Practical Real Estate Law 8th Edition

Daniel F. Hinkel
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Printed in the United States of America

Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2019
TO JOHN HENRY
♦
 BRIEF
CONTENTS
PREFACE XVII
ACKNOWLEDGMENT XX

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO THE LAW OF REAL PROPERTY 1

CHAPTER 2
CONCURRENT OWNERSHIP 21

CHAPTER 3
SURVEYS AND LAND DESCRIPTIONS 44

CHAPTER 4
PUBLIC REGULATION AND PRIVATE ENCUMBRANCES 69

CHAPTER 5
EASEMENTS AND LICENSES 91

CHAPTER 6
CONTRACTS 110

CHAPTER 7
PREPARATION AND REVIEW OF A REAL ESTATE CONTRACT 139

CHAPTER 8
DEEDS 218

CHAPTER 9
FINANCING SOURCES IN REAL ESTATE TRANSACTIONS 256
vi
 Brief Contents vii

CHAPTER 10
LEGAL ASPECTS OF REAL ESTATE FINANCE 273

CHAPTER 11
MORTGAGE FORMS AND PROVISIONS 323

CHAPTER 12
TITLE EXAMINATIONS 368

CHAPTER 13
TITLE INSURANCE 395

CHAPTER 14
REAL ESTATE CLOSINGS 474

CHAPTER 15
REAL ESTATE CLOSING FORMS AND EXAMPLES 526

CHAPTER 16
CONDOMINIUMS AND COOPERATIVES 592

CHAPTER 17
LEASES 629

GLOSSARY 671

INDEX 679
 CONTENTS
PREFACE XVII Ethics: Introduction 17
ACKNOWLEDGMENT XX Summary 18
Key Terms 18
CHAPTER 1 Review Questions 19
Case Problems 19
INTRODUCTION TO THE LAW Practical Assignments 20
OF REAL PROPERTY 1
Real Property Law 2
Laws That Govern Real Property Transactions 2 CHAPTER 2
History of American Real Property Law 2
Real Property versus Personal Property 3 CONCURRENT OWNERSHIP 21
Fixtures 3 Types of Concurrent Ownership 21
Physical Elements of Real Property 4
Joint Tenancy with Right of Survivorship 22
Case: Ex Parte Brown 5 Tenancy in Common 23
Ownership of Real Property 8 Tenancy by the Entirety 25
Modern-Day Estates in Real Property 8 Community Property 26
Fee Simple or Fee Simple Absolute 9 Agreements of Cotenancy 28
Fee Simple Determinable 9 Ethics: Unauthorized Practice of Law 35
Fee Simple on Condition Subsequent 9
Life Estate 10 Concurrent Ownership and the Role of
Future Interests 11 the Paralegal 35
Estate for Years 12 Other Legal Entities 36
Estate at Will 12 Corporation 36
Methods of Acquiring Ownership General Partnership 36
to Real Property 12 Limited Partnership 37
Inheritance and Devise 12 Limited Liability Company 37
Gift 13 Summary 37
Contract and Sale 14
Key Terms 38
Adverse Possession 14
Transfer of Ownership (Conveyances) 15 Review Questions 38
The Role of Paralegals in Real Estate Case Problems 38
Legal Practice 16 Practical Assignments 39
Research Materials for Real Property Law 16 Addendum 39

viii
 Contents ix

Mortgages and Trust Deeds 79

CHAPTER 3
Easements 79
Restrictive Covenants 80
SURVEYS AND LAND
Ethics: Abandonment of Work 80
DESCRIPTIONS 44
Summary 81
The Survey 45
Preparation of Surveys and Survey Key Terms 81
Standards 45 Review Questions 81
Land Descriptions 47 Case Problems 82
Government Rectangular Survey Description 47
Platted Description 52
Practical Assignments 82
Metes and Bounds Description 52 Addendum 82
Practice Tips for Reviewing A Survey 57 R-4 Single-Family Residential District
Regulations 83
Ethics: Competency 59
C-1 Community Business District Regulations 86
Summary 59
Key Terms 59
CHAPTER 5
Review Questions 60
Practical Assignments 60 EASEMENTS AND LICENSES 91
Addendum 60 Easements 92
Creation of Easements 92
Platted Description Survey 61
Metes and Bounds Survey and Description Case: Russakoff v. Scruggs 99
(including Curve with Description) 62 Termination of Easements 101
Metes and Bounds Survey—Mason Mill Licenses 101
Property 63
Metes and Bounds Survey—River Trail Practice Tips for the Paralegal 102
Property 64 Ethics: False Witness 103
Metes and Bounds Survey—Lonesome Valley
Road Property 65
Summary 103
Metes and Bounds Survey with Legal Key Terms 103
Description—Shallow Creek Property 66
Review Questions 104
Survey Review Checklist 67
Case Problems 104
Practical Assignments 105
CHAPTER 4
Addendum 105
PUBLIC REGULATION AND PRIVATE Sanitary Sewer Easement and Ingress and Egress
Easement 106
ENCUMBRANCES 69 Electric Power Company Right-of-Way
Public Regulation 70 Easement 109
Zoning 70
Building Codes and Subdivision Regulations 71
Environmental Protection Laws/CERCLA 71 CHAPTER 6
Case: Shackford & Gooch, Inc. et al. v.
The Town of Kennebunk et al. 72 CONTRACTS 110
Power of Eminent Domain 76 Requirements for a Valid Contract 110
Taxation 77 Legal Capacity to Contract 111
Federal and State Income Tax Liens 78 Mutual Agreement 115
Private Encumbrances 78 Consideration 115
Judgment Liens 78 Lawful Purpose 115
Mechanic’s and Materialmen’s Liens 78 Written Agreements 116
 x PRACTICAL REAL ESTATE LAW

Remedies for Breach of a Real Earnest Money 151

Estate Contract 117 Brokers 152
Specific Performance 117 Merger 153
Money Damages 117 Assignment of Contract 154
Rescission 118 Time Is of the Essence 154
Liquidated Damages 119 Warranties of the Parties 154
Contingencies 156
Real Estate Brokers 119 Definitions 157
Case: Southeastern Land Fund, Default 157
Inc. v. Real Estate World, Inc. 120 Notice 157
Agency Relationship 122 Entire Agreement 158
Services Provided by a Real Estate Broker 123 Applicable Law 158
Additional Provisions 158
Listing Agreements 124 Offer and Acceptance 158
Open Listing 124 Execution 159
Exclusive Listing 124 Caveat Emptor and the Seller Disclosure
Exclusive Right-to-Sell Listing 124 Form 160
Real Estate Brokers and the Internet 133 Short Sale Contracts 160
Taxation and the Sale of Real Property 134 Special Commercial Contract Issues 161
Federal Income Tax 134 Description of the Property 161
Federal Income Tax on the Sale of a Home 134 Representations, Warranties, and Covenants 161
Federal Income Tax on the Sale of Purchaser’s Inspection or Free Look 162
Commercial Property 135 Closing Documents 162
Ethics: Commingling of Client Funds 136 Rent Prorations 165
Lease Commissions 166
Summary 136
Security Deposits 166
Key Terms 137 Seller’s Covenants Regarding Operation
Review Questions 137 of Property 167
Hazardous Materials 167
Case Problems 137 Indemnification 168
Practical Assignments 138 Seller’s Disclaimer of Warranty 169
Options 169
Contracts and Computers 170
CHAPTER 7
Ethics: Illegal or Fraudulent Activity 174
PREPARATION AND REVIEW Summary 175
OF A REAL ESTATE Key Terms 175
CONTRACT 139 Review Questions 176
Elements of a Real Estate Contract 140 Case Problems 176
The Parties 140
Consideration 141 Practical Assignments 177
The Agreement 141 Addendum 178
The Property 141 Contract for Purchase and Sale of a Home 179
The Price 142 Contract for Purchase and Sale of a Large Tract
The Method of Payment 143 of Vacant Land 187
Quality of Title 145 Seller’s Property Disclosure Statement 193
Possession of the Property 146 Contract for Purchase and Sale of a Retail
Closing or Settlement 147 Shopping Center 200
Closing or Settlement Documents 147 Option to Purchase 217
Proration, Closing Costs, and Financial
Acknowledgment 178
Adjustments 149
Condition of the Property and Risk of Loss 150
 Contents xi

CHAPTER 8 Case Problems 239

Practical Assignments 240
DEEDS 218 Addendum 240
Historical Development of Deeds 218 Sample Warranty Deed 241
Types of Deeds 219 General Warranty Deed—North Carolina 242
General Warranty Deed 219 General Warranty Deed—Texas 244
Warranty Deed Joint Tenancy—Illinois 246
Case: Lunsford v. King 221 Limited Warranty Deed—Georgia 247
Limited (Special) Warranty Deed 221 Grant Deed—California 248
Quitclaim Deed 222 Quitclaim Deed—Georgia 250
Executor’s and Administrator’s Deeds 222 Quitclaim Deed—California 251
Trustee Deeds 223 Executor’s Deed—New York 252
Basic Requirements of a Administrator’s Deed—Georgia 254
Valid Deed 223 Trustee Deed—Georgia 255
Written Instrument 223
Competent Grantor 223
Identity of the Grantee 224 CHAPTER 9
Words of Conveyance 224
Description of the Property 224 FINANCING SOURCES IN REAL
Consideration 224 ESTATE TRANSACTIONS 256
Signature of Grantor 224
Sources of Mortgage Loans 256
Witnesses of Deeds 224
Delivery to Grantee 225 Savings Banks 256
Commercial Banks 257
Preparation of a Valid Deed 225 Life Insurance Companies 257
Caption 225 Credit Unions 257
Premises or Preamble 225 Pension Funds 258
Granting Clause 225 Mortgage Banking Companies 258
Description 226 Residential Nonbank Lenders 258
Habendum 227 Issuers of Mortgage-Backed Bonds 258
Warranty Clause 227
Types of Loans 259
Testimonium 227
Conventional Loans 259
Completing Sections of a Deed 227 Insured or Guaranteed Loans 259
Preamble 227 Subprime Lending 260
Granting Clause 228
Secondary Market 261
Description 228
Testimonium 229 Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac 261

Practical Exercises in Deed Permanent and Construction Loans 262

Preparation 231 Interest 262
Payment Plans 264
Correction of Deeds 234
Ethics: Overbilling 265
Reformation and Cancellation of Deed 234
Practical Tips for The Paralegal 236 Summary 266
Grantor 236 Key Terms 266
Grantee 236 Review Questions 266
Legal Description 237
Witnessing a Deed 237 Case Problems 266
Ethics: Falsification of Documents 238 Practical Assignments 267
Summary 238 Addendum 267
Key Terms 239 Amortization Calculator 268
Amortization Schedule of Direct Reduction
Review Questions 239 Loan 268
xii PRACTICAL REAL ESTATE LAW

Fannie Mae/Freddie Mac Residential Adjustable-

CHAPTER 10
Rate Note 303
Commercial Loan Note 308
LEGAL ASPECTS OF REAL ESTATE Payment Guaranty 312
FINANCE 273 Florida Mortgage 315
Promissory Note 274 North Carolina Deed of Trust 318
Georgia Commercial Deed to Secure Debt 320
Endorsement 275
Payment 276
Prepayment 277
Usury 278 CHAPTER 11
Execution 279
Practice Tips for the Paralegal 279 MORTGAGE FORMS AND
Case: Acord v. Jones 279 PROVISIONS 323
Guaranty 282 Residential Mortgage Covenants 323
Mortgages, Deeds of Trust, and Transfer of Rights in the Property 324
Security Deeds 282 Uniform Covenants 324
Nonuniform Covenants 342
Mortgage 282
Deed of Trust 283 Commercial Mortgage Provisions 343
Deed to Secure Debt 283 Assignment of Rents and Leases 343
Requirements of a Mortgage 283 Security Agreement 344
Parties to a Mortgage 283 Books, Records, and Financial Statements 344
Secured Debt 284 Hazardous Waste 345
Secured Property 284 Nonrecourse or Exculpation Provisions 346
Assignment of Mortgage 285 Cross-Collateralization and Cross-Default 347
Transfer of Property Encumbered by a Miscellaneous Commercial Loan
Mortgage 285 Documents 349
“Subject to” versus “Assumption” 286
Security Agreement and Financing
Cancellation or Satisfaction of Mortgage 287
Statement 350
Second Mortgage Loans 288
Assignment of Rents 352
Foreclosure and other Mortgage Construction Loan Agreement 352
Remedies 289 Role of the Paralegal 354
Foreclosure 290
Grounds for Foreclosure 290
Ethics: Misrepresentation 354
Waiver of Default 294 Summary 355
State Limits on Foreclosure 294
Key Terms 355
Debtor’s Remedies and Defenses to
Foreclosure 294 Review Questions 355
Injunction 295 Case Problems 356
Suit for Conversion or Wrongful Foreclosure 295 Practical Assignments 357
Bankruptcy 295
Addendum 357
Ethics: Confidentiality of Client
Assignment of Leases and Rents 358
Information 296
Construction and/or Development Loan
Summary 297 Agreement 361
Key Terms 297
Review Questions 297
CHAPTER 12
Case Problems 298
Practical Assignments 299 TITLE EXAMINATIONS 368
Addendum 299 Bona Fide Purchaser for
Value Rule 369
Fannie Mae/Freddie Mac Residential Fixed-Rate
Note 300 Recording Statutes 371
 Contents xiii

Case: City of Richland Hills v. Case: Title & Trust Company of

Bertelsen 372 Florida v. Barrows 399
Practice Tips for Ordering a Exclusions from Coverage 402
Title Examination 373 Schedule A 405
Schedule B 407
Information Needed to Do an
Examination 374 Mortgage or Loan Policies 410
Examining Title to Real Property 374 Insurance Provisions 410
Miscellaneous Provisions 412
Where to Search 374
Endorsements 412
Period of Examination 374
Construction Loan Title Insurance 414
What to Search 375
Reviewing the Various Instruments in Commitments for Title Insurance 414
the Chain of Title 377 Practice Tips for the Preparation and Review of a
Other Things to Examine 377 Title Insurance Commitment 415
Preliminary Title Report 379 Practice Tips for the Preparation and
Title Examination Example 380 Review of a Title Insurance Policy 417
Title Defects and Problems 382 Ethics: Personal Conflict of Interest 418
Record Title Holder 382
Breaks in the Chain of Title 383 Summary 420
Errors in Prior Recorded Deeds 383 Key Terms 420
Name Variances 384
Review Questions 420
Improper or Missing Power of Attorney 384
Sales Contracts, Options, and Leases 384 Case Problems 421
Unsatisfied or Unreleased Mortgages 384
Practical Assignments 422
Notice of Lis Pendens 385
Easements 385 Addendum 422
Restrictive Covenants and Conditions 385 Owner’s Policy—ALTA 423
Mechanic’s and Materialmen’s Liens 386 Owner’s Affidavit 434
UCC Financing Statements 386 Completed Owner’s Policy of Title Insurance 435
Judgment Liens 386 Loan Policy—ALTA 437
Tax Liens 387 Zoning Endorsement 451
Title through Estates 387 Comprehensive Endorsement 452
Role of a Paralegal and Practice Tips 388 Survey Endorsement 454
Access Endorsement 455
Record Rooms and Electronic Records 389 Contiguity Endorsement 456
Ethics: Document Falsification 390 Usury Endorsement 457
Utility Facility Endorsement 458
Summary 392
Subdivision Endorsement 459
Key Terms 392 Tax Parcel Endorsement 460
Review Questions 392 Future Advance Endorsement 461
Title Commitment 462
Case Problems 393 Title Opinion 467
Practical Assignments 394 Sample Title Commitment 469
Title Examination Form for Practical
Acknowledgments 394 Assignment 470
Title Commitment Forms for Practical
Assignment 472
CHAPTER 13 Acknowledgments 422
TITLE INSURANCE 395
Title Assurance and Title Insurance 396 CHAPTER 14
Owner’s Policy 397
Insuring Provisions of an ALTA Owner’s Policy: REAL ESTATE CLOSINGS 474
Basic Provisions 398 Real Estate Closing 475
xiv PRACTICAL REAL ESTATE LAW
The Parties and Environment 476
Anatomy of a Real Estate Closing 478
File Creation 478
Information Gathering 479
Reviewing the Real Estate Contract
Contact with Seller, Purchaser,
and Broker by the Paralegal 484
Ordering the Title Examination 485
Ordering the Survey 485
Ordering Hazard and Fire Insurance 486
Obtaining the Termite Clearance
Letter or Bond 487
Reviewing the Title Examination 488
Satisfaction of Loans and Liens 488
A Paralegal’s Review of the Mortgage
Loan Commitment 488
Parties 489
Loan Amount 489
Interest Rate 489
Term of Loan 489
Repayment Terms 489
Prepayment Terms 489
Security 489
Appraisal 490
Insurance 490
Escrow for Taxes and Insurance 490
Title Insurance 490
Survey 490
Hazardous Waste 491
Compliance with Law 491
Financial Documents 491
Documents 491
Defaults and Late Charges 491
Commitment Fee 491
Loan Expenses 491
Closing and Commitment Expiration Date 492
Disbursement of Loan Proceeds 492
Acceptance of a Loan Commitment 492
Assignability 492
Special Provisions in a Construction Loan
Commitment 499
Leasehold Loan Commitment 500
The Closing and Aftermath 500
Disbursing, Recording, and Transmitting
Final Documents 501
Final Closeout by the Paralegal 502
Closing the Short Sale 505
Truth-in-Lending Right of Rescission 505
New Methods of Closing 507
Technology for Document Production 507
Use of Email 508
Ethics: Conflicts of Interest 510
Summary 510
Key Terms 511
Review Questions 511
479 Case Problems 511
Practical Assignments 512
Addendum 512
Sample Contract for Closing Checklist 513
Mortgage Loan Commitment 517
Escrow Instruction Letter 522
Rescission Model Form (General) 525
Nonrescind Statement 525
Acknowledgments 512
CHAPTER 15
REAL ESTATE CLOSING FORMS
AND EXAMPLES 526
Affidavits 527
Title Affidavit 527
Hazardous Waste Affidavit 527
Affidavit of No Change 528
Same Name Affidavit 528
Similar Name Affidavit 529
Foreign Person Affidavit 530
Sale and Transfer Documents 531
Deed 532
Bill of Sale 532
Assignment of Warranties 533
Assignment of Leases 533
Assignment of Contracts 535
Mortgage Loan and Other Real Estate
Closing Documents 537
Loan Documents 537
Corporate Resolution 537
Agreement Regarding Survival of Loan
Commitment 539
Indemnity of Fees 539
Attorney’s Opinion 540
Compliance Agreements 542
1099-B Report Form 543
Settlement or Closing Statement 544
Closing Example 552
Title Examination 552
Title Commitment 553
Survey 553
Corporate Resolution 553
Foreign Person Affidavit 553
Owner’s Affidavit 553

Transfer Tax Certificate 553
Warranty Deed 554
Bill of Sale 554
Termite Letter 554
Borrower’s Affidavit 554
Promissory Note 554
Deed to Secure Debt 554
Hazard Insurance 554
Settlement Statement 554
Ethics: Case Problem 557
Summary 558
Key Terms 558
Review Questions 558
Case Problems 559
Practical Assignments 559
Addendum 560
Sales Contract 561
Loan Commitment 563
Title Examination 564
Corporate Resolution 564
Foreign Person Affidavit 565
Owner’s Affidavit 566
Transfer Tax Certificate 567
Warranty Deed 568
General Warranty Bill of Sale 569
Owner’s Affidavit 570
Promissory Note 571
Security Deed 574
Settlement Statement 590
CHAPTER 16
CONDOMINIUMS AND
COOPERATIVES 592
Condominiums 592
Birth of a Condominium 593
Articles and Bylaws of a Condominium
Association 594
Case: Forest Villas Condominium
Association, Inc. v. Camerio et al. 596
Subcondominiums 597
Practice Tips for the Paralegal
Cooperatives 599
Differences between Condominiums and
Cooperatives 599
Time-Shares 600
Ethics: Paralegal Correspondence 600
Summary 601
Contents xv
Key Terms 601
Review Questions 602
Case Problems 602
Practical Assignments 602
Addendum 603
State Condominium Act Requirements
for Declaration 604
Condominium Declaration 607
State Condominium Act Requirements for
Condominium Plat 617
Articles of Incorporation 619
Condominium Association Bylaws 622
CHAPTER 17
LEASES 629
Common Law and Leases 630
Commercial Lease Provisions 630
Parties to Lease 630
Premises 631
Use 631
Term 631
Possession and Commencement
of the Lease 632
Rent 632
Percentage Rent 632
Gross versus Net Lease 635
Rent Escalation Clauses 636
Security Deposit 637
Maintenance and Alterations of Premises 637
Insurance 638
Damage or Destruction to the Premises 639
Obligation to Repair 639
Condemnation and Eminent Domain 639
Default 640
Landlord’s Remedies for Tenant’s Default 640
Landlord’s Right to Perform Tenant’s
Obligations 640
Landlord’s Lien 643
Grace Periods 643
Tenant’s Remedies for Landlord’s Default 643
Quiet Enjoyment 643
Surrender of the Premises 644
598
Estoppel Certificate 644
Memorandum of Lease 645
Limitation on the Landlord’s Liability 645
Assignment, Subletting, Or Mortgaging of
the Leased Premises 645
Special Sublease Issues 647
Provisions Normally Contained in a
Sublease 648
xvi PRACTICAL REAL ESTATE LAW

Landlord or Tenant Mortgage 648 Practical Assignments 657

Miscellaneous Lease Issues 649 Addendum 658
Lease Guaranty 649 Estoppel Certificate 659
Rejection of Leases in Bankruptcy 649 Short-Form Memorandum 660
Uniform Residential Landlord and Tenant Subordination, Attornment, and Nondisturbance
Act 650 Agreement 661
Protection of Residential Tenants from Eviction Guaranty of Lease 664
after a Foreclosure Sale 651 Apartment Lease 666
Ethics: Legal Needs of the Poor 655 Small Commercial Retail Space Lease 668
Summary 655 Acknowledgment 658
Key Terms 656
GLOSSARY 671
Review Questions 656
Case Problems 656 INDEX 679
 PREFACE
As a former instructor, for over two decades, I had the pleasure of teaching
a real estate course to paralegal students. This textbook, a greatly expanded
version of that course material, is directed toward the training and practice of
paralegals in the area of modern real estate transactions. The text has been re-
vised several times to reflect new methods and laws that affect the practice of
real estate law.
A paralegal cannot assist a transactional real estate attorney effectively
unless he or she is fully aware of all the substantive legal issues involved and
has a good command of the various legal forms in use. The treatment of the
subject material in this textbook assumes that the reader has no knowledge of
real property law. The text introduces the reader to the basics of real property
law and then proceeds step by step through all the areas of a modern real estate
practice.
The text is written for national use and tries to present the general con-
cepts of real property law that are applied in most of the 50 states. Although the
text is not state-specific, it can be supplemented easily with state materials if
the instructor so desires.
The book is designed to be used in two ways. It can be used as a classroom
teaching source for the training of paralegals. It can also be used as a reference
work by paralegals employed in a real estate legal practice. The book includes
an explanation of legal principles, practical suggestions, and numerous forms.
Using this text, the student or practicing paralegal possesses a collection of
useful material in a single source.

TEXTBOOK ORGANIZATION
Based on comments and suggestions from various teachers, students, and re-
viewers of the previous editions of this book, the text has been revised. Chap-
ter 1 introduces students to the concept of property ownership and discusses
the various types of ownership that can exist. Chapter 2 explains to the stu-
dent the situation in which real property is owned by more than one person
and summarizes all the forms of concurrent ownership. Chapter 3 outlines the
methods of describing real property and contains sample surveys and legal de-
scriptions. Chapters 4 and 5 discuss government regulation of and various pri-
vate encumbrances to the ownership of real property, with a special emphasis
on easements. Chapter 6 explains the basics of contract law, and Chapter 7 is
devoted to contract forms and the explanation of standard provisions found in
real estate contracts. Chapter 8 is a discussion of deeds, complete with many
examples and sample forms. Chapters 9, 10, and 11 outline real estate finance.
Chapter 9 explains the business aspects of real estate lending and acquaints
student with the economic and practical needs of lender and borrower clients.
Chapter 10 is a summary of the substantive law of notes, mortgages, and fore-
closures. Chapter 11 explains the various note and mortgage forms as well
as other documents used by lenders to document and secure residential and

xvii
xviii PRACTICAL REAL ESTATE LAW

commercial loans. Chapters 12 and 13 identify the importance of title examina-

tions and title insurance.
Chapters 14 and 15 explain the practical procedural steps in a real estate
purchase and sale and in a loan closing. Chapter 14 contains a comprehensive
explanation of the substantive issues involved in the purchase and sale and
the loan at real estate closings. Chapter 15 is devoted to forms and examples of
closing documents, including a sample of a small investment real estate closing
transaction. Chapter 16 summarizes the law of condominiums, cooperatives,
and time-shares. Chapter 17 contains an explanation of lease law and includes
examples of residential and commercial lease forms.

CHANGES TO THE EIGHTH EDITION

Each chapter has new Review Questions, Case Problems, and Practical
Assignments to provide the instructor and students with an assessment tool to
determine what students learned in the chapter.
New forms have been introduced in many chapters. This allows the instruc-
tor and students to work with and learn using current examples of legal forms.
Chapter 3, Surveys and Land Descriptions, has been rewritten in several
places to include new and better examples and illustrations. The new material
makes the important but difficult concepts easier for the instructor to teach
and students to learn.
New material discusses deeds in lieu of foreclosure. This material supple-
ments students’ knowledge and reinforces Chapter 10’s content on legal aspects
of real estate finance.
Chapter 15 from the seventh edition that discussed RESPA and Truth-in-­Lending
content has been deleted. Important information from the former Chapter 15
has been updated and added to Chapter 14 and the new Chapter 15.

STUDENT LEARNING FEATURES

• Learning Objectives open each chapter, aligning to content and end of
chapter questions, problems, and assignments. This provides a clear
pathway for learning wherein students can focus on key concepts and
instructors can better measure knowledge and skill acquisition.
• Checklists are found in most chapters and include task-specific steps
that students can apply to many aspects of a paralegal’s workday. For
example, Chapter 7 contains a checklist for the preparation and review of a
commercial real estate contract, and Chapter 14 includes a checklist for a
purchase and sale closing and a loan closing.
• Terminology is emphasized throughout each chapter. Key terms appear
in boldface and are defined in context where they first appear. They are
also listed at the end of each chapter for quick reference. A comprehensive
glossary ends the text.
• The Ethics feature in each chapter takes the student into a hypothetical
scenario that presents an ethical problem. The feature emphasizes the
importance of professional responsibility in a law practice.
• A chapter-ending summary provides an excellent review of the chapter’s
main points.
• Review questions, case problems, and practical assignments at the end
of each chapter provide students with more exercises and opportunities
to consider how they would handle specific tasks. For example, a practical
assignment in Chapter 5 asks students to draft an easement, and one in
Chapter 10 asks students to draft a note and a deed to secure debt based
on a hypothetical scenario.

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This text covers all the important issues that a real
estate paralegal will encounter in a modern real es-
tate practice. I offer it to you with the sincere hope
that you will find it useful.
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

A word of thanks to the reviewers who made valuable suggestions for i­ mproving
the text:

Felicia Williams-Winston, M.A. Ed. Jessie Simpson, JD

Hinds Community College, Johnson County
Online—Raymond Campus Community College
Raymond, MS Overland Park, KS

Dejannie Martin, JD Annie Laurie I. Meyers, Professor,

Gwinnett College Northampton Community College
Lilburn, GA Bethlehem, PA

All publications of the American Land Title Association ® are copyrighted and
are reprinted herein by specific permission from:

American Land Title Association® (ALTA®)

1828 L Street, N.W., Suite 705
Washington, DC 20036
Phone: 202-296-3671
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Web: http://www.alta.org

Please note that the internet resources are of a time-sensitive nature

and URL addresses often change or may be deleted.

xx
 CHAPTER
1 THE LAW OF REAL
OBJECTIVES
OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, you
should be able to:
•• Distinguish between real and
personal property.
•• Describe the rights and
obligations an owner of real
property has in regard to
surface and subsurface water.
•• Explain the rules for
determining if property is a
fixture.
•• Summarize the legal rights an
owner has in real property.
•• Recognize and compare the
estates of ownership in real
property.
•• Summarize the various ways
of becoming an owner of real
property.
•• Identify and describe the
legal principle of adverse
possession.
•• Explain the transfer of
ownership to real property by
conveyance.
•• Describe the role of a
paralegal in a real estate legal
practice.
INTRODUCTION TO
PROPERTY
OUTLINE
I. Real Property Law F. Estate for Years
A. Laws That Govern Real Property G. Estate at Will
Transactions III. Methods of Acquiring Ownership to Real
B. History of American Real Property Law Property
C. Real Property versus Personal Property A. Inheritance and Devise
1. Tangible Personal Property B. Gift
2. Intangible Personal Property C. Contract and Sale
D. Fixtures D. Adverse Possession
Case: Ex Parte Brown IV. Transfer of Ownership (Conveyances)
E. Physical Elements of Real Property
V. The Role of Paralegals in Real Estate Legal
1. Airspace Practice
2. Mineral Rights A. Research Materials for Real Property
3. Water Rights
Law
F. Ownership of Real Property VI. Ethics: Introduction
II. Modern-Day Estates in Real Property VII. Summary
A. Fee Simple or Fee Simple Absolute
VIII. Key Terms
B. Fee Simple Determinable
IX. Review Questions
C. Fee Simple on Condition Subsequent
D. Life Estate X. Case Problems
E. Future Interests XI. Practical Assignments
“For ’tis the only thing in the world that lasts.
’Tis the only thing worth working for, fighting for, dying for.”
Margaret Mitchell, Gone with the Wind
T
he sentiments of Scarlett O’Hara’s father about Tara, his plantation, are
shared by millions of homeowners throughout the world. Home owner-
ship ranks high on most people’s wish list, and a home is the most valu-
able asset in many households. The real estate industry with all its many facets,
such as development, construction, sales, leasing, and finance, generates vast
concentrations of wealth and creates millions of jobs. Real estate is a valuable
commodity, and almost every aspect of its use, sale, and development is reg-
ulated by law. These laws are steeped in history and tempered with logic and
practicality. Representation of real estate clients is a major area of practice for
many law firms, and the opportunities for the trained real estate paralegal are
numerous. Preparation for this work begins with an introduction to the basic
principles of real property law.
2 PRACTICAL REAL ESTATE LAW

REAL PROPERTY LAW

Laws That Govern Real Property Transactions
The law of the United States comprises two separate systems of law: federal
law and state law. Federal law applies uniformly throughout the country,
whereas state law, because of differences in local history and conditions,
varies from state to state. The law of real property in general is governed by
state law and therefore is somewhat different in each of the various states.
The law of the state in which the real property is located usually governs.
For example, if a New York couple owns a beach house on Cape Cod, the
laws of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts control the couple’s ownership
rights to the property and the form and content of the various legal docu-
ments and procedures involved in the sale, leasing, financing, inheritance,
and so on, of the property.
There are, however, basic legal principles that govern real estate transac-
tions, and the approach of this text is to describe these principles and to men-
tion the more important instances in which the states do not agree.

History of American Real Property Law

The early settlers who came to America from Europe brought with them the
laws of their native lands, including the laws concerning land ownership.
Except for Louisiana, Texas, and portions of the Southwest, where the civil laws
of France and Spain have substantial influence, most modern real property law
is the product of English feudal law, which developed into what is known as the
common law.
Feudalism grew out of the chaos of the Dark Ages. Because of the collapse
of all central law and order, people banded together for security and stability,
usually with the strongest member of the group taking command. The stronger
members became known as lords, and the weaker members became known as
tenants or vassals of the lord. For the lord to keep the allegiance of the vassals,
it became necessary to compensate them for their services. Because almost all
the wealth of the lords at that time was in the form of land, the land was par-
celed out to the vassals for services. Tenures or rights to possession were cre-
ated. The early tenures were of four main types: (1) knight tenure, land given in
return for pledged armed services; (2) serjeanty tenure, land given in return for
performance of ceremonial services for the lord (later evolving into ordinary
domestic services such as cook and butler); (3) frankalmoign tenure, land given
for religious purposes to priests and other religious bodies; and (4) socage ten-
ure, land given to farmers. These early field tenures evolved into the concept of
estates (derived from the Latin word status), which became the primary basis of
classification of interests in land. The word estate is still used today to express
the degree, quantity, nature, duration, or extent of an owner’s interest in real
property.
The word fee is used to describe many modern-day estates evolved from
the ancient English doctrine of tenure, which was based upon the notion of
a lord giving up his land to a tenant in return for homage (rent) and service.
The holding of the tenure by the tenant was called his fief or fee. So long as
homage was paid by the tenant, the lord was bound to respect the tenant’s
rights for his lifetime. Over a period of several decades, the lords began to
believe that the tenant’s heirs had a right to take up the tenant’s property
upon the tenant’s death and to continue to pay homage to the lord and keep
the land. This created the ability to transfer the fee to heirs of the tenant at
the tenant’s death, and the concept of inheritance began to be associated with
fee ownership.
The ability to transfer a fee during the tenant’s life took longer to establish.
The ability of the tenant to transfer the property during his lifetime was first
 Chapter 1 | INTRODUCTION TO THE LAW OF REAL PROPERTY 3

viewed as a means of the tenant to deprive his heirs of their future ownership
of the property, or to otherwise disinherit the heirs, and was at first considered
against public policy.
The power to sell property during the tenant’s lifetime was first recognized
with purchased land rather than inherited land. The idea was that one must not
take advantage of the right of inheritance and then deprive one’s own heirs of
the same advantage. However, as the law continued to evolve in England, the
right of transfer became well established and applied to both purchased and
inherited land.

Real Property versus Personal Property

The law recognizes two classifications of property: real and personal. John E.
Cribbet, former dean of the University of Illinois College of Law, in his treatise
Principles of the Law of Real Property, points out:
The terminology makes no semantic sense because a car is just as “real” as a
farm and the family mansion is more “personal” to the owner than shares of
stock. The explanation lies not in the history of property, but in the history
of procedure. In early common law a real action, so called because it led to
the return of the thing itself, was used when land was wrongfully detained
by another; a personal action, which gave only a money claim against the
wrongdoer, was proper when things other than land were involved. Thus
the thing took the name of the action, and we have, to this day, real property
and personal property.

Real property relates to land and those things that are more or less perma- real property
nently attached to the land, such as homes, office buildings, and trees. Property that relates to land and
Personal property is sometimes referred to as chattels or goods. Personal those things that are more or
property has its own set of legal rules and regulations, which govern the owner- less permanently attached to
ship of the property, the ability to sell the property, and the ability to pledge the the land, such as homes, office
property to secure a debt. Personal property may include living objects, such as buildings, and trees.
animals, and inanimate objects, such as a television.

Tangible Personal Property

The property can be either tangible or intangible. Tangible personal property is
property that has a physical substance—something you can hold, taste, see, or
hear. Tangible personal property includes such things as automobiles, televi-
sions, and clothes.

Intangible Personal Property

Intangible personal property is property that represents a set of rights that have
no physical existence but that do represent control or ownership of something
of value. A certificate of stock is an example of intangible personal property.
Although the stock certificate itself is tangible, the stock certificate represents
a fractional ownership in a company, and it is the intangible fractional own-
ership in the company that gives the stock certificate value. Other examples of
intangible property are bonds; patents; copyrights; and intellectual property
rights, such as software.

Fixtures
It usually is easy to tell if an item is personal property or real property, but in
some situations, the determination may be difficult. Take, for example, a stove
and a refrigerator that are located in the kitchen of a house. Are these items real fixture
property or personal property? The answer to this question is governed by the Item of personal property that
law of fixtures. becomes real property because
A fixture is an article of personal property, such as an air conditioning unit of its attachment to the land or
or a dishwasher, that has been installed in or attached to land or a building a building.
4 PRACTICAL REAL ESTATE LAW

and, on attachment, is regarded by the law as part of the real property. The
term trade fixtures is used to describe shelving, counters, and other ornamental
items installed on property by a tenant to assist the tenant in the conduct of its
business. Most states permit a tenant to remove trade fixtures during the term
of the lease and at the expiration of the lease. The removal may be conditioned
upon the tenant repairing any damage to the property that results from the
removal of the trade fixtures.
A number of judicial tests exist to determine if an article is a fixture.
The tests are based upon the extent of the fixture’s annexation to the real
property and the adaptation of the fixture to the use of the real property.
The more permanent the attachment or annexation, the more likely the
court will determine that the item is a fixture. If it is clear that the item
has been specifically constructed and adapted to enhance the use of a par-
ticular building, such as a hot tub on the deck of a house, then the item is
more likely to be a fixture. In addition, courts pay strict attention to the
intention of the parties. If it is clear from the circumstances surrounding
the attachment of the item to the building that the parties intended for it to
be a fixture and part of the real property, this will be given weight by the
court. In addition, if the parties have indicated in writing an intention that
an item shall be a fixture or shall not be a fixture, a court will enforce this
written intention.
Often the question of whether an object is a fixture or not is really a ques-
tion of who gets the property, and the answer varies according to the context
in which the question is asked. The question is raised in disputes between
landlords and tenants, mortgagors and mortgagees, sellers and buyers, and
lenders and creditors. For example, in a seller and purchaser dispute, the law
generally favors the purchaser and holds that any personal property attached
to the home or building are considered fixtures and will transfer with the real
property unless the seller either has removed the fixtures before the sale or
reserved ownership in the contract or deed. The requirements of justice and
fairness in a particular case may determine the outcome of whether an object
is a fixture or not, which makes it difficult to create any consistent body of law
on the subject.
The classification of an item as a fixture is important because if the item
is a fixture, it is part of the real property and will be transferred with the real
property unless there is a clear intent for it not to be transferred. This means
that if a person buys a building, he or she also obtains all the fixtures within
the building. Classification also is important in a loan transaction because if a
person pledges real property as security for a debt, not only the real property
will be pledged, but also any items deemed to be fixtures located on the real
property.
Failure to identify an item as a fixture may send a person to jail, as shown
by the case of Ex Parte Brown.

Physical Elements of Real Property

As previously discussed, real property is land and those things, such as houses
or buildings, which are attached to the land. The definition of real property,
however, includes more than land and things that are attached to the land. Real
property includes everything beneath the surface of the earth and in the air-
space above. Ancient laws decreed that an owner of the earth’s surface rights of
ownership extended from the surface downward to the center of the earth and
upward indefinitely to the stars.
 Chapter 1 | INTRODUCTION TO THE LAW OF REAL PROPERTY 5

Ex Parte Brown
CASE 485 So. 2d 762 (1986)

WRIGHT, Presiding Judge. 294 Ala. 281, 315 So.2d 431 (1975); Smith v. Smith, 365
So.2d 8 (Ala. Civ. App.1978). It is also settled that “a party
Ruby and Louis Brown were divorced by decree of the
who has been found in contempt and who has been
Lauderdale County Circuit Court in November 1983. As
assessed compensatory damages should seek review of
part of this decree, the husband was awarded the fam-
the finding of contempt by means of extraordinary writ
ily home, “including all fixtures and realty appurtenant
(certiorari or habeas corpus), and should seek review
thereto.” The wife was awarded all furniture in the home
of the question of the assessed amount of compensa-
with the exception of the master bedroom suite, the din-
tory damages by appeal.” Smith, supra. The wife has not
ing room furniture, kitchen appliances, and one-half of
appealed the $2,900 award. However, out of deference to
all silver, silverware, and other kitchenware, which was
the parties, we note that even if the wife had not admit-
awarded to the husband. The wife was to remove all of
ted her contempt, there is ample evidence in the record
the furniture and personal property awarded to her prior
to support the trial judge’s determination that the book-
to relinquishing possession of the home. In February
case and china cabinets were fixtures appurtenant to the
1984, the husband filed a petition with the circuit court
house.
asking that the wife be found to be in contempt for vio-
“A ‘fixture’ is an article that was once a chattel, but
lating the property settlement provisions of the divorce
which, by being physically annexed or affixed to realty,
decree. In May 1985, the court issued an order which spe-
has become accessory to it and ‘part and parcel of it.’”
cifically stated:
Milford v. Tennessee River Pulp and Paper Company, 355
“The evidence shows that under the decree of divorce
So.2d 687 (Ala. 1978). Whether an article is a fixture is
the Plaintiff [husband] was awarded certain items of per-
a determination that must be made on the particular
sonal property which the Defendant [wife] removed from
circumstances of each case. Id. The supreme court has
the Plaintiff’s home. A microwave of the value of $400.00
articulated the criteria to be used in making this deter-
and a refrigerator of the value of $500.00. Further, the Plain-
mination as follows:
tiff was awarded the family home and there was attached
“(1) Actual annexation to the realty or to something
thereto a bookcase and china cabinets of the value of
appurtenant thereto; (2) Appropriateness to the use or pur-
$2,000.00 which the Defendant removed from the home.
poses of that part of the realty with which it is connected;
Therefore, the Plaintiff was deprived of real and personal
(3) The intention of the party making the annexation of
property of the value of $2,900.00 and the Defendant’s
making permanent attachment to the freehold. This inten-
action in removing these items is [a] violation of the decree
tion of the party making the annexation is inferred; (a) From
and a contempt of the Court.”
the nature of the articles annexed; (b) The relation of the
For her contempt, the court ordered the wife to serve
party making the annexation; (c) The structure and mode of
ten days in the county jail, allowing, however, that she
annexation; (d) The purposes and uses for which the annex-
could purge herself of the contempt by making a payment
ation has been made.”
of $2,900 to the Clerk of the Circuit Court of Lauderdale
Id. (quoting Langston v. State, 96 Ala. 44, 11 So. 334
County. Thereafter, the wife filed this petition for certiorari
(1891)).
asking that we review this finding of contempt.
In her own testimony, the wife revealed that the arti-
We are perplexed by the wife’s first argument for
cles had all been custom-built for the express purpose of
reversal. She admits that she acted in contempt of the
being used with the family house, not just to be used in
court’s order when she removed the microwave and refrig-
any house. All of the articles were anchored to the walls,
erator from the home, but argues that the bookcase and
and the china cabinets were each set into a permanent
china cabinets were not fixtures appurtenant to the home
base. Under our limited scope of review, we cannot say
and thus could be removed by her as furniture. She does
that this testimony does not support a finding that the
not argue that the ten-day jail sentence was excessive, see
articles were intended to be fixtures, “part and parcel” of
Williams v. Stumpe, 439 So.2d 1297 (Ala. Civ. App.1983), nor
the house.
that she is unable to pay the $2,900 necessary to purge
We are of the opinion that the trial court has not com-
herself of this contempt, see Zeigler v. Butler, 410 So.2d
mitted error in finding that the wife acted in contempt of
93 (Ala. Civ. App.1982). Instead, the real issue she wishes
the divorce decree. Further, her sentence of ten days in jail,
this court to address is whether the $2,900 is an accurate
with the opportunity to purge her contempt by paying to
assessment of the damage caused the husband by her
the clerk $2,900, is not unconstitutional. The decision of the
contempt.
trial court is affirmed.
[1] It is settled that a trial court can assess damages
AFFIRMED.
in favor of an aggrieved party in civil contempt proceed-
BRADLEY and HOLMES, JJ, concur.
ings. Lightsey v. Kensington Mortgage & Finance Corp.,
6 PRACTICAL REAL ESTATE LAW

Airspace
The ability of humans to fly has limited the concept of ownership from the sur-
face to the stars, and there is now public domain airspace occurring at certain
elevations above the surface of the earth. An owner of real property still owns
the private airspace above the surface of the land. This private airspace is of a
sufficient elevation to permit the construction of the tallest buildings and other
structures found throughout the world.
This airspace can be quite valuable, especially as in a crowded city such as
New York, where the airspace can be used for building purposes. For example, a
charitable organization in New York City owned a four-story building that was
located in the midst of multistory skyscrapers. The organization sold the air-
space above its building to a developer for several million dollars. The developer
used the existing building as a foundation for the construction of a skyscraper
within the airspace. Airspace also can be valuable in less populous areas, where
it can be used to preserve a scenic view of a mountain or a shoreline. The advent
of solar energy has increased the value of airspace, and most states provide for
solar easements that create the right to purchase adjoining airspace to permit
the sun to shine on solar heating or cooling units of a building.

Mineral Rights
Since the ownership of the surface of real property includes ownership extend-
ing from the surface to the center of the earth, an owner of real property usually
owns all the minerals beneath the surface of the land. Some minerals, such as
oil, gas, and coal, are more valuable than the land’s surface. The law generally
permits the ownership of real property to be divided horizontally; that is, own-
ership of the surface may be divided and be separate from ownership of the
minerals beneath the surface. It is not uncommon for the owner of the surface
to sell or lease the minerals separately from the surface to a company with the
technology to extract the minerals, retaining a royalty or percentage of the prof-
its on the sale of the minerals. Conversely, the surface of the land can be sold,
and the owner can retain the rights to the minerals beneath the surface.
It is easy to see that tension can be created between the owner of the sur-
face of land and a separate owner of the minerals beneath the surface. The min-
eral rights owner in its exploration efforts may disturb the surface of the land
and make it unusable by the surface owner. Extensive mining underneath the
surface for coal or other minerals can result in a collapse of improvements upon
the surface, resulting in injury to both property and person. It is not uncommon
for the sale of mineral rights to contain limitations upon the mineral rights
owner’s ability to disturb the surface in its exploration of minerals. States that
have large mineral resources have enacted laws that not only define the rights
of a mineral owner, but also resolve the conflicts between surface owners and
mineral rights owners.
Certain trees, plants, and other things that grow in the soil may be con-
sidered real property. Trees, perennial bushes, grasses, and so on, that do not
require annual cultivation are considered real property. However, annual crops
produced by labor, such as wheat, corn, and soybeans, are considered personal
property.

Water Rights
An owner of real property has certain ownership rights to use water that is
located on or beneath the surface of the land. The users of water are diverse,
such as governments, farmers, manufacturers, and consumers. Water pollution
and changes in weather patterns that are responsible for below-average rainfall
have combined to drastically reduce the amount of usable water available in
many sections of the nation and have heightened competition among the users
of water. In an effort to resolve this conflict, many states have enacted laws reg-
ulating the transfer, ownership, and use of water rights.
 Chapter 1 | INTRODUCTION TO THE LAW OF REAL PROPERTY 7

The source of water governs, to a great extent, a landowner’s rights to own

and use the water. The categories of water sources are (a) groundwater, such as
an underground stream or spring; (b) surface water, which accumulates on the
surface of the land from rain; and (c) water that accumulates in a river, stream,
or natural lake.
Groundwater is water beneath the surface of the land. It is created by
underground streams or by rain that soaks through the soil. A landowner’s
right to use an underground stream is governed by the same rules that gov-
ern rivers and streams on the surface of the land, which are discussed later in
this section. Groundwater that has been created by rain soaking through the
soil is deemed to belong to the owner of the land on which the groundwater is
found. The landowner has the right to use the groundwater in any way he or she
chooses as long as the landowner does not use or divert the water in such a way
as to intentionally harm an adjoining property owner.
A landowner can use surface water in any way he or she chooses as long
as the use does not harm an adjoining property owner. The diversion of surface
water by a landowner onto a neighbor’s land may be a problem, especially when
the terrain is hilly. For example, a property owner owns land that is at or near
the bottom of a hill. Because of the natural flow of surface water, the property
floods during rainy periods. The property owner decides to build a dam on the
property to keep the surface water from flooding the land. The dam protects the
property from flooding by diverting the water uphill onto a neighbor’s prop-
erty, causing the neighbor’s property to flood. The flooding of the neighbor’s
property is unnatural because the flooding is caused by the artificial dam. The
owner of the dam in this situation is liable to the neighbor for damages caused
by the flooding because the dam altered the natural flow of the water. A prop-
erty owner does not have the right to alter the natural flow of surface water.
Water located within a river, stream, or natural lake is owned by the state
or federal government and not by the individual property owners whose prop-
erties adjoin the river, stream, or natural lake. Although an adjoining property
owner to a river, stream, or natural lake does not have ownership rights of the
water, in most states, the owner has a right to the beneficial use of the water.
The right to the beneficial use of the water is governed by one of two areas
of water law, known as riparian rights and appropriation. Riparian rights, riparian rights
derived from the Latin word ripa, for “river,” are based on an ancient doctrine Rights of the owners of lands
that all owners of riparian lands must share equally in the use of the water for adjoining streams, rivers, and
domestic purposes. Riparian lands border a stream, river, or natural lake. Under lakes relating to the water and
the riparian rights doctrine, an owner of riparian land has the right to use the its use.
water equally with other owners of riparian lands. This equal ownership means
that a riparian owner does not have a right to interfere with the natural flow of appropriation
the water in the river, stream, or lake. For example, an owner of riparian land In regard to water law, doctrine
could not create a dam across the river so that the water would cease to flow to stating that water belongs to the
other owners of riparian land. In addition, the riparian owner would not be able person who first makes beneficial
to channel the water from the river into a reservoir located on his or her prop- use of it.
erty. Both the dam and the reservoir would alter the natural flow of the water
and violate other owners’ riparian rights to beneficial use of the water.
Appropriation, sometimes referred to as prior appropriation, is found in
western states where water is scarce. This doctrine was developed in the nine-
teenth century to regulate the conflicts regarding water usage among settlers
of the western states, predominantly miners, farmers, and ranchers. Under the
appropriation or prior appropriation water rights doctrine, the right to use the
water is given to the landowner who uses the water first. The date of appropri-
ation determines the user’s priority to use water, with the earliest user having
the superior right. If the water is insufficient to meet all needs, those earlier
in time or first in time obtain all the allotted water and those who appropri-
ate later receive only some or none of the water. The first-in-time, or first-right
appropriation, concept contrasts sharply with the riparian tradition of prorat-
ing the entitlement to water among all users during times of scarcity.
8 PRACTICAL REAL ESTATE LAW
possession
Occupation of land evidenced
by visible acts such as enclosure,
cultivation, the construction of
improvements, or the occupancy
of existing improvements.
In order to obtain rights to water, a landowner must prove that he or she
has appropriated the water. Generally, this requires an intentional act by the
landowner to use the water for a beneficial use. The intentional act is usually
the construction of a channel or reservoir to move the water from its natural
source and the storage or usage of the water on the landowner’s property. The
landowner must use the diverted water for a beneficial use. What is a beneficial
use is usually determined by state law. Generally, domestic use such as drinking
water, agricultural use such as irrigation, and water used in manufacturing are
considered beneficial uses.
All states that follow the appropriation theory of water rights usage have
established administrative agencies to issue water permits in connection with
water usage. The chief purpose of the administrative procedures is to provide an
orderly method for appropriating water and regulating established water rights.
Water rights under the appropriation theory are transferable from one property
owner to another. It is possible to transfer water rights without a transfer of
land and to transfer land without a transfer of water rights. Each state has its
own regulatory system and requirements for the transfer of water rights.
Ownership of Real Property
Members of the legal profession, including paralegals, spend time and clients’
money worrying about the ownership of real property. The basic principle that
only the owner of real property can sell or pledge it as security for a debt means
that on any typical sale or loan transaction, title examinations and other efforts
are made by legal counsel for the purchaser or lender to determine the extent of
the seller’s or borrower’s ownership of the real property.
The chief legal rights accorded an owner of real property are possession, use,
and power of disposition. An owner of real property has the right to possess the
property. Possession is occupation of the land evidenced by visible acts such as
an enclosure, cultivation, the construction of improvements, or the occupancy of
existing improvements. Possession gives the property owner the right to exclude
others from the land. Occupancy of land by someone without the permission of
the owner is a trespass. The owner may evict the trespasser from the land and/or
sue the trespasser for money damages or even have the trespasser arrested.
A landowner has the right to use the land for profit or pleasure. Absolute
freedom to use land has never existed, and the modern owner is faced with
several limitations on the use of land arising from public demands of health,
safety, and public welfare as well as the rights of neighbors to the safety and
enjoyment of their property. The law, however, does favor the free use of land,
and doubts will be resolved in favor of the owner.
An owner of property has the right to dispose of that ownership. The power of
disposition may take place by inheritance or will at the owner’s death, or it may
take place during the owner’s lifetime by contract, deed, or lease. The law favors the
free right to transfer ownership, and any restraint on this right will not be upheld
unless the restraint supports some important public purpose or private right.
Private property rights are subject to the right of sovereignty exercised by
federal, state, and local governments. Therefore, private ownership is subject
to the powers to tax; to regulate the use of private property in the interest of
public safety, health, and the general welfare; and to take private property for
public use. A government’s power to regulate, tax, and take private property
for public use is discussed in Chapter 4.
MODERN-DAY ESTATES IN REAL
PROPERTY
There are six types of modern-day estates in real property: (1) fee simple or fee
simple absolute, (2) fee simple determinable, (3) fee simple on condition subse-
quent, (4) life estate, (5) estate for years, and (6) estate at will.
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commencement de l'année suivante. Quelques
auteurs prétendent que Salia alors consul avec Idat. chron.
Philippe, est le même que ce Salianus[153]. Mais la
dignité consulaire ne paraît guère s'accorder avec Till. art. 11.
cette députation. Philippe, l'autre consul, était
d'une famille très-obscure. Un génie souple et
intrigant l'avait élevé jusqu'à la charge de préfet An 348.
d'Orient, qu'il posséda pendant plusieurs années. Il
était vendu aux Ariens, et nous le verrons bientôt signaler son zèle
en leur faveur par des crimes dont il fut mal récompensé.
Constance, naturellement timide, ne reçut pas sans inquiétude les
lettres menaçantes de son frère. Mais les Perses lui donnaient alors
de plus vives alarmes.
[152] Constance était dans cette ville le 8 mars 347.—S.-M.
[153] Cette opinion est celle de Henri Valois dans une note sur Théodoret, l. 2, c.
8.—S.-M.
Après le siége de Nisibe, ils étaient convenus
d'une trève avec les Romains. Cependant Sapor, xlix. Guerre de
dont l'humeur guerrière n'était gênée par aucun Perse.
scrupule, employait ce temps à faire de nouveaux
efforts. Il enrôle tout ce qu'il a de sujets propres à Liban. Basil, t.
porter les armes; les plus jeunes, pour peu qu'ils 2, p. 123 et 128-
paraissent vigoureux, n'en sont pas dispensés. Les 133.
villes restent presque désertes. Il n'épargne pas
même les femmes, qu'il oblige de suivre l'armée, Amm. l. 18, c. 9.
et de porter le bagage. Il épuise de soldats les
nations voisines, qu'il engage par prières, par argent, par force. Tout
l'Orient s'ébranle et marche vers le Tigre. Constance de son côté
rassemble les forces romaines, se met à leur tête et s'avance pour
arrêter ce torrent. Il campe à six lieues[154] du fleuve, et porte des
corps de troupes jusque sur les rives. Bientôt la poussière qui
s'élève au-delà annonce l'approche des Perses; on entend le bruit
des armes et le hennissement des chevaux. Constance, averti par
ses coureurs, va lui-même reconnaître l'ennemi; il ordonne aux
postes avancés de se replier, et de laisser le passage libre:
N'empêchez pas même les Perses, leur dit-il, de prendre un terrain
avantageux et de s'y retrancher: tout ce que je souhaite, c'est de les
attirer au combat; et tout ce que je crains, c'est qu'ils ne prennent la
fuite avant que d'en venir aux mains. Les Perses profitent de cette
confiance; ils jettent trois ponts; ils mettent plusieurs jours et
plusieurs nuits à passer le fleuve sans aucune inquiétude; et se
retranchent près de Singara[155]. Dans cette ville se trouvait alors un
officier de la garde nommé Elien; il n'avait avec lui qu'une troupe de
nouvelles milices. Mais il sut leur inspirer tant de courage, qu'étant
sortis pendant la nuit ils osèrent sous sa conduite pénétrer jusque
dans le camp des Perses; ils les surprirent endormis sous leurs
tentes, en égorgèrent un grand nombre, et se retirèrent sans perte
avant que d'être reconnus. Cette action rendit ces soldats célèbres;
on en composa deux cohortes sous les noms de Superventores et
de Prœventores, qui rappelaient leur hardiesse. Elien fut honoré du
titre de comte.
[154] A 150 stades selon Libanius, or. 3, t. 2, p. 131. ed. Morel.—S.-M.
[155] Ville au milieu de la Mésopotamie sur les bords du Chaboras, actuellement
le Khabour. On la nomme à présent Sindjar.—S.-M.
Les deux armées se rangèrent en bataille: celle
des Perses paraissait innombrable. Elle était l. Bataille de
composée de soldats de toute espèce; archers à Singara.
pied et à cheval, frondeurs, fantassins et cavaliers
armés de toutes pièces. Les rives, la plaine, la Liban. Basil. t.
pente des montagnes n'offraient aux yeux qu'une 2, p. 130-134.
forêt de lances et de javelots. Les gens de trait
couvraient les coteaux et bordaient le
Jul. or. 1, p. 23
retranchement: au-devant était rangée la cavalerie; et 24. ed.
l'infanterie formait l'avant-garde; elle se mit en Spanch.
marche et fit halte hors de la portée du trait; les
deux armées restèrent long-temps en présence.
Eutr. l. 10.
On était déja à l'heure de midi, dans les plus
grandes chaleurs du mois d'août; et les Romains,
sous les armes dès le point du jour, n'étaient pas Rufus.
accoutumés comme les Perses au soleil brûlant de
ces climats. Enfin Sapor, s'étant fait élever sur un Hier. Chron.
bouclier pour considérer l'armée ennemie, fut
frappé du bel ordre de leur bataille; elle lui parut
invincible. C'était un reste de cette ancienne Amm. l. 25, c. 9.
tactique, qui jointe à la sévérité de la discipline
avait rendu les Romains maîtres du monde. Sapor Oros. l. 7, c. 29.
savait assez la guerre pour admirer leur
ordonnance; mais non pas pour la rompre de vive
force, ni pour la rendre inutile par la disposition de [Socr. l. 2, c.
ses troupes. Soit crainte, soit stratagème, il fait 25.]
sonner la retraite, et fuyant lui-même à toute bride
avec un gros de cavalerie, il repasse le Tigre et laisse la conduite de
l'armée à son fils Narsès, et au plus habile de ses généraux. Les
Perses prennent la fuite vers leur camp, pour attirer l'ennemi à la
portée des traits prêts à partir de dessus la muraille et les coteaux.
Les Romains, au désespoir de les voir échapper, demandent à
grands cris le signal du combat. En vain Constance veut les arrêter;
ils n'estimaient ni sa capacité ni sa valeur; et malgré ses ordres, ils
courent de toutes leurs forces, et arrivent au camp sur le soir,
lorsque les Perses y rentraient en désordre. Constance voyant les
siens fatigués d'une course de quatre lieues, épuisés par la chaleur
et par la soif, fait de nouveaux efforts pour les retenir. La nuit
approchait; les archers sur les éminences d'alentour, les cavaliers au
pied de la muraille faisaient bonne contenance. Rien n'arrête la
fougue du soldat romain; il fond sur cette cavalerie, renverse
hommes et chevaux, les assomme à coups de masses d'armes. En
un moment le fossé est comblé, les palissades sont arrachées. Ils
s'attachent ensuite à la muraille; elle s'écroule jusqu'aux
fondements. Les uns pillent les tentes et massacrent tous ceux qui
ne peuvent fuir; Narsès est fait prisonnier: les autres courent vers les
hauteurs; mais à découvert de toutes parts, ils sont accablés d'une
grêle de traits; l'obscurité fait égarer leurs coups; leurs épées déja
rompues dans les corps des ennemis refusent de les servir: après
avoir perdu leurs meilleurs soldats ils se rejettent dans le camp; là se
croyant victorieux, ils allument des feux; et accablés de fatigue,
brûlants de soif, ils cherchent de l'eau et ne songent qu'à se
désaltérer. Les vaincus, profitant du désordre et favorisés des
ténèbres de la nuit, fondent sur eux; ils les percent de traits à la
lueur de leurs feux, et les chassent de leur camp. Dans cette
affreuse confusion, quelques soldats furieux se jettent sur Narsès; il
est fouetté, percé d'aiguillons, et coupé en pièces. Constance, fuyant
avec quelques cavaliers, arriva à une méchante bourgade nommée
Hibite ou Thébite, à six lieues de Nisibe, où mourant de faim il fut
trop heureux de se rassasier d'un morceau de pain qu'il reçut d'une
pauvre femme. Le lendemain les Perses, ne sentant que leur perte,
repassent le fleuve et rompent les ponts. Sapor, saisi de douleur et
de rage, quitta les bords du Tigre, s'arrachant les cheveux, se
frappant la tête et pleurant amèrement son fils. Dans l'excès de son
désespoir, il fit trancher la tête à plusieurs seigneurs qui lui avaient
conseillé la guerre. Telle fut la bataille de Singara, où les rives du
Tigre furent tour à tour abreuvées du sang des Perses et des
Romains, et où la mauvaise discipline fit perdre aux vainqueurs tout
l'avantage que leur avait procuré une bravoure téméraire.
En Occident, les Francs étaient tranquilles; et
Constant profitait du calme de ses états, pour li. Nouveaux
travailler à rendre la paix à l'église. Étant allé de troubles des
Milan[156] à Aquilée, il y manda Athanase, et Donatistes
apaisés en
l'engagea ensuite à passer à Trèves. Gratus Afrique.
évêque de Carthage, en allant au concile de
Sardique, avait représenté à l'empereur les
violences que les Circoncellions ne cessaient de Optat. l. 3. de
commettre en Afrique. Le prince y envoya deux schis. 3-9.
Donat. c.
personnages considérables, nommés Paul et
Macarius. Ils étaient chargés de distribuer des
aumônes, et de donner leurs soins à ramener les [Athan. apol. ad
esprits. Donat, faux évêque de Carthage, les Const. t. i, p.
rebuta avec insolence, et défendit à ceux de sa 297.]
communion de recevoir leurs aumônes. Un autre
Donat, évêque de Bagaï en Numidie, assembla les Baronius.
Circoncellions; les envoyés de l'empereur, pour se
mettre à couvert de leurs insultes, furent obligés Till. Hist. des
de se faire escorter par des soldats que leur donna Donat. art. 46 et
le comte Silvestre. Quelques-uns de ces soldats suiv.
ayant été maltraités, leurs camarades malgré les
commandants en tirèrent vengeance: ils tuèrent plusieurs
Donatistes, entre autres Donat de Bagaï. On employa contre ces
sectaires des rigueurs qui furent blâmées des évêques catholiques.
Cette conduite trop dure de Paul et de Macarius donna occasion à la
secte de les rendre odieux comme persécuteurs, et d'honorer
comme martyrs ceux qui perdirent la vie. Mais les commissaires
n'excédèrent pas les bornes d'une sévérité légitime en chassant de
Carthage le faux évêque Donat, et en traitant de même plusieurs
autres évêques obstinés. Une grande partie du peuple rentra dans la
communion catholique. Gratus cimenta cette heureuse union par un
concile tenu à Carthage; et la tranquillité rétablie dans l'église
d'Afrique subsista jusqu'à la mort de Constance.
[156] Il était en cette ville le 17 juin 348.—S.-M.
Il était temps que les menaces de Constant
arrêtassent en Orient la persécution qui avait lii. Violences
redoublé de violence après le concile de Sardique. des Ariens.
Les Ariens de Philippopolis, irrités contre les
habitants d'Andrinople qui rejetaient leur Ath. ad monach.
communion, s'en étaient plaints à Constance; et t. i, p. 354.
par les ordres de ce prince le comte Philagrius
avait fait trancher la tête à dix laïcs des plus considérables de la
ville. L'évêque Lucius fut de nouveau chargé de chaînes, et envoyé
en exil, où il mourut. Des diacres, des prêtres, des évêques avaient
été les uns proscrits, les autres rélégués dans les montagnes de
l'Arménie, ou dans les déserts de la Libye. On gardait les portes des
villes, pour en interdire l'entrée aux prélats rétablis par le vrai
concile. On envoya de la part de l'empereur aux magistrats
d'Alexandrie un ordre de faire mourir Athanase, s'il osait se
présenter pour rentrer en possession de son siége. On redoublait les
fouets, les chaînes, les tortures. Les catholiques fuyaient au désert;
quelques-uns feignaient d'apostasier. Ce fut au milieu de ce
désordre, que les lettres de Constant vinrent suspendre les coups
que son frère portait à l'église.
Constance ne se rendit pas d'abord. Son
incertitude lui attira une seconde lettre plus forte liii. Lettre de
que la précédente. Il connaissait le caractère vif et Constance à S.
bouillant de son frère; il ne doutait pas que ces Athanase.
menaces réitérées ne fussent bientôt suivies de
l'exécution. Dans cet embarras, il assemble Socr. l. 2, c. 23.
plusieurs évêques du parti, et leur demande
conseil. Ils sont d'avis de céder, plutôt que de Soz. l. 3, c. 20.
courir les risques d'une guerre civile. L'empereur
feint de s'adoucir. Il permet à Paul de retourner à
Constantinople. Il invite par lettre Athanase à le Philost. l. 3, c.
venir trouver, lui promettant non-seulement une 12.
sûreté entière et le rétablissement dans son église,
mais encore les effets les plus réels de sa bienveillance. Il lui
témoigne beaucoup de compassion sur ses malheurs, et lui fait des
reproches de ce qu'il n'a pas préféré de recourir à lui pour obtenir
justice. Cette feinte douceur n'était capable que d'inspirer de
nouveaux soupçons. Aussi Athanase ne se pressa pas d'y répondre.
Dans ces circonstances on découvrit un horrible complot qui
déshonora les Ariens, et qui fit pour quelques moments ouvrir les
yeux à leur aveugle protecteur.
Les deux évêques envoyés avec Salianus à
Constance, étaient Vincent de Capoue et liv. Insigne
Euphratas de Cologne. Étienne évêque d'Antioche fourberie
résolut de leur ôter tout crédit auprès de d'Étienne,
l'empereur, et de les perdre d'honneur à la face de évêque
d'Antioche.
toute la terre. Dans ce dessein il trama l'intrigue la
plus noire et la plus honteuse. Il avait à ses ordres
un jeune homme de la ville, dont il se servait pour Ath. ad monach.
maltraiter les catholiques. C'était un scélérat sans t. i, p. 355 et
pitié et sans pudeur. On lui avait donné le surnom 356.
d'Onagre, mot qui signifie âne sauvage, à cause
de sa pétulante férocité. L'évêque lui fait part de Theod. l. 2, c. 9-
son dessein, et n'a pas besoin de l'exciter à le 10.
remplir. Onagre va trouver une femme publique; il
lui dit qu'il est arrivé deux étrangers qui veulent passer la nuit avec
elle. Il convient avec quinze brigands semblables à lui, qu'ils se
placeront en embuscade autour de la maison où logeaient les deux
évêques. La nuit suivante Onagre conduit la courtisane: un
domestique qu'il avait corrompu par argent, tenait la porte ouverte.
Cette femme se glisse dans la chambre d'Euphratas: c'était un
vieillard vénérable; il s'éveille au bruit; et ayant demandé qui c'était,
comme il entend la voix d'une femme, il ne doute pas que ce ne soit
une illusion du diable, et se recommande à J.-C. Aussitôt Onagre
entre avec des flambeaux à la tête de sa troupe. La courtisane,
frappée de la vue d'un homme si respectable, et qu'elle reconnaît
pour un évêque, s'écrie qu'elle est trompée: on veut lui imposer
silence; elle crie plus fort: tous les valets accourent; Vincent qui
couchait dans une chambre voisine vient au secours de son
collègue: on ferme les portes; on arrête sept de ces misérables:
Onagre s'échappe avec les autres. Dès le point du jour les évêques
instruisent Salianus de cet attentat; ils vont ensemble au palais; les
prélats requièrent un jugement ecclésiastique: Salianus soutient
qu'un fait de cette nature est du ressort des tribunaux séculiers; il
demande une information juridique: il offre les domestiques des deux
évêques pour être appliqués à la question; et comme tout le
soupçon tombait sur Étienne dont Onagre était le ministre ordinaire,
il exige qu'Étienne représente aussi les siens. Celui-ci le refuse,
sous prétexte que ses domestiques étant clercs ne peuvent être mis
à la question. L'empereur est d'avis que l'information se fasse dans
l'intérieur du palais. On interroge d'abord la courtisane, qui déclare la
vérité: on s'adresse ensuite au plus jeune de ceux qui avaient été
arrêtés, il découvre tout le complot: Onagre est amené, et proteste
qu'il n'a rien fait que par les ordres d'Étienne: cet indigne prélat est
aussitôt déposé par les évêques qui se trouvent à Antioche.
L'empereur, irrité d'une si affreuse imposture,
rappelle d'exil les prêtres et les diacres lv. Constance
d'Alexandrie; il défend d'inquiéter ni les clercs ni invite de
les laïcs attachés à l'évêque Athanase. La guerre nouveau
Athanase.
des Perses qui commença alors à l'occuper tout
entier, ne lui fit pas perdre de vue le retour du
prélat. Dans sa marche même, étant à Edesse, il [Athan. apol.
lui écrivit une seconde lettre[157], dont il chargea cont. Arian. t. i,
p. 170.]
un prêtre d'Alexandrie: c'était apparemment un des
exilés qui revenait d'Arménie, et qui s'était
présenté à l'empereur. Constance pressait de Socr. l. 2, c. 23.
nouveau le saint évêque; il lui permettait de
prendre des voitures publiques pour se faire
conduire à la cour. Mais il était de retour à Theod. l. 2, c.
Antioche avant qu'Athanase se fût déterminé à le 10, 11.
venir trouver.
[157] Selon Socrate (l. 2, c. 23), Athanase était alors à Soz. l. 3, c. 19.
Aquilée.—S.-M.
Grégoire était mort à Alexandrie, et l'empereur
n'avait pas permis aux Ariens de lui nommer un An 349.
successeur. Enfin l'année suivante, sous le
consulat de Liménius et de Catulinus, Athanase, lvi. Athanase à
pressé par une troisième lettre de Constance, et Antioche.
par celles de plusieurs comtes, dont la bonne foi
lui était moins suspecte, se rend à tant de
sollicitations. Il va d'abord à Rome trouver le pape Idat. Chron.
Jules qui, transporté d'une sainte joie, écrit à
l'église d'Alexandrie pour la féliciter du retour de Ath. ad.
son évêque. De là il prend la route d'Antioche, où monach. t. i, p.
l'empereur affecta de réparer ses injustices 356 et 357. et
passées par l'accueil le plus honorable. La seule apol. contr.
Arian. t. i, p.
grace qui lui fut refusée, ce fut celle de confondre 171-174.
en face ses calomniateurs qui étaient à la cour.
Mais le prince lui promit avec serment de ne les
plus écouter en son absence. Constance écrit aux Socr. l. 2, c. 23.
Alexandrins, pour les exhorter à la concorde; il leur
recommande l'obéissance à leur évêque; il Theod. l. 2, c.
ordonne aux magistrats de punir les réfractaires; il 12.
déclare que l'union avec Athanase sera à ses yeux
le caractère du bon parti; il enjoint, par un ordre Soz. l. 3, c. 20
exprès, aux commandants de la ville et de la et 21.
province, d'annuler et d'effacer des registres
publics tous les actes et toutes les procédures
faites contre l'évêque et contre ceux de sa Phot. vit. Ath.
communion, et de rétablir le clergé d'Athanase cod. 257.
dans tous ses priviléges. On ne peut concevoir comment Constance
a pu sans rougir donner à la doctrine et aux mœurs du saint prélat
les éloges dont ces lettres sont remplies. Il entrait dans cette
conduite plus de crainte de Constant, que de sincérité et de véritable
repentir. Aussi voit-on ici ce prince se démentir lui-même. Il était
alors, autant que jamais, le jouet des Ariens, qui l'avaient tant de fois
trompé. Ce fut à leurs instances qu'ayant un jour fait appeler
Athanase: Vous voyez, lui dit-il, tout ce que je fais pour vous; faites à
votre tour quelque chose pour moi; je l'attends de votre
reconnaissance: de toutes les églises d'Alexandrie, je vous en
demande une pour ceux qui ne sont pas de votre communion.
Prince, lui répond Athanase sans se déconcerter, vous avez le
pouvoir d'exécuter ce que vous désirez; mais accordez-moi aussi
une grace. Je vous l'accorde, lui dit aussitôt Constance. Il y a ici à
Antioche, répliqua Athanase, beaucoup d'habitants séparés de la
communion de l'évêque; il est de votre justice que tout soit égal:
donnez-leur une église, comme vous en demandez une pour ceux
d'Alexandrie. Depuis la déposition d'Étienne, l'église d'Antioche était
gouvernée par Léonce, qui n'était pas moins livré à l'arianisme; et
les catholiques, appelés Eustathiens, étaient en grand nombre.
Constance, frappé de la présence d'esprit d'Athanase, ne put lui
répondre sans avoir consulté ses oracles ordinaires. Ceux-ci
jugèrent que par cette concession mutuelle leur parti perdrait
beaucoup plus à Antioche, qu'il ne gagnerait à Alexandrie, tant que
leur doctrine y trouverait un si puissant adversaire; et l'empereur se
désista de sa demande.
Dans le voyage d'Antioche à Alexandrie, Athanase
fut partout reçu avec honneur. Les évêques, lvii. Retour
excepté quelques Ariens, s'empressaient à lui d'Athanase à
témoigner leur respect. La plupart même de ceux Alexandrie.
qui l'avaient auparavant condamné ou abandonné,
revenaient à sa communion. Les prélats de Ath. apol. contr.
Palestine s'assemblèrent à Jérusalem; ils écrivirent Arian. t. i, p.
une lettre aux églises d'Égypte, de Libye, 175-177. ad
d'Alexandrie, pour les assurer qu'ils partageaient monach. p. 357-
359.
leur joie. A son arrivée ce fut une fête par toute
l'Égypte, mais une fête vraiment chrétienne. C'était
par l'imitation d'Athanase qu'on solennisait son Socr. l. 2, c. 24.
retour. On versait des aumônes abondantes dans
le sein des pauvres; les ennemis se réconciliaient; chaque maison
semblait une église; Alexandrie tout entière était
devenue un temple consacré aux actions de Soz. l. 3, c. 20
graces, et à la pratique des vertus. Tous les et seq.
évêques catholiques envoyaient à Athanase et
recevaient de lui des lettres de paix. Ursacius et Phot. vit. Ath.
Valens eux-mêmes lui écrivirent d'Aquilée, et lui cod. 257.
demandèrent sa communion. Ils venaient de
confirmer à Rome, en présence de Jules et de
plusieurs évêques, par une nouvelle protestation Pagi, ad Baron.
signée de leur main, l'anathème qu'ils avaient prononcé à Milan
contre la doctrine d'Arius; ils avaient de plus, par ce même acte,
déclaré fausses et calomnieuses toutes les accusations formées
contre Athanase: c'était confesser leur propre crime. L'Église
respirait après un orage de plus de sept années. Les évêques exilés
étaient rétablis; les Ariens quittaient en tumulte les siéges usurpés;
Macédonius, obligé de céder à Paul, ne conserva dans
Constantinople qu'une seule église. Cette paix qui était l'ouvrage de
Constant, fut bientôt troublée. Elle ne survécut pas à ce prince, dont
la mort fut l'effet d'une révolution soudaine, et la cause des plus
violentes agitations.

FIN DU LIVRE SIXIÈME ET DU TOME PREMIER.

 TABLE DES MATIÈRES CONTENUES
DANS LE TOME PREMIER DE
L'HISTOIRE DU BAS-EMPIRE.
Introduction Page 1.
LIVRE PREMIER.
1. Date de la naissance de Constantin. 2. Sa patrie. 3. Son origine.
4. Qualité de sa mère. 5. Noms de Constantin. 6. Ses premières
années. 7. Portrait de ce prince. 8. Sa chasteté. 9. Son savoir. 10.
Galérius est jaloux de Constantin. 11. Il cherche à le perdre. 12.
Constantin s'échappe des mains de Galérius. 13. Il joint son père.
14. Il lui succède. 15. Proclamation de Constantin. 16. Sépulture de
Constance. 17. Projets de Galérius. 18. Ses cruautés, 19; contre les
chrétiens, 20; contre les païens mêmes. 21. Rigueur des
impositions. 22. Les crimes de ses officiers doivent lui être imputés.
23. Il refuse à Constantin le titre d'Auguste et le donne à Sévère. 24.
Maxence élevé à l'empire. 25. Maximien reprend le titre d'Auguste.
26. Maximin ne prend point de part à ces mouvements. 27.
Occupations de Constantin. 28. Sa victoire sur les Francs. 29. Il
achève de les dompter. 30. Il met à couvert les terres de la Gaule.
31. Sévère trahi. 32. Sa mort. 33. Mariage de Constantin. 34.
Galérius vient assiéger Rome. 35. Il est contraint de se retirer. 36. Il
ruine tout sur son passage. 37. Maximien revient à Rome, d'où il est
chassé. 38. Maxence lui ôte le consulat. 39. Maximien va trouver
Constantin et ensuite Galérius. 40. Portrait de Licinius. 41. Dioclétien
refuse l'empire. 42. Licinius Auguste. 43. Maximin continue à
persécuter les chrétiens. 44. Punition d'Urbanus et de Firmilianus.
45. Maximin prend le titre d'Auguste. 46. Maximien consul. 47.
Alexandre est nommé empereur à Carthage. 48. Maximien quitte la
pourpre pour la seconde fois. 49. Il la reprend. 50. Constantin
marche contre lui. 51. Il s'assure de sa personne. 52. Mort de
Maximien. 53. Ambition et vanité de Maximien. 54. Consulats. 55.
Constantin fait des offrandes à Apollon. 56. Il embellit la ville de
Trèves. 57. Guerre contre les Barbares. 58. Nouvelles exactions de
Galérius. 59. Sa maladie. 60. Édit de Galérius en faveur des
chrétiens. 61. Mort de Galérius. 62. Différence de sentiments au
sujet de Galérius. 63. Consulats de cette année. 64. Partage de
Maximin et de Licinius. 65. Débauches de Maximin. 66. Maximin fait
cesser la persécution. 67. Délivrance des chrétiens. 68. Artifices
contre les chrétiens. 69. Édit de Maximin. 70. La persécution
recommence. 71. Passion de Maximin pour les sacrifices. 72.
Calomnies contre les chrétiens. 73. Divers martyrs. 74. Famine et
peste en Orient. 75. Guerre contre les Arméniens. 76. État du
christianisme en Italie. 77. Guerre contre Alexandre. 78. Défaite
d'Alexandre. 79. Désolation de l'Afrique. 80. Massacre dans Rome.
81. Avarice de Maxence. 82. Ses rapines. 83. Ses débauches. 84.
Mort de Sophronie. 85. Superstition de Maxence. 86. Constantin se
prépare à la guerre. 87. Il soulage la ville d'Autun. 88. Il retourne à
Trèves. 89. Outrages qu'il reçoit de Maxence. 90. Ils s'appuient tous
deux par des alliances. 91. Préparatifs de Maxence. 92. Forces de
Constantin. 93. Inquiétudes de ce prince. 94. Réflexions qui le
portent au christianisme. 95. Apparition de la croix. 96. Constantin
fait faire le labarum. 97. Culte de cette enseigne. 98. Protection
divine attachée au labarum. 99. Sur le lieu où parut ce prodige. 100.
Discussion sur la vérité de ce miracle. 101. Raisons pour le
combattre. 102. Raisons pour l'appuyer. 103. Constantin se fait
instruire. 104. Conversion de sa famille. 105. Fable de Zosime
réfutée. Page 23.
LIVRE DEUXIÈME.
1. Triomphe de la religion chrétienne. 2. Prise de Suze. 3. Bataille de
Turin. 4. Suites de la victoire. 5. Siége de Vérone. 6. Bataille de
Vérone. 7. Prise de Vérone. 8. Constantin devant Rome. 9. Maxence
se tient enfermé dans Rome. 10. Pont de bateaux. 11. Songe de
Constantin. 12. Sentiment de Lactance. 13. Bataille contre Maxence.
14. Fuite de Maxence. 15. Suites de la victoire. 16. Entrée de
Constantin dans Rome. 17. Fêtes, réjouissances, honneurs rendus à
Constantin. 18. Dispositions de Maximin. 19. Précautions de
Constantin. 20. Conduite sage et modérée après la victoire. 21. Lois
contre les délateurs. 22. Il répare les maux qu'avait fait Maxence. 23.
Libéralités de Constantin. 24. Embellissements et réparations des
villes. 25. Établissement des indictions. 26. Raisons de cet
établissement. 27. Conduite de Constantin par rapport au
christianisme. 28. Progrès du christianisme. 29. Honneurs que
Constantin rend à la religion. 30. Églises bâties et ornées. 31.
Constantin arrête la persécution de Maximin. 32. Consulats de cette
année. 33. Mariage de Licinius. 34. Mort de Dioclétien. 35. Édit de
Milan. 36. Guerre contre les Francs. 37. Constantin comble de
bienfaits l'église d'Afrique. 38. Exemption des fonctions municipales,
accordée aux clercs. 39. Abus occasionés par ces exemptions, et
corrigés par Constantin. 40. Lois sur le gouvernement civil. 41. Lois
pour la perception des tributs. 42. Lois pour l'administration de la
justice. 43. Maximin commence la guerre contre Licinius. 44. Licinius
vient à sa rencontre. 45. Bataille entre Licinius et Maximin. 46.
Licinius à Nicomédie. 47. Mort de Maximin. 48. Suites de cette mort.
49. Aventures de Valéria, de Prisca et de Candidianus. 50. Valéria
fuit Licinius, et est persécutée par Maximin. 51. Supplice de trois
dames innocentes. 52. Dioclétien redemande Valéria. 53. Mort de
Candidianus, de Prisca et de Valéria. 54. Jeux séculaires. 55. Paix
universelle de l'église. 56. Origine du schisme des Donatistes. 57.
Conciliabule de Carthage, où Cécilien est condamné. 58. Ordination
de Majorinus. 59. Constantin prend connaissance de cette querelle.
60. Concile de Rome. 61. Suites de ce concile. 62. Plaintes des
Donatistes. 63. Convocation du concile d'Arles. 64. Concile d'Arles.
65. Les Donatistes appellent du concile à l'empereur. Page 98.
LIVRE TROISIÈME.
1. Consuls de cette année. 2. Première guerre entre Constantin et
Licinius. 3. Bataille de Cibales. 4. Suites de cette bataille. 5. Bataille
de Mardie. 6. Traité de paix et de partage. 7. Loi en faveur des
officiers du palais. 8. Décennales de Constantin. 9. Révolte des Juifs
réprimée. 10. Lois en l'honneur de la croix. 11. Constantin en Gaule.
12. Il se détermine à juger de nouveau les Donatistes. 13. Nouveaux
troubles en Afrique. 14. Jugement rendu à Milan. 15.
Mécontentement des Donatistes. 16. Violences des Donatistes. 17.
Silvanus exilé et rappelé. 18. Le schisme dégénère en hérésie. 19.
Donatistes à Rome, 20. Circoncellions. 21. Constantin en Illyrie. 22.
Nomination des trois Césars. 23. Lactance chargé de l'instruction de
Crispus. 24. Naissance de Constance. 25. Éducation du jeune
Constantin, consul avec son père. 26. Persécution de Licinius. 27.
Victoire de Crispus sur les Francs. 28. Quinquennales des Césars.
29. Consuls. 30. Les Sarmates vaincus. 31. Pardon accordé aux
criminels. 32. Lois de Constantin. 33. Loi pour la célébration du
dimanche. 35. Loi en faveur du célibat. 35. Loi de tolérance. 36. Loi
en faveur des ministres de l'église. 37. Lois qui regardent les
mœurs. 38. Lois concernant les officiers du prince et ceux des villes.
39. Lois sur la police générale et sur le gouvernement civil. 40. Lois
sur l'administration de la justice. 41. Lois sur la perception des
impôts. 42. Lois pour l'ordre militaire. 43. Causes de la guerre entre
Constantin et Licinius. 44. Préparatifs de guerre. 45. Piété de
Constantin et superstition de Licinius. 46. Approches des deux
armées. 47. Harangue de Licinius. 48. Bataille d'Andrinople. 49.
Guerre sur mer. 50. Licinius passe à Chalcédoine. 51. Bataille de
Chrysopolis. 52. Suites de la bataille. 53. Mort de Licinius. Page 159.
LIVRE QUATRIÈME.
1. Aventures d'Hormisdas. 2. Il se réfugie auprès de Constantin. 3.
Récit de Zonare. 4. Constantin seul maître de tout l'empire. 5. Il
profite de sa victoire pour étendre le christianisme. 6. Lettre de
Constantin aux peuples d'Orient. 7. Il défend les sacrifices. 8. Édit de
Constantin pour tout l'Orient. 9. Tolérance de Constantin. 10. Piété
de Constantin, 11. Corruption de sa cour. 12. Discours de
Constantin. 13. Troubles de l'arianisme. 14. Commencements
d'Arius. 15. Son portrait. 16. Progrès de l'arianisme. 17. Premier
concile d'Alexandrie contre Arius. 18. Eusèbe de Nicomédie. 19.
Eusèbe de Césarée. 20. Mouvements de l'arianisme. 21. Concile en
faveur d'Arius. 22. Lettre de Constantin à Alexandre et à Arius. 23.
Second concile d'Alexandrie. 24. Généreuse réponse de Constantin.
25. Convocation du concile de Nicée. 26. Occupation de Constantin
jusqu'à l'ouverture du concile. 27. Les évêques se rendent à Nicée.
28. Évêques orthodoxes. 29. Évêques ariens. 30. Philosophes
païens confondus. 31. Trait de sagesse de Constantin. 32.
Conférences préliminaires. 33. Séances du concile. 34. Constantin
au concile. 35. Discours de Constantin. 36. Liberté du concile. 37.
Consubstantialité du Verbe. 38. Jugement du concile. 39. Question
de la Pâque terminée. 40. Réglement au sujet des Mélétiens et des
Novatiens. 41. Canons et symbole de Nicée. 42. Lettres du concile
et de Constantin. 43. Vicennales de Constantin. 44. Conclusion du
concile. 45. Exil d'Eusèbe et de Théognis. 46. Saint Athanase,
évêque d'Alexandrie 47. Lois de Constantin. 48. Mort de Crispus. 49.
Mort de Fausta. 50. Insultes que Constantin reçoit à Rome. 51.
Constantin quitte Rome pour n'y plus revenir. 52. Consuls. 53.
Découverte de la croix. 54. Église du saint Sépulcre. 55. Piété
d'Hélène. 56. Retour d'Hélène. 57. Sa mort. 58. Guerres contre les
Barbares. 59. Destruction des idoles. 60. Temple d'Aphaca. 61.
Autres débauches et superstitions abolies. 62. Chêne de Mambré.
63. Églises bâties. 64. Arad et Maïuma deviennent chrétiennes. 65.
Conversions des Éthiopiens et des Ibériens. 66. Établissement des
monastères. 67. Restes de l'idolâtrie. 68. Date de la fondation de
Constantinople. 69. Motifs de Constantin pour bâtir une nouvelle
ville. 70. Il veut bâtir à Troie. 71. Situation de Byzance. 72. Abrégé
de l'histoire de Byzance jusqu'à Constantin. 73. État du christianisme
à Byzance. 74. Nouvelle enceinte de C. P. 75. Bâtiments faits à
Constantinople. 76. Places publiques. 77. Palais. 78. Autres
ouvrages. 79. Statues. 80. Églises bâties. 81. Égouts de
Constantinople. 82. Prompte exécution de ces ouvrages. 83.
Maisons bâties à Constantinople. 84. Nom et division de
Constantinople. Page 222.
LIVRE CINQUIÈME.
1. Changement dans le gouvernement. 2. Dédicace de C. P. 3.
Précautions de Constantin pour la subsistance de C. P. 4.
Chrysargyre. 5. Priviléges de C. P. 6. Autres établissements. 7.
Nouvel ordre politique. 8. Nouvelle division de l'empire. 9. Quatre
préfets du prétoire établis. 10. Des maîtres de la milice. 11. Patrices.
12. Des ducs et des comtes. 13. Multiplication des titres. 14. Luxe de
Constantin. 15. Suite de l'histoire de Constantin. 16. Guerre contre
les Goths. 17. Sarmates vaincus. 18. Delmatius consul. 19. Peste et
famine en Orient. 20. Mort de Sopater. 21. Ambassades envoyées à
Constantin. 22. Lettre de Constantin à Sapor. 23. Préparatifs de
guerre faits par les Perses. 24. Constantin écrit à saint Antoine. 25.
Constant César. 26. Consuls. 27. Les Sarmates chassés par leurs
esclaves. 28. Consuls. 29. Tricennales de Constantin. 30. Delmatius
César. 31. Partage des états de Constantin. 32. Comète. 33.
Consuls. 34. Mariage de Constance. 35. Ambassade des Indiens.
36. Rappel d'Arius. 37. Retour d'Eusèbe et de Théognis. 38.
Déposition d'Eustathius. 39. Troubles d'Antioche. 40. Eusèbe de
Césarée refuse l'évêché d'Antioche. 41. Athanase refuse de recevoir
Arius. 42. Calomnies contre Athanase. 43. Accusation au sujet
d'Arsénius. 44. Eusèbe s'empare de l'esprit de l'empereur. 45.
Concile de Tyr. 46. Accusateurs confondus. 47. Conclusion du
Concile de Tyr. 48. Dédicace de l'église du Saint-Sépulcre. 49.
Concile de Jérusalem. 50. Athanase s'adresse à l'empereur. 51. Exil
d'Athanase. 52. Concile de C. P. 53. Efforts d'Eusèbe pour faire
recevoir Arius par Alexandre. 54. Mort d'Arius. 55. Constantin refuse
de rappeler Athanase. 56. Lois contre les hérétiques. 57. Loi sur la
juridiction épiscopale. 58. Lois sur les mariages. 59. Autres lois sur
l'administration civile. 60. Les Perses rompent la paix. 61. Maladie
de Constantin. 62. Son baptême. 63. Vérité de cette histoire. 64.
Mort de Constantin. 65. Deuil de sa mort. 66. Ses funérailles. 67.
Fidélité des légions. 68. Inhumation de Constantin. 69. Deuil à
Rome. 70. Honneurs rendus à sa mémoire par l'église. 71.
Caractère de Constantin. 72. Reproches mal fondés de la part des
païens. 73. Ses filles. Page 309.
LIVRE SIXIÈME.
1. Caractère des fils de Constantin. 2. Massacre des frères et des
neveux de Constantin. 3. Autres Massacres. 4. Crédit de l'eunuque
Eusèbe. 5. Suites de la mort de Delmatius et d'Hanniballianus. 6.
Nouveau partage. 7. Rétablissement de saint Athanase. 8. Rappel
de saint Paul de Constantinople. 9. Constance retourne en Orient.
10. Antiquités de Nisibe. 11. Sapor lève le siége de Nisibe. 12.
Préparatifs pour la guerre de Perse. 13. Première expédition de
Constance. [14. Révolutions arrivées en Arménie.] 15. Troubles de
l'arianisme. 16. Mort d'Eusèbe de Césarée. 17. Consulat
d'Acyndinus et de Proculus. 18. Mort du jeune Constantin. 19. Lois
des trois princes. 20. Nouvelles calomnies contre saint Athanase.
21. Concile d'Antioche. 22. Grégoire intrus sur le siége d'Alexandrie.
23. Violences à l'arrivée de Grégoire. 24. Précaution pour cacher ces
excès à l'empereur. 25. Les catholiques maltraités par toute l'Égypte.
26. Violences exercées ailleurs. 27. Athanase va à Rome. 28. Paul
rétabli et chassé de nouveau. 29. Athanase va trouver Constant. 30.
Synode de Rome. 31. Amid fortifiée. 32. Terrible tremblement de
terre. 33. Courses des Francs. 34. Ils sont réprimés par Constant.
35. Constant dans la Grande-Bretagne. 36. Tremblements de terre.
37. Conversion des Homérites. 38. Inquiétudes des Ariens. 39.
Marche de Constance vers la Perse. 40. Port de Séleucie. 41.
Sédition à Constantinople. 42. Concile de Milan. 43. Concile de
Sardique. 44. Les Ariens se séparent. 45. Jugement du concile. 46.
Faux concile de Sardique. 47. Concile de Milan. 48. Députés
envoyés à Constance. 49. Guerre des Perses. 50. Bataille de
Singara. 51. Nouveaux troubles des Donatistes apaisés en Afrique.
52. Violences des Ariens. 53. Lettres de Constance à saint
Athanase. 54. Insigne fourberie d'Étienne, évêque d'Antioche. 55.
Constance rappelle de nouveau saint Athanase. 56. Athanase à
Antioche. 57. Retour d'Athanase à Alexandrie. Page 392.

FIN DE LA TABLE DU TOME PREMIER.

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