’s and any no of 0’s)
25
Question: Check whether a simple graph exits or not for the following degree sequences:
1) 3,2,1,0,0
2) 6,5,4,3,3,1
3) 3,2,1,5,0 that is
5,3,2,1,0
Solution:
1) k=3,
x,1,0,-1,0 [-ve values not possible] fail.
2) k=6, No enough degree exist to subtract (-1), Fail.
3) Number of odd degree is not EVEN, so Fail.
Note: The sequence obtained after applying algorithm might

not be nonincreasing. In such a case, you will have to
rearrange it in nonincreasing order before re-applying the
algorithm.
26
Question: Check whether a simple graph exits or not for the following degree sequences:
1) 7,6,5,4,4,3,2,1
2) 6,6,6,6,3,3,2,2
3) 7,6,6,4,4,3,2,2
4) 8,7,7,6,4,2,1,1
Solution:
27
Example
Example: Check whether a simple graph exits for the given
degree sequence or not
7,6,5,4,4,3,2,1
Solution: Check:
No degrees is greater than no of vertices (n=8),
Sum of all degree=EVEN,
Number of ODD degree= EVEN, So we can proceed to apply algorithm.
7 6 5 4 4 3 2 1
5 4 3 3 2 1 0
3 2 2 1 0 0
1 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0,0,0,0- 4nodes with degree 0 represents a NULL graph. 28

6,6,6,6,3,3,2,2
Solution: Check:
No degrees is greater than no of vertices (n=8),
Sum of all degree=EVEN,
Number of ODD degree= EVEN, So we can proceed to apply algorithm.
6 6 6 6 3 3 2 2
5 5 5 2 2 1 2
Rearran
ged 5 5 5 2 2 2 1
4 4 1 1 1 1
3 0 0 0 1
Rearran
ged 3 1 0 0 0
0 -1 -1 0
-1 means Invalid graph (Simple graph not possible).

29
Check whether a simple graph exits for the given degree

sequence or not
a) 4,4,3,3,2,2
b) 5,3,3,3,2,2,1,1
c) 2,2,2,1,1,1,1
d) 3,3,3,3,2
30
Some more important theorem on Degree
Let G is a Graph with v vertices and e edges, and let 𝛿 is the

minimum degree and ∆ is the maximum degree, then
2. 𝑒
𝛿≤ ≤∆
𝑣
31
Q.1: What is the maximum number vertices of a graph having 10

edges and minimum degree=3.
Solution: 𝛿=3, e=10
2. 𝑒
𝛿≤
𝑣
So 𝑣 ≤ 2.𝑒
𝛿
20
𝑣≤
3
𝑣 ≤ 6.6
𝑣=6
32
Q.2: What is the maximum number vertices of a graph having 11

edges and minimum degree=3.
Solution: 𝛿=3, e=11
2. 𝑒
𝛿≤
𝑣
So 𝑣 ≤ 2.𝑒
𝛿
22
𝑣≤
3
𝑣 ≤ 7.3
𝑣=7
33
Walk, Path in Graph:
34
Graph Terminology
Walk: It is a sequence of alternating vertices and edges such that
edges and vertices can appear any number of times
Closed walk: When a walk begins and ends at the same vertex , then
it is called a closed walk.
Open Walk: When a walk does not begins and ends at the same
vertex , then it is called an open walk.
Trail: It is a walk in which vertices can be repeated but edges cannot

be repeated. It can be closed and open.
Circuit: A closed trail which begins and ends at the same vertex.is
circuit.
Path: An open walk in which no vertex and edge can appear more than once (No edge and no vertex
repeated). Simple Path: A path in which all vertices are distinct.
Trail: A path in which all edges are distinct
Cycle: A closed path which begins and ends at the same vertex (all vertices
are distinct 35
Example:
.
Walk: 1a6b7d2,1a6b7e3h4g5f7b6
open walk: 1c2d7f5f7
closed walk:1c2d7f5f7b6a1
Trail: 7f5g4h3e7b6
Circuit: Closed trail: 7f5g4h3e7, 1a6b7f5g4r3e7d2c1
Path: 1a6b7f5g4
Closed path=Cycle: 1a6b7d2c1
36
37
Example: Check whether the following sequences

represents trail, path , cycle, circuit.
a) a2b5d8e
b) a2b6e8d5b4c
c) a1a3c7e
d) a3c4b2a
e) a3c7e6b4c
38
Graph Terminology
A walk in a graph G is a finite sequence 𝑊 = {𝑣0 , 𝑒1 , 𝑣1 , 𝑒2 , … . . , 𝑒𝑘 , 𝑣𝑘 }
where 𝑣0 , 𝑣1 , … . . 𝑣𝑘 are vertices of G and 𝑒1 , 𝑒2 , … , 𝑒𝑘 are edges joining the
vertices 𝑣𝑖−1 and 𝑣𝑖 , 1 ≤ 𝑖 ≤ 𝑘 (Note that all the 𝑣𝑖𝘍𝑠 or 𝑒𝑖𝘍𝑠 may not be
distinct. There may be repetition.)
Note: In a walk, the vertices as well as edges can be repeated.
The number of edges contained in a walk, i.e. k, is called the length of the
walk W, and is denoted by 𝑙(𝑊).
Example: Consider the graph on 5 vertices and 7 edges given in Fig.2.
Find x1-x5 walks of length 8 and length 4, respectively
39
Graph Terminology
Example: Consider the graph on 5 vertices and 7 edges given in Fig.2.
Find x1-x5 walks of length 8 and length 4, respectively
40
Path, Close Walk, Open Walk, Cycle
41
Path, Close Walk, Open Walk, Cycle
42
Isomorphic (similar) Graph

[No of vertices, no. of edges, degree sequence and edge connectivity
must be retained in Both G1 and G2]
43
Example: Isomorphic Graphs
44
Method to check Isomorphic Graphs
In the given graph G1 and G2, check the following (in

sequence):
1. Number of vertices and No. of edges

2. Number of vertices with given degrees (or degree sequence).
3. Check degree of vertices along with their neighbor vertices.
4. Minimum cycle length, maximum cycle length in G1 and G2.
5. Check the isomorphism of complement graph of G1 and G2
(i.e.G1′ ≅ 𝐺2′).
6. Planner, non planner, connected, disconnected, chromatic
number etc.
45
Example
(i) Isomorphic-yes [mapping is as follows: e→4, d→1,c→2,….

(ii) 2nd column (1st graph)-Not a Isomorphic: Total number of vertices are different.
(iii)3rd column (1st graph)-Yes Isomorphic: mapping is as follows: b→5, e→6,….
(iv) 1st col,2nd Graph: Not a isomorphic: Reason: Same no. of vertices, same no. of edges,
same degree sequence, but triangle dce with same side vertex, but in G2 triangle with
different side vertex ( or max. cycle length is different, in G1:max cycle length is 5, but in
G2: max cycle length is 4)
(v) 2nd column (2nd graph): Yes: isomorphic: Vertex, edges, Degrees are same, and mapping
is: d-5, c-4, b-3, a-6, e-1,f-2. (neighbor degrees (say ‘e’) also same.
(vi) Not Isomorphic: Vertex, edges, Degrees are same. Only one vertex with degree 2. so b
is mapped with 6. but its neighbor vertex is not having same degrees.
46
Check your progress-1
47
Show the following graph G and H is isomorphic to each other:
48

Check whether the following graph G and H is isomorphic to
each other or not?
The Degree sequence of the graph G: 4,2,2,2,2,2,1 and for the graph
H is: 3,3,2,2,2,2,1,1. Hence not a Isomorphic graph.
49

Check whether the following graph G and H is isomorphic to
each other or not?
50
Graph colouring
Vertex colouring:
Note: We generally use the names of the colors, red, green and blue (if
using less number of colors up to 5 or 6). Suppose we need, say, 20
colors, can we still use the names to refer to the colors? Obviously NO.
So, In the diagrams, we will denote the colours as 1, 2,…. and so on.
51
Graph (vertex) colouring Algorithm
52

We use the Welch-Powell Algorithm to obtain a coloring of G.
Ordering the vertices according to decreasing degrees yields the following
sequence: A5, A3, A7, A1, A2, A4, A6, A8
• The first color is assigned to vertices A5 and A1.

• The second color is assigned to vertices A3, A4, and A8.
• The third color is assigned to vertices A7, A2, and A6.
• All the vertices have been assigned a color, and so G
is 3-colorable.
Observe that G is not 2-colorable since vertices A1, A2, and A3,
which are connected to each other, must be assigned
different colors. Accordingly, χ(G) = 3.
Note: Consider the complete graph Kn with n vertices. Since every vertex is adjacent to every
other vertex, Kn requires n colors in any coloring. Thus χ(Kn) = n.
53
54
Graph colouring
Q.1 Find the chromatic number of complete bipartite graph
𝐾𝑚,𝑛
Solution: 𝜒 𝐺 = 2
55
Vertex colouring
56
Vertex colouring
Find the chromatic number of the following graph
𝜒 𝐺 = 4 and
𝜒 𝐺 =3
57
vertex colouring
Q. Show that the chromatic number of the Petersen graph,

given in Fig. 6, is 3
58
Vertex colouring
Q. Find the chromatic number of the graph, given in

Fig. 7.
59
Vertex colouring
Q. Find the color classes in the two different colorings of the graph given in
Fig.8
60
Complete, Regular and Bipartite graph

• Complete Graphs
• A graph G is said to be complete if every vertex in G is connected to every
other vertex in G. Thus a complete graph G must be connected. The
complete graph with n vertices is denoted by Kn. Figure 8.1 shows the
graphs
K1 through K6.
61

Regular Graphs:
• A graph G is regular of degree k or k-regular if every vertex has degree k.
In other words, a graph is regular if every vertex has the same degree.
• The connected regular graphs of degrees 0, 1, or 2 are easily described.
The connected 0-regular graph is the trivial graph with one vertex and no
edges. The connected 1-regular graph is the graph with two vertices and
one edge connecting them. The connected 2-regular graph with n vertices
is the graph which consists of a single n-cycle. See Fig. 8-14.
62

Regular Graphs:
• The 3-regular graphs must have an even number of vertices since the sum
of the degrees of the vertices is an even number (Theorem 8.1). Figure 8-
15 shows two connected 3-regular graphs with six vertices. In general,
regular graphs can be quite complicated. For example, there are nineteen
3-regular graphs with ten vertices. We
• note that the complete graph with n vertices 𝐾𝑛 is regular of degree n − 1.
63
Bipartite graph
• A graph G is said to be bipartite if its vertices V can be partitioned into two
subsets M and N such that each edge of G connects a vertex of M to a
vertex of N. By a complete bipartite graph, we mean that each vertex of
• M is connected to each vertex of N; this graph is denoted by 𝑲𝒎, 𝒏 where m
is the number of vertices in M and n is the number of vertices in N, and,
for standardization, we will assume m ≤ n. Figure 8-16 shows the graphs
K2,3, K3,3, and K2,4, Clearly the graph Km,n has (m.n) edges.
64
Planar Graph
65
Planar Graph
Maps, Regions: A particular planar representation of a finite planar multigraph is
called a map. We say that the map is connected if the underlying multigraph is
connected. A given map divides the plane into various regions. For
example, the map in Fig. with six vertices and nine edges divides the plane into five
regions. Observe that four of the regions are bounded, but the fifth region,
outside the diagram, is unbounded.
Observe that the border of each region of a map consists of edges. Sometimes
the edges will form a cycle, but sometimes not. For example, in Fig. 8-22 the
borders of all the regions are cycles except for r3. However, if
we do move counterclockwise around r3 starting, say, at the vertex C, then we
obtain the closed path (C,D,E, F,E,C)
where the edge {E,F} occurs twice. By the degree of a region r, written deg(r), we
mean the length of the cycle or closed walk which borders r. We note that each
edge either borders two regions or is contained in a region
and will occur twice in any walk along the border of the region.
66
Planar Graph
Maps, Regions:
67
Characteristics of Planar Graph
Faces/Regions: The planar graph divides a plane into face or regions.

The regions bounded by edges are called interior regions and the region which
is not bounded is called an exterior or outer region.
Each region has some degree associated with it given as-
• Degree of Interior region = Number of edges enclosing that region.
• Degree of Exterior region = Number of edges exposed to that region.
Here, this planar graph splits the plane into 4 regions- R1, R2, R3 and R4 where-
• Degree (R1) = 3
• Degree (R2) = 3
• Degree (R3) = 3
• Degree (R4) = 5
Properties of a Planar Graph
• Sum of the degrees of all the vertices of a

planar graph is equal to twice the number
of edges present in the graph
Sum of the degrees of all the regions of a

planar graph is equal to twice the number of
edges present in the graph
Euler’s Formula for Number of Regions
If G be a connected planar graph with ‘e’ edges and ‘v’ vertices. Let ‘r’ be the
number of regions in Planar representation of G, Then
r=e-v+2.
Example:
Number of edges = 7
Number of vertices= 5
Number of regions= 7-5+2
=4
Detection of Planarity of a Graph
A graph G with ‘e’ number of edges and ‘v’ number of vertices is given.
Then G i planar if
1) A circuit of length 3 is possible in a graph, then
e≤ 3v-6
2) A circuit of length 3 is not possible, then,
e≤ 2n-4
Practice Question
Q1. If there are 20 vertices, each of degree 3, then into how many regions does
a representation of this planar Graph splits the plane.
Q2. A connected graph G with 25 vertices are 60 edges is given. Find the
number of regions for the graph.
Q3. Check whether the given graphs are planar or not.
Planar Graph
Example2:
73
Planar Graph
Theorem 2 (Euler’s formula) : If G is a connected planar graph with V vertices,

E edges and r regions, then the number r of the regions of G is given by
𝑟 = 𝐸 − 𝑉 + 2.
Example2:
74
Planar Graph
75
Planar Graph
Theorem3: If G is a planar graph, with 𝑣 ≥ 3, then 𝑒 ≤ 3𝑝 ─ 6.

Further, if G is also bipartite, we have 𝑒 ≤ 2𝑣 ─ 4.
76
Planar Graph
Example2: Show that 𝐾3,3 is non-planar Graph.

Solution:
Since 𝐾3,3 is bipartite, we can apply Theorem. Here v = 6 and e = 9. But,
2v ─4 = 10 > 9 = e. So, 𝐾3,3 is not planar.
77
Planar Graph
Theorem3 (Kuratowski):
To understand the statement, let us first consider Fig. 24 below.
In this figure, we have started with K4 and inserted vertices of degree 2 in

some of the existing edges. For example, in Fig. 24(b), we have inserted a
vertex a on the edge uv. In effect, this replaces the edge uv with two new
edges va and au. We have made similar changes in the graphs in Fig. 24(b),
Fig. 24(c), Fig. 24(d) and Fig. 24(e). In this way we have got subdivisions of
the graph in Fig. 24(a), as you shall now see.
Definition: A graph G(v,e) is a subdivision of a graph G if it can be obtained
by adding one or more vertices of degree 2 on the existing edges of G. In
other words, we ‘subdivide’ some of the existing edges.
78
Planar Graph
Theorem3 (Kuratowski):
In 1930, K. Kuratowski, a Polish mathematician, proved a necessary and
sufficient condition for a graph to be planar.
A graph is nonplanar if and only if it contains a subgraph homeomorphic to

𝐾3,3 or 𝐾5.
Or
A graph G is non-planar if and only if it contains a subdivision of K5 or K3,3 as
a subgraph.
79
Euler Graph and Hamiltonian Graph
(i) A trail is a walk in which no edge is repeated.

ii) A circuit is a trail whose starting vertex and end vertex
are the same.
iii) A trail which is not a circuit is sometimes called an
open trail.
iv)A circuit (resp. trail) in a graph G containing all the
edges of G, is called an Eulerian circuit (resp. Eulerian
trail).
v) A graph is Eulerian if it contains an Eulerian circuit.
80
Euler Graph Example
Now, let us consider some examples of Eulerian graphs. The simplest class
of example is a cycle, for example, C6 in Fig. 5(a). We can get another
example by adding a cycle of length 3 to the graph in Fig. 5(a) at v1 (see Fig.
5(b)).
This is also Eulerian because we can start at the vertex v1, traverse the
inner triangle, come back to v1 and traverse the outer cycle. We get yet
another Eulerian graph by incorporating a cycle of length 6 at v1 to Fig.5 (a)
(see Fig. 5(c)).
81
Euler graph
Euler Circuit: A closed trail which visits each and every
edge of the graph exactly once.
Euler graph: A connected graph G which contains an Euler
circuit is called an Euler graph.
Example:
An Euler cycle exits i.e.
BAFBCEFGCDEGB
Therefore, the given graph is an
Euler Graph.
82
Euler graph (Check)

Direct Method: If all the vertices of a graph G are having even
degree, then the graph G is an Euler graph.
Example:
deg(A)=deg(D)=2
deg(B)=deg(C)=deg(F)=
deg(G)=deg(E)=4
All the nodes are having even
degree. Therefore the given
graph is Euler’s graph
83
Euler graph (Example)
84
Euler graph (Example)
The degree sequence of G1 is {8, 4, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2}. All the

vertices are even, and hence the graph is Eulerian. You can check that the
following gives an Eulerian circuit in it. {x1, x2, x3, x4, x1, x5, x6, x3, x7, x8,
x1, x9, x10, x11, x1, x12, x13, x14, x15, x1}. The degree sequence of G2 is {8,
4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 2, 2, 2, 2}. Since all the degrees are even, it is Eulerian. An
Eulerian circuit in G2 is {x1, x2, x3, x4, x5, x1, x3, x5, x2, x4, x1, x6, x7, x8, x1,
x9, x7, x10, x1}.
85
Semi Euler graph

Open Euler circuit: An open trail which visits each and
every edge of the graph exactly once. Starting and ending
vertices are not same.
Semi Euler graph: A connected graph G which contains an
open Euler circuit is called a Semi Euler graph (or Euler Path)
Example:
An Open Euler circuit exits i.e.
BADBCD
Therefore, the given graph is a Semi-
Euler Graph.
86
Semi Euler graph

Direct Method: A connected graph is semi Euler graph iff
either 0 (that is no vertices of odd degree) or exactly two
vertices of a graph have odd degrees.
Example:
deg(A)=deg(C)=2(even degrees)
deg(B)=deg(D)=3(odd degrees)
B is the starting vertex and D is the ending
vertex.
Therefore the given graph
is Semi-Euler graph.
87
Practice Question on Euler graph

Check which of the following are Euler’s or Semi-Euler’s graph
88
Practice Question on Euler graph

Check which of the following are Euler’s or Semi-Euler’s graph
89
Hamiltonian Graph
Hamiltonian Circuit: A simple circuit which traverse each
and every vertex of the graph exactly once except the
starting/ending vertex..
Hamiltonian graph: A connected graph G which contains a
Hamiltonian circuit is called a Hamiltonian graph.
Example:
An Hamiltonian cycle exits i.e.
ABCEDA
Therefore, the given graph is an
Hamiltonian Graph.
Note: Every complete graph and cycle graph are Hamiltonian graphs.
90
Hamiltonian Graph
Hamiltonian Path: If a path exist which traverse each and
every vertex of the graph exactly once but does not return to
the starting vertex is called a Hamiltonian path.
Example:
A path which traverse each and every
Vertex once exits
Therefore, the path ABCDE is
Hamiltonian path
91
Some theorems on Hamiltonian Graph
Dirac’s Theorem: If G is a simple graph with n vertices, where n ≥ 3 If deg(v) ≥ {n}/{2} for each
vertex v, then the graph G is Hamiltonian graph.
Example: Here, n=4, such that n ≥3

deg(G)=deg(E)=DEG(F)=DEG(H)=3
Degree of all the vertices is ≥ 2.5
Therefore the given graph is Hamiltonian graph
92
Some theorems on Hamiltonian Graph
Ore's Theorem - If G is a simple graph with n vertices, where n

≥ 2 if deg(x) + deg(y) ≥ n for each pair of non-adjacent vertices
x and y, then the graph G is Hamiltonian graph.
Example: Here, n=5, and n ≥ 2

For all non-adjacent vertices
deg(a)+deg(c)=3+3=6>no. of vertices of a graph.
deg(b)+deg(d)=3+3=6>no. of vertices of a graph.
Therefore the given graph is Hamiltonian graph.
93
Tree
• Tree is a non- linear data structure which shows

hierarchical relationship between the elements
• A tree is a connected undirected graph with no
circuits and loops.
• In a tree data structure, if we have N number of
nodes then we can have a maximum of N-1 number
of edges.
Not a tree A tree

Rooted Tree
• A rooted tree is a tree in which one vertex has been designated as the
root and every edge is directed away from the root.
• Different choice of root produce different root tree.
Weighted Tree
• A tree in which weight or cost of moving

from one node to another is defined on
all the edges of the tree is called a
weighted tree.
Properties of Tree
Root- Node at the top of the tree is

root.
Parent- Any node except the root
has one edge upward to a node
called parent.
Child- Node below a given node
connected by its edge downward.
Leaf Node: Node with no children
Sibling- Nodes with same parent .
Subtree- Children of a node are
called subtrees.
Properties of Tree
Level- Level presents the generation of a

node. Root is at level 0. Its children are at
level one more than the parent node.
Internal Node- Node with at least one child
External Node( Leaf)- Node with no
children.
Path- It is the sequence of consecutive
edges from source to destination node.
Some key Terms

Degree of a node- The number of children of
a node
Degree of a tree- The highest degree of a any
node of a tree
Height of a node- It is the length of the
longest path from a node to a leaf.
Height of a tree- it is the height of the root
Depth of a node- It is the length of the path
from the root to a node.
Depth of a tree-It is the length of the longest
path from root to the leaf.
Binary Tree
A tree in which each node contains at most two children
is called as Binary tree. One is known as the left child
and the other is known as the right child.
Note: Binary tree contains at most 2N nodes at level N except at level 0

Types of Binary tree

There are two types of binary
tree
1. Complete Binary tree
2. Strictly binary tree.
Complete Binary Tree

The binary tree is said to be complete if all its levels,
except possibly the last , have maximum number of
nodes, and if all the nodes at the last appear as far left
as possible.
Strictly Binary Tree

If every non leaf node in a binary tree has exactly two
children then the tree is strictly Binary tree.
MINIMUM COST SPANNING TREE (MCST) PROBLEM
104
Important Properties of Spanning tree
Definition: 𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑎 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ 𝐺 = (𝑉, 𝐸).

𝐴𝑛 𝑆𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑇 𝑉’, 𝐸’ ⊆ 𝐺 𝑉, 𝐸 ,
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑇 𝑉’ = 𝐺 𝑉 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇 𝐸’ = 𝑉 − 1
Properties of Spanning Tree:
1. Spanning tree is having (n-1) edges, where n is a no. of vertices in G.
2. If a Graph is complete (Kn) then no. of possible spanning tree= 𝑛𝑛−2
3. There is no cycle in spanning tree.
4. Number of vertices and edges is same in all spanning tree.
105
106
107
108
Example1:
Apply Kruskal’s Algorithm on the given graph to fond Minimum Cost Spanning tree
109
Steps Edge considered Connected Components Spanning Forest (A)
---- {1} {2} (3} {4} {5} {6} {7}

Initialization
110
Steps Edge considered Connected Components Spanning Forest (A)
111
Example1:
Apply Kruskal’s Algorithm on the given graph to fond Minimum Cost Spanning tree
112
Prim’s Algorithm
Step 1: Select any vertex as the starting
Step 2: Select the shortest edge connected to that vertex
Step 3: Select the shortest edge connected to any vertex already connected
Step 4: Repeat step 3 until all vertices have been connected

Prim’s Algorithm
114
Steps Edge considered Connected Components Spanning Forest (T)

(u,v) (A)
Initialization ---- {1} (1)
115
Steps Edge considered Connected Components Spanning Forest (T)

(u,v) (A)
116
Example: Number of Spanning trees for a complete

graph
Note: Here n=3, number of spanning trees= 3(3-2)=3

Kruskal’s Algorithm
1. Sort all the edges in non-decreasing order of their weight.

2. Pick the smallest edge. Check if it forms a cycle with the spanning tree
formed so far. If cycle is not formed, include this edge. Else, discard it.
3. Repeat step2 until all the vertices are added in the spanning tree.
Example:
Arrange all edges in their increasing order of weight

Note: costs 4, 5 and 6 will create circuits so will be

discarded
Prim’s Algorithm
Example:
Choose any arbitrary node as root node, say S

Prim’s Algorithm
Practice Questions:
Find minimum Spanning tree for the following using Kruskal’s and Prim’s Algorithm
1. 2.
3. 44.
Check your progress-1(Home assignment)
124
125
126
End of Module#4
1
Contents:
❑Algebraic structure with one binary
operation,
❑semi groups, monoid and groups,
❑isomorphism, homomorphism, cyclic
group.
2
Module V:
❑ Definition of Algebraic Structures,
❑ SemiGroup
❑ Monoid
❑ Group
3
Objectives
1. Understand the Concepts of Group, Semi-

group, Abelian Group etc.
2. Explain the concept of isomorphism,
homomorphism, cyclic group etc.
4
5
Some important Set
6
Binary operations
Definition. Let A be a non-empty set. Then a mapping 𝑓 ∶ 𝐴 × 𝐴 → 𝐴 is

called a binary operation. Thus, a binary operation is a rule that assigns
to each ordered pair (a, b)∈A×A an element of A.
Any operation such as 𝑎 + 𝑏, 𝑎 − 𝑏, 𝑎 × 𝑏 (or function of two variables:

𝑎𝑏 , min(𝑎, 𝑏), max(𝑎, 𝑏) etc. is called Binary operation (say *), if
∀𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ 𝑮, 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 ∈ 𝑮, 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 is unique also.
We can also say that the set G is closed with respect to the operation.
7
Amity School of Engineering and
Technology
Algebraic Structure
The Algebraic Structure consist of two components:

1. A non empty set on which the operation is to be performed. For
example-G={1,2,3,4}
2. The binary operator that is used to perform the operation on the
elements of set. Let the operator can be represented by *.
Definition of Algebraic Structure

If a set A with respect to operator * satisfy the closure property then it
is called an algebraic Structure
8
Technology
Closure property
The element of the set are said to be closed under particular

operation if the element c generated by operation on any two
elements a and b of the given set also belongs to the same set.
Example: A set N of Natural numbers is closed under addition.

i.e. 2 is a natural number, 3 is a natural number
2+3=5 which is again a natural number.
Therefore, (N,+) is an algebraic structure.
9
Technology
Practice Questions
Find which of the following are Algebraic Structures.
1. (N,+) 11. (R,*)
2. (N,-) 12. (R,/)
3. (N,*) 13. (EVEN,+)
4. (N,/) 14. (EVEN,*)
5. (Z,+) 15. (ODD,+)
6. (Z,-) 16. (ODD,*)
7. (Z,*) 17. (RE,.)
8. (Z,/) 18. (RE,+)
9. (R,+) 19. (M,+)
10. (R,-) 20. (M,*)
10
Technology
Practice Questions
Find which of the following are Algebraic Structures.
1. (N,+)--Y 11. (R,*)---Y
2. (N,-)---NO 12. (R,/) -----N
3. (N,*)---Y 13. (EVEN,+)-----Y
4. (N,/)---NO 14. (EVEN,*)-----Y
5. (Z,+)---Y 15. (ODD,+)-----N
6. (Z,-)----Y 16. (ODD,*)-------Y
7. (Z,*)----Y 17. (RE,.)------Y
8. (Z,/)-----NO 18. (RE,+)------Y
9. (R,+)----Y 19. (M,+)-----Y
10. (R,-)----Y 20. (M,*)-------Y
11
Algebraic Structure (Mathematical Structure)

A non empty set G equipped with some operations is called an algebraic
structure.
GROUP:
12
13
Technology
Practice Questions
Let S is the set of two element’s as defined below:

S= {1,-1}
Verify that the given set forms the algebraic structure *
a. * is defined as binary multiplication
b. * is defined as binary addition
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Semigroup
If an Algebraic Structure satisfy associative property then it is

called a semi group.
OR
The binary operator should follow two properties on the set.
1.Closure Property and
2.Associative Property
Associative Property: A set ‘A’ with respect to operator * is said to

satisfy Associative property if for every a,b,c € A
(a*b)*c=a*(b*c)
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Practice Questions
Find which of the following are SemiGroups.
1. (N,+)--Y Y 11. (R,*)---Y Y
2. (N,-)---NO 12. (R,/) -----N
3. (N,*)---Y Y 13. (EVEN,+)-----Y Y
4. (N,/)---NO 14. (EVEN,*)-----Y Y
5. (Z,+)---Y Y 15. (ODD,+)-----N
6. (Z,-)----Y N 16. (ODD,*)-------Y Y
7. (Z,*)----Y Y 17. (RE,.)------Y y
8. (Z,/)-----NO 18. (RE,+)------Y y
9. (R,+)----Y Y 19. (M,+)-----Y Y
10. (R,-)----Y N 20. (M,*)-------Y Y (Remember
Matrix chain mault.
(associative
property satisfied)
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Monoid
If a Semigroup satisfy identity property then it is called a Monoid.

OR
The binary operator should follow three properties on the set.
2. Associative Property
3. Identity Property
Identity Property: A set ‘A’ with respect to operator * is said to satisfy

Identity property if for every a € A, there is an element ‘e’ such that
a*e=e*a=a
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Find which of the following are Monoids.
1. (N,+)--Y Y Y 11. (R,*)---Y Y Y
2. (N,-)---NO n 12. (R,/) -----N
3. (N,*)---Y Y Y 13. (EVEN,+)-----Y Y Y
4. (N,/)---NO N 14. (EVEN,*)-----Y Y Y
5. (Z,+)---Y Y Y 15. (ODD,+)-----N Y

6. (Z,-)----Y N 16. (ODD,*)-------Y Y Y
7. (Z,*)----Y Y Y 17. (RE,.)------Y y Y
8. (Z,/)----NO N 18. (RE,+)------Y y Y
9. (R,+)----Y Y Y 19. (M,+)-----Y Y Y
10. (R,-)----Y N 20. (M,*)-------Y Y (associative Y
property
satisfied for
matrix multi)
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Group
If a Monoid satisfy Inverse property then it is called a Monoid.

OR
The binary operator should follow four properties on the set.
4. Inverse Property
Inverse Property: A set ‘A’ with respect to operator * is said to satisfy

inverse property if for every a € A, there is an element a-1 such that
a* a-1 = a-1 *a=e
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1. (N,+)--Y Y Y N N 11. (R,*)---Y Y Y Y N
2. (N,-)--- n N 12. (R,/) -----N N

NO
3. (N,*)---Y Y Y Y N 13. (EVEN,+)-----Y Y Y Y Y
4. (N,/)--- N N 14. (EVEN,*)-----Y Y Y N N

NO
5. (Z,+)---Y Y Y Y Y 15. (ODD,+)-----N Y N N
6. (Z,-)----Y N N 16. (ODD,*)-------Y Y Y Y N

7. (Z,*)----Y Y Y Y N 17. (RE,.)------Y y Y Y N
8. (Z,/)---- N N 18. (RE,+)------Y y Y Y N
NO
9. (R,+)---- Y Y Y Y 19. (M,+)-----Y Y Y Y (all N
Y 0’s)
10. (R,-)---- N N 20. (M,*)-------Y Y Y Y (all N
Y (associati diagon
ve al 1,
property identit
satisfied y
for matrix
matrix
multi) 20
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Abelian Group
If a group satisfy Commutative property then it is called an Abelian

Group.
OR
The binary operator should follow five properties on the set.
4. Inverse Property
5. Commutative Property
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Commutative Property
A set ‘A’ with respect to operator * is said to satisfy commutative

property if for every a,b € A,
a* b = b *a
Example: (Z, +) is a group which satisfy commutative property,

Therefore (Z, +) is an abelian group.
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Practice Questions
Q1. Find the type of a structure (N, *) where N is a natural number and
a*b=ab
a. Semigroup
b. Not Semigroup
c. Monoid but not a Group
d. Group
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Practice Questions
Q1. Find the type of a structure (Z, *) where Z is a set of all integers and
𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = max(𝑎, 𝑏)
a. Semigroup
b. Not Semigroup
d. Group
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Practice Questions
Q1. Find the type of a structure (Z, *) where Z is a set of all integers and
𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = m𝑖𝑛(𝑎, 𝑏)
a. Semigroup
b. Not Semigroup
d. Group
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Practice Questions
Q2. Let Q+ = set of positive rational number and 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑎𝑏3
if (Q+ , *) is an abelian group, which of the following is not true?
a) e=3
b) a-1= 9/a
c) (23)−1 = 6
d) 3-1= 3
Q3. Which of the following are groups?

a) 0, ±2, ±4, ±6, … . , ∞ , +
b) 0, ±𝑘, ±2𝑘, ±3𝑘, … . , ∞ , + , where 𝑘 ∈ 𝑁
c) 2𝑛 ∶ 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 , ×
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Finite Group
A group with finite number of elements is called a finite group.

Order of a Group (denoted by O(G))= number of distinct elements
present in the group G.
Example: Check whether ({-1,1}, ×) is a group or not

Solution: The given structure is a finite group of order
O(G)=2
Example2: Whether the following finite set is a group or not?
a. ({0,1,2,3,4}, +)
b. ({0,1}, +)
c. ({0,1}, X)
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Practice Questions
Q1. Check whether fourth root of unity i.e ({1,-1, i, -i}, *) is a group or
not. (Note that 𝑖 = −1 and 𝑖 2 = −1 )
Q.2: Check whether cube root of unity i.e ({1, 𝜔, 𝜔2 }, ×) is a group or

not. (Note that 𝜔3 = 1 )
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Addition Modulo (+ 𝑚 ) and Multiplicative Modulo (× 𝑚)
Example:
Table for ({0,1,2,3}, +4) and ({1,2,3,4}, ×5)
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Practice Questions
Q. Which of the following are groups?

1. ({0,1,2,3}, ×4)
2. ({1,2,3}, ×4)
3. ({1,2,3,4,5,6}, ×7)
4. ({2,3,4,5,6}, ×7)
5. ({1,3,5,7}, ×8)
6. ({1,2,4,7,8,11,13,14}, ×15)
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Practice Questions

1. ({1,2,3,4}, +5)
2. ({0,1,2,3}, +4 )
3. ({0,2,4,6}, +8 )
4. ({0,1,3,5}, +7 )
5. ({0,2,3,4,6,8}, +9)
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Check your Progress
1. ({0,1,2,3,4}, ×5)
2. ({0,1,2,3,4}, +5)
3. ({1,2,3}, ×5)
4. ({1,2,3}, +5)
5. ({0,1,2,3,4,5}, ×6)
6. ({0,1,2,3,4,5}, +6)
7. ({1,2,3,4,5}, ×6)
8. ({1,2,3,4,5}, +6)
9. ({0,2,4}, +6)
10. ({0,2,4}, ×6)
11. ({1,3,5,7}, +8)
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Order of an element of a Group
If (G,*) be a finite group. Then order can defined for every a € G and
denoted by O(a) as
O(a)=n
Where n is the least positive integer which satisfy the equation an=e,
and e is the identity element.
Order of an identity element is 1.
Let (G,*) be a finite group.
a € G,
a2= a*a, here * is the operator defined for the group
and 2 is the number of times the operand is going to appear in the
equation to derive the identity.
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Example
Find order of all the elements of a finite group G= ({0,1,2,3},+4)

Solution:
Here 0 is an entity element.
And Order of identity element is 1
i.e 𝑂(0) = 1
𝑂(1) = 4 𝑎𝑠 14 = 0
𝑂(2) = 2 𝑎𝑠 22 = 0
𝑂(3) = 4 𝑎𝑠 34 = 0
Question: a)Find order of all the elements of a finite group G= ({1,-1,i,-i},*)

b)Find order of all the elements of a finite group G= ({1,3,5,7},*8)
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Cyclic Group
Generator (or Generating) element: In a Group (G,*), an element ‘a’ is called a
generator, if 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 and ∀ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 can be generated (or represented) using powers of a.
Cyclic Group:
A Group (G,*) is said to be cyclic group, if it contains at least one generator element.
Ex1: ({0,1,2,3}, +4) here 1 and 3 is a generator.
Ex2: ({1,3,5,7}, ×8) not having any generator element.
Note: A cyclic group is a group that can be generated by a single element. Every
element of a cyclic group is a power of some specific element which is called a
generator.
A cyclic group can be generated by a generator ‘g’, such that every other element of
the group can be written as a power of the generator ‘g’.
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Cyclic Group
Example: The set of numbers {1,−1,i,−i} under multiplication operation
is a cyclic group.
• Here i and –i can generate all the element of the set
• As i1 = I, i2 =-1 , i3 =-i, i4 =1
Hence the set is cyclic group.
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Homomorphism
If (G, *) and (G’, o ) are two groups, the function f :G → G’ is called a

group homomorphism if f (a *b) = f(a) o f(b) for all a, b ∈ G.
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Homomorphism
Example: Let be R the group of all real numbers with operation

addition, and let R+ be the group of all positive real numbers with
operation multiplication. The function f : R → R+ , defined by
f (x) = ex .Show that the function f is homomorphism
Solution: The given function is homomorphism for any x,y ∈ R

F(x+y)=ex+y = e x *e y = f (x)*f (y).
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Practice Question
Q1.
Q2.
Q3.
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Isomorphism
If a Group Homomorphism is Bijective i.e. one to one and onto then

the function is called a group Isomorphism.
OR
A group isomorphism is a bijective group homomorphism. If there is
an isomorphism between the groups (G, *) and (G’, o), we say that (G,
*) and (G’, o) are isomorphic and write (G, *) ≈ (G’, o ).
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Practice Question
Q1.
Q2.
Q3. Let be R the group of all real numbers with operation addition, and let R+ be
the group of all positive real numbers with operation multiplication. The
function f : R → R+ , defined by f (x) = ex .Show that the function f is
Isomorphism
Q4. Let be R the group of all real numbers with operation addition, and let R+ be
the group of all positive real numbers with operation multiplication. The
function f : R → R+ , defined by f (x) = 2x .Show that the function f is
Isomorphism 41
Binary operations-examples
42
43
44

Ex.1: The set Z of integers is a Group under the operation of Addition,
But (Z,×) is not.
For example, 2 ∈ 𝑍, then its multiplicative inverse is 1Τ2 which is not

an integer but a rational number.
45
46
47
Finite and Infinite Group:

Let (G,*) is a group then it said to finite if the set G consists finite
number of distinct elements otherwise it is finite.
Order of a Group:
The number of distinct elements in a group is called the order of the
group denoted by O(G).
48
49
Hence G is a
group under
multiplication
50
51
Example4:
52
53
54
55
Subgroup:
56
57
Semigroup:
58
Homomorphic mapping (Homomorphism)
59
Isomorphic mapping (Isomorphism)
60
61
62
63
64
End of Module-5
*****************************
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Amity School of Engineering & Technology (CSE)

1.5.1 Explain Proposition

1.5.2 Differentiate between simple and compound sentences

1.5.3 Understand basic logical operators

1.5.4 Propositional calculus

1.5.5 Well formed formula(WFF) [A Syntax for Compound

A Proposition (or sentence) is a declarative

1. Two is an even integer. T

2. Delhi is the capital of India. T

3. A triangle has four sides. F

5. Washington DC is the capital of the United States T

❖ A statement which has no logical connectives (and, or, not etc.) is

❖ A statement which is made up of two or more simple statements using

Symbol Meaning Example In words Precedence

~ Negation ~𝑝 "𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑝" 1

∧ Conjunction 𝑝∧𝑞 "𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞" 2

∨ Disjunction 𝑝∨𝑞 "𝑝 𝑜𝑟 𝑞" 3

⟹ Implication 𝑝⟹𝑞 "𝑖𝑓 𝑝 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑞" 4

Given a atomic propositions: 𝑝, 𝑞, 𝑟,……

Propositional calculus is a language of

1. Any statement variable (𝑝, is a WFF.

2. If 𝛼 is a WFF, then ~𝛼 is also a WFF.

3. If 𝛼 and 𝛽 are WFFs then (𝛼 ∨ 𝛽), 𝛼 ∧ 𝛽 , (𝛼 ⟹ 𝛽) and (𝛼 ⇔ 𝛽) are

4. A WFF can be constructed only by the finite number of applications of

Note: A WFF is nothing but valid strings with statement letters,

Example: (Well-formed formula in propositional logic)

BNF(Backus-Naur form) grammar of sentences in

➢ Any declarative statement whose truth value is either True or

❑ Define a Relation and various types of relations

We start by considering a simple example.

❖ s has attended a lecture given by t, or

We now define a relation R as follows.

Some definitions required to define relation

Definition2: (Cartesian product of two sets):

Suppose R is a relation from A to B (i.e. R (AB)).

Let |A|=n and |B|=m. We know that R (AB) and

We have following types of properties in a (Binary) relation on a

Anti- If (𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑹 and (b, a) ∈ 𝑅) ⇒a=b No return arrow

Definition2: (In terms of directed graph): R is reflexive if there must be a

A relations R on a set is irreflexive if (a, a)R for every a є A. Thus R is

A relation R on a set A is symmetric if a,b in A, if aRb, then bRa. In

A relation R on a set A is Asymmetric if a,b in A, if aRb, then bRa in not

A relation R on a set A is anti-symmetric if whenever aRb and bRa then

A relation R on a set A is said to be transitive if (a,b)R and (b,c)R

This relation is Transitive

Determine whether the relation R on set A={-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3} is

Determine whether the relation R on set of people is reflexive, symmetric,

Find which of the following relations are Transitive?

Check your Progress-Transitive Relation

Number of relations possible on a given set A having n elements

Total number of Anti-symmetric Relations= 2𝑛 . 3𝑛(𝑛−1)/2

Total number of Asymmetric Relations= 3𝑛(𝑛−1)/2

Note: 1) composition of relations is Associative i.e.

Check your progress

Note: To construct Transitive closure t(R), if R contains the pairs

Let A={1,2,3,4} and R={(1,2),(2,1),(2,3),(3,4)}. Find the Transitive

2. (Method2): [Using Matrix] Type equation here.

Warshall’s Algorithm (to find Transitive closure)

Warshall’s Algorithm (to find Transitive closure)

Warshall’s Algorithm (to find Transitive closure)

Warshall’s Algorithm (to find Transitive closure)

Warshall’s Algorithm (to find Transitive closure)

➢ A relation R on a set A is called reflexive if there is a self loop

➢ A relation R on a set A is called symmetric if there is an arrow