ODA BULTUM UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF NATURAL RESOURCE AND ENVIRONMENTAL

SCIENCE
DEPARTMENT OF SOIL RESOURCE AND WATERSHED
MANAGEMENT
ASSESSMENT THE EFFECTS OF SOIL EROSION ON CROP PRODUCTIVITY
IN THE CASE OF CHIRO WOREDA, WEST HARARGHE ZONE,ETHIOPIA

By:

No Name Id/no
1 Bikiltu Kitata 1602
2 Bulti Tea 1798
3 Derebu Belay 1940
4 Genet Gedefa 1947
5 Liya Wakshuma 1794
6 Marta Dibisa 1786

Advisor: Kassie G. (MSc)

A Research paper Submitted to Department of Soil Resource and

Watershed Management, College of, Natural Resource and
Environmental Science Oda Bultum University, in Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirement for the Degree of Bachelor Science in Soil
Resource and Watershed Management

April 2024
Chiro, Ethiopia
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First and for most, we would like to thank my God for his overall gifts. We are
grateful to thank also the valuable suggestion guidance and encouraging responsible
attitude expressed by our advisor Kassie G. (MSc) staff member of Soil and water
resource management department. We also thank Oda Bultum University for their
support materials. Moreover we are highly indebted to local communities for assisting
me in the field work and their encouragement. Finally, we would like to express my
love for the courage given our family and our close friends who encourage in our
work.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS .......................................................................................................... ii
LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................................iv
ABSTRACT .............................................................................................................................. v
ABBREVIATION AND ACRONOMY .................................................................................. vi
1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 1
1.1. Background .....................................................................................................................1
1.2. Statements of the problem .............................................................................................. 2
1.3. Objectives of the study ................................................................................................... 2
1.3.1 General objective: .....................................................................................................2
1.3.2 Specific objectives: ...................................................................................................2
1.4 Research question ............................................................................................................ 3
1.5 Significance of the study ................................................................................................. 3
1.6. Scope of the study ...........................................................................................................3
1.7. Limitations of the study .................................................................................................. 4
2. LITERATURE REVIEW ...................................................................................................... 5
2.1. Definition of soil erosion ................................................................................................ 5
2.2 Types of Erosion ..............................................................................................................5
2.2.1 Types of Accelerated Soil Erosion ........................................................................... 5
2.2.1.1 Water Erosion ........................................................................................................ 5
2.2.1.2 Wind Erosion ......................................................................................................... 6
2.2.1.3 Raindrop Erosion ................................................................................................... 6
2.2.1.4 Sheet Erosion ......................................................................................................... 7
2.2.1.5 Rill Erosion ............................................................................................................7
2.2.1.6 Gully Erosion .........................................................................................................8
2.3 .The major causes of accelerated soil erosion ................................................................. 9
2.3.1 Woodland clearing ....................................................................................................9
2.3.2 Poor arable land management ...................................................................................9
2.3.3 Over of grazing land ............................................................................................... 10
2.3.4 Population pressure .................................................................................................10
2.4. Effect of soil erosion .....................................................................................................10
2.4.1 On-site effects: ............................................................................................................10
2.4.2 Off-site effects: ....................................................................................................... 11
3. MATERIALS AND METHODS ....................................................................................... 12
3.1 Description of the study area ......................................................................................... 12
3.2. Source of data ............................................................................................................... 12
3.3 Sampling techniques and Sample size ...........................................................................12
3.3.1 Sampling techniques .............................................................................................12
3.3.2 Sample size ............................................................................................................ 12
3.4 Method of data collection .............................................................................................. 13
3.5 Method of data analysis ............................................................................................... 13
4. RESUALT AND DESCUSION .......................................................................................... 14
4.1. Socio-demographic characteristics ............................................................................... 14

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 4.2. Respondents’ perceptions on soil erosion .....................................................................15
4.2.1. Knowledge of soil erosion ..................................................................................... 15
4.3 Forms of Soil Erosion ....................................................................................................15
4.4. Causes of soil erosion ................................................................................................... 16
4.5. Consequences of soil erosion ........................................................................................17
5 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................................. 18
5.1. Conclusions ...................................................................................................................18
5.2. Recommendations .........................................................................................................19
6 .REFERENCES .................................................................................................................... 20
Appendixes .............................................................................................................................. 22

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 LIST OF TABLES
Table 1; Gender of respondents ...............................................................................................14
Table 2 Age of respondent (years) ...........................................................................................14
Table 3; knowledge of farmers on soil erosion ....................................................................... 15
Table 4; Forms of Soil Erosion ................................................................................................15
Table 5; cause of soil erosion .................................................................................................. 16
Table 6; consequences of soil erosion ..................................................................................... 17

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 ABSTRACT
to assess the problem of soil erosion and to determine how these drivers of land
degradation affect the livelihoods of farmers. The research was a case study
undertaken in an identified micro-watershed. Information interviews were conducted
with community representatives, and development agents worked in the community.
The study was investigate the cause and effects of soil erosion on crop productivity in
Chiro Woreda West haraghe zone Research methods were questionnaire and direct
observation. The results of the study indicated that the effects of soil erosion on land
productively, reduce crop productivity, yield loss of soil fertility, increase
deforestation, loss of soil nutrient and livestock production at large, had a negative
effect on livelihoods of the community members. Recommendations based on the
research affirm the necessity to undertake large-scale natural resource management
starting with community-based watershed management thereby reducing the impact
of land degradation on livelihoods of farmers and ensuring food security and
sustainable land management.

Keywords; Soil erosion, Effects , Soil Erosion, Crop Productivity

v
 ABBREVIATION AND ACRONOMY
DA Development agents
FAO Food Agriculture Organization
Het hectare
Km Kilo meter
MF Mixed Farming
Mm Mili meter
SWC Soil & water conservation

vi
 1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Background
Soils of Ethiopia like other tropical countries are naturally poor in nitrogen and
phosphorus, but human induced losses of soil nutrients are significant threats to the
livelihoods of the people (Mulugeta Lemenih and Demel Teketay, 2004). It is also well
known that degraded land is characterized by loss of top soil and anchorage for plant
roots, loss of soil nutrients, breaking of critical nutrient cycles and reduced water holding
capacity of the soil (Shibru Tedela, 2003;Mulugeta Lemenih and Demel Teketay, 2004).
Of all the processes leading to land degradation, erosion by water is the most threatening.
It accounts for 56% of the total degraded land surface of the world (Oldeman et al., 2004).
However, the process being extremely variable in space and time. Soil erosion has
ecological and economic impacts at scales ranging from the field, where nutrient
depletion, degraded soil structure and lost organic matter affect farm livelihoods (Morgan,
2006). Theses sediment and nutrient loads can alter water quality and storage, and
adversely affect ecosystem function (Clark, 2003). In general the adverse influences of
widespread soil erosion on soil degradation, agricultural production, water quality,
hydrological systems, and environments have long been recognized as severe problems
for human sustainability (, 2008).Several studies (Smaling, 2003; Sanchez et al., 2007)
have documented the significance of erosion in soil functional to soil degradation, given
minimal use of soil amendments by rural farmers, has profound implications on sustained
agricultural production. According to , 2008; Mulengera and Payton, 2009, the link
between soil erosion and agricultural yields has been widely studied with most attention
paid to nutrient limitation. Soil erosion has long been a serious problem in Ethiopia,
especially in the highlands. The poor land use practices, improper management systems
and lack of appropriate soil conservation measures have played a major role for causing
soil degradation problems in the country. The degradation and loss of soil resulting from
soil erosion was estimated to be about 20 tons per hectare (Fournier, 2003 Hurni, 2005),
which means about 1 mm of soil depth per year across the country. In this regard, the Soil
Conservation Research Project (SCRP, 1996) has estimated an annual soil loss of about
1.5 billion tons by water erosion in cultivated fields from the highlands. On low input
soils, losses at this order of magnitude may cause a significant yield decrease within a
short period of time. Therefore, according to the Ethiopian Highlands Reclamation Study
(EHRS, 1984), soil erosion had been forecasted to cost the country 1.9 billion between
1985 and 2010.

1
The severity of agricultural activities, poor land management practices, mountainous and
hilly topography, torrential rainfall, and low degree of vegetative cover are some of
identified factors for soil erosion (Feoli et al., 2002). Perhaps, over the past decades, the
serious environmental degradation resulted from deforestation and subsequent soil
erosion handled to the periodic droughts and repeated crop failures even under normal
rainfall conditions. Therefore, soil and water conservation (SWC) is a requisite in the
developing countries like Ethiopia for their sustainable environment and economic
development.
1.2. Statements of the problem
The problem of fast growing population added together with limited availability of arable
land causes the people to cultivate marginal lands and to cut the forest which causes soil
erosion According to Chiro Woreda agriculture office report, soil erosion is a severe
problem in the kebele, especially where much of the population is living and agriculture
is intensive. Woreda agricultural office estimated that erosion is most severe on cultivated
lands. On the other hand, SWC measures like physical structures mainly stone or soil
bunds have been mostly implemented on cultivated lands. Even though, biophysical SWC
measure is an important to reduce soil erosion. The hypothesis here is that inadequate
investments in soil and water conservation and vegetation cover, erratic and erosive
rainfall pattern, declining use of fallow, limited recycling of dung and crop residues leads
to soil erosion and land degradation. Hence, it is worthwhile to identify the causes and
effect of soil erosion in Chiro woreda.
1.3. Objectives of the study
1.3.1 General objective:
 The study was investigate the cause and effects of soil erosion on crop
productivity in Chiro Woreda West haraghe zone

1.3.2 Specific objectives:

 To identify the main causes of soil erosion in Chiro woreda
 To assess effect of soil erosion in the study area
 To give area specific recommendations for the sustainable use of soils for
agriculture purposes

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1.4 Research question
1. How identify the main causes of soil erosion in study area?
2. How assess effect of soil erosion in the study area?
3. How give area specific recommendations for the sustainable use of soils for
agriculture purposes?
1.5 Significance of the study
Agriculture is the mainstay of the economy of Ethiopia. Currently, the government has
given special attention to the sector to play a leading role in the economic development of
the country and is pursuing Agricultural Development Led Industrialization (ADLI)
strategy. The role of the sector as an engine of economic development of the country
depends among other things on sustainable use of the land resource. The current trend of
soil degradation in the country, particularly in the highlands, is a major constraint to the
foreseen economic development of the country (, 2005).

Controlling the problem of soil erosion is important and hence soil and water
conservation intervention is plainly justifiable. However, despite the magnitude of soil
erosion and efforts to address the issue, which was starting early1970s, conservation
technologies are still not widely adopted as farmers either rejected totally or dismantled
the structures installed (Bekele, 2008). Thus, studies on adoption behavior of farmers
have practical significance particularly at the face of growing dependency on the
agricultural sector. The success and sustainability of soil conservation intervention
depends, among many things, on clear understanding of causes and extent of soil
degradation, execution of the right conservation technologies and involvement of
farmer’s on designing and implementation (Woldeamlak, 2003).
1.6. Scope of the study
The study was based on micro level analysis of the response of farmers to soil
conservation structures introduced and assesses the cause and impact of soil erosion on
agricultural productivity in Chiro woreda. The findings of the study can be extended to
other areas exhibiting similar agro-ecological and socio-economic situation with certain
level of adjustment. Nevertheless, generalization to wider areas requires precaution and
further investigation as most of factors are related to adoption of conservation differently
in different areas.

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1.7. Limitations of the study
The study has some limitations and the major ones are: The data for this study would be
obtained from a single survey due to shortage of time and fund. And farmers would show
reluctant to respond to questions related to income they get (be it from sales of crop
production, livestock or other off-farm sources).

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 2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. Definition of soil erosion
One of the earliest definitions of the term “soil erosion” was given by Bennet (2009) “the
vastly accelerated process of soil removal brought about by human interferences with the
normal equilibrium between soil building and soil removal is designated soil erosion.”
Soil erosion is one of the most challenging global environmental problems. Loss of soil
has both on-site effects, such as loss of soil fertility and lowered water holding capacity,
and off-site effects, such as siltation of reservoirs and lakes (Tamene and Vlek, 2007).
2.2 Types of Erosion
It is broadly classified into two types:
(a) Geological erosion
(b) Accelerated erosion
(a) Geological erosion
It is also called as normal or natural erosion and refers to the genesis and loss of soil
simultaneously that maintain the equilibrium between formation and losses. It takes a
long time. It is said to be in equilibrium with the soil-forming processes. The various
topographic features such as the existence of flow channels, valleys, etc. are the result of
geological erosion.
(b) Accelerated erosion
It is an excess of geological erosion and is caused by natural or man’s activities due to
variations in natural cover or in soil conditions. It takes place by the movement of gravity,
wind, water, and glaciers. Accelerated erosion depletes soil fertility in agriculture fields.
Its rates are higher than geological erosion (Suresh 2012). Water and wind are the main
agents that cause accelerated erosion. Therefore, it is classified as:

2.2.1 Types of Accelerated Soil Erosion

2.2.1.1 Water Erosion

It is the movement of the ground by rainwater that flows rapidly on the surface of the
exposed earth. It is divided into erosion of the rain, hill erosion, erosion of the flow,
erosion of the ravine, and erosion of the current. Soil water erosion is a complex process
during which the soil of the fertile soil is detached, transported, and deposited in another
place. It causes the leaching of nutrients, the deformation of the soil surface, and the
deterioration of water quality in the basins, as well as the sedimentation of water
structures and water supply and drainage systems. Even slight erosion affects the

5
conditions and yield of crops, prevents agrotechnical treatments, and can exclude the
entire area affected by agriculture (Halecki et al. 2018; Datta et al. 2017a). The intensity
of the erosion events is determined by the physiographic and hydrological factors that
prevail in a specific catchment area and the use of land and vegetation cover
(Podwojewski et al. 2008). It also depends to a large extent on geological factors, soil
type, and climate (Nadal-Romero et al. 2008).

2.2.1.2 Wind Erosion

The process of detachment and deposition of soil particles by the action of wind is called
wind erosion. In India, it happens in Rajasthan. The arid and semiarid regions where the
annual rainfall is lower are those that predominate most for wind erosion. Sand dune
formation occurs due to wind erosion. Wind erosion is an important factor in soil
deterioration, particularly in arid areas of the world ( 2001; Ravi et al. 2010; Meena and
Yadav 2015) (Fig. 3.6). The erosion and emission of dust are responsible for the organic
carbon losses from the soil and the reduction of soil nutrients (Li et al. 2008; Webb et al.
2012; Chappell et al. 2013; Verma et al. 2015b), influence on land productivity (Sterk et
al. 1996; 1998) and influence the cycles and the global terrestrial and marine
biogeochemical and marine climate (Jickells et al. 2005). Near the completion of 100
years, arid areas are believed to rise to spread to 50% of the earth’s surface. The increase
in aridity, fueled by rise in temperature and a quickly growing population, is expected to
augment soil deterioration and reduce food security, especially in arid areas of developing
countries. Measuring and monitoring wind erosion controls can ease detection and
forecasting of soil deterioration, making a basis for better management of land and
understanding the impact of leeward dust (McTainsh et al. 1990). Detection and
forecasting remain difficult prospects for large-scale monitoring and evaluation (from
regional to national) (McTainsh et al. 1990). In improving wind erosion and dust
emission model capabilities, remote sensing has been instrumental and has been used to
2.2.1.3 Raindrop Erosion
The raindrops falling on the surface are responsible for the erosion of the soil. Raindrops
striking on the surface of land cause detachment of soil particles and are carried with
flowing water. It is also known as “splash erosion.” The ground can be splashed into the
air up to a height of 50–75 cm depending on the size of the raindrops. Ellison reported
that a gradient of 10% of land would result in 75% of the sprayed soil transported along
the slope and 25% on the slope. A larger amount of soil material is sprayed toward the
slope due to gravity, relative to the slope. Spray erosion initiates with the decomposition

6
of soil masses into small fragments (Shainberg et al. 1992; Legout et al. 2005; Kumar et
al. 2018a). In the raindrop erosion, the stability of aggregate mainly depends on changes
in rain properties (Kinnell 2005; Ghahramani et al. 2012), e.g., the size and shape of the
drop, the kinetic energy, the intensity, and its different combinations (Jayawardena and
Rezaur 2000; Mena et al. 2002). Many studies have also stated that the raindrop impact
could directly knock down soil clusters and soil erosion initiates (Ekern 1951; Kinnell
1990; Van Dijk et al. 2002). Although the properties of rainfall are important factors for
influencing erosion due to splashes, as by Nearing et al. (1987), the raindrop was having
impact pressure only from 1 to 3 atm. So, it is yet not certain that the impact pressure of
the raindrop is forceful enough to plainly destroy the soil clusters. However, the erosion
of the sketches is also influenced by the properties of the soil, such as the clay content,
the organic carbon of the soil, the water content, and the cation exchange capacity in the
soil (Le Bissonnais and Singer 1992; Le Bissonnais et al. 1995; Wuddivira et al. 2009;
Meena et al. 2017c) (Fig. 3.7).

2.2.1.4 Sheet Erosion

It is defined as detachment of the fairly uniform layer of soil from the land surface by the
action of rainfall and runoff. Leaf/sheet erosion may not be evident (Fig. 3.8), but the soil
under erosion of the leaves loses a fine layer of upper fertile soil every time. The flowing
water moves in the form of a thin layer on the surface of the ground called the flow of
leaves. It moves at a very slow pace.

2.2.1.5 Rill Erosion

Rill erosion is also referred to as micro-channel erosion. Rill erosion is the elimination of
the soil by the flowing water, forming areas of small branched canals. It is a second phase
of erosion and is considered as a transitional phase between the erosion of the sheet and
the gully/ravine. The shallow groove can be a work in an ordinary way. These flows are
usually leveled each year by normal agricultural operations. Rill, and therefore soil,
erosion depends mainly on the composition of
The soil and topographic features of the earth. The erosion of the stream usually begins to
appear on the bottom of the slope. The detachment and transport of soil particles are
relatively greater in the erosion channels. In the erosion areas of the film and reticulate,
the soil separation is mainly due to impact of the drop, while sediment moment occurs
mainly by a narrow surface flow influenced by the drop. Kinnell (2005) suggested six
modes: (1) raindrop splash, (2) induced drop rolling, (3) saltation for induced drop, (4)

7
flow duct rolling, (5) flow-driven saltation, and (6) suspension (Fig. 3.9). These ways of
transport can take place simultaneously in series or in parallel, depending on the change
of the depth of the flow in space or in time. When no outflow occurs, transport is done
through the raindrop. Later when outflow occurs, the ultrathin foil flow is usually capable
of carrying away detached without impact stimulation of the drop by flux shear stress-
limited particles. The transport by rolling and/or salting induced by raindrops is a main
mode of transport when the flow is very low, what is called rainfall-induced flow
transport (RIFT) from Kinnell (2005) or rain-driven transport from Asadi et al. (2007).
When the depth and flow velocity increases, the intercalated flow has the ability to
transport the separated materials downward in revolutions or jumps without the
requirement to stimulate the raindrop (the so-called flow-driven transport). RIFT,
although more efficient compared to raindrop, is a limited transport system (Kinnell 2005;
Yadav et al. 2017a). Flow-guided transport can become a dominant system on steep
slopes and is more efficient than RIFT (Kinnell 2000). Transportation for suspension
includes rain-guided transport as well as guided flow.

2.2.1.6 Gully Erosion

It is the advanced stage of the erosion of the furrow. It is the last phase of water erosion.
When furrows are not cured, they grow in size and become ravines. The speed and degree
of development of the canal are directly proportional to the velocity of the outflow. The
ravine can be caused by overpowering, the adoption of faulty working practices,
negligence of flows, inadequate road construction, railways, etc. The erosion of ravine is
prevalent in mountain regions and has sent the attention of many researchers in the Alps
(Strunk 2003), in addition to other mountain ranges, the Andes (Coppus and Imeson 2002;
Vanacker et al. 2003; Sihag et al. 2015), or (Chaplot et al. 2005; Wu and Cheng 2005)
mountains of Asia and Africa (Morgan and Mugomezulu 2003; Moeyersons 2003; Meena
et al. 2015a), widely all over the world (Kirkby and Morgan 1978).

Due to lithology and climate, channel erosion is specifically prevalent in Mediterranean

or tropical regions. Roose and De Noni (1998) have shown that on the steep slopes of the
Mediterranean, the size of erosion, erosion of ravine surpasses the sheet erosion regarding
sediment transport and land losses. Majority of the work done in the ravine and the
laminar erosion refer to the cultivated areas. It seems that “most of the time, gullying
processes are triggered by inadequate cultivation, overgrazing, trunks of trunks” (Valentin
et al. 2005). Elsewise, it is known that the river basin and the length of slope are crucial

8
factors in the formation of the gullies. Poesen et al. (2003) have examined a large number
of studies and have shown that, in general, “the specific yield of sediments increases
when the frequency of ravines in the basin increases” but decreases when the basin
increases; his study showed that “there is a critical drainage area (A) necessary to produce
a sufficient outflow that will cause the incision of the ravine for a given gradient of the
soil surface (S).” These authors noted that changes in land use imply a decrease in plant
biomass and a reduction in soil erosion resistance through soil tillage operations.
2.3 .The major causes of accelerated soil erosion
2.3.1 Woodland clearing

Deforestation and soil degradation in Ethiopia impairing the capacity of fore stand the
land to contribute to food security and to provide other benefits such as fuel wood and
fodder (Badeg, 2001). Historical sources indicate that high forests that might have
covered about 35-40% of the total area of Ethiopia have now been reduced to 2.7%
according to recent government sources, estimates of deforestation currently “vary from
80,000 to 200,000 hectares per annum”, and the main cause is believed to be the
relentless expansion of rain-fed agriculture (EPA, 1997).

2.3.2 Poor arable land management

Ethiopian farmers still continuing implementing unscientific way of cultivation, wind and
rain are eroding the top soil. As a result of depletion of soil moisture and soil nutrients,
the soil cannot sustain plant growth (Tilahun and Eylachew, 2002). In Ethiopia, a
continuous cultivation of the land without any improvement in land management and
farming practice has led to severe soil erosion. It is widely believed that soil degradation
is mainly caused by cultivation. The Ethiopian highland reclamation study (Constable and
Belshaw, 2006) stressed the condition of land prior to sowing during the short rainy
season (belg) or during the first month of the growth is important in averting soil erosion.
Berry (2003) indicated that most arable land (70%) in the highland is in cereals, with
wheat and barley in the higher ground and teff, sorghum and maize in the lower elevation.
All these crops leave bare areas of soil during some or all of the growing season exposing
soil to erosion. Additionally, as population grows more fragile marginal lands are used.
Agricultural activities that can cause soil degradation including shifting cultivation
without adequate fallow periods, absence of soil conservation measures, cultivation of

9
fragile marginal lands, unbalanced fertilizers use, and host possible problem arising from
quality planning or management of irrigation (Eswaren, 2001).

2.3.3 Over of grazing land

Livestock density and grazing patterns lead to overgrazing, which is one of the major
causes of soil erosion. Overgrazing results when livestock density becomes excessive and
too many animals are grazed at the same area of rangeland, leading to degradation of
vegetation and the compaction and erosion of the soil. The uncontrolled browsing of trees
and shrubs is another aspect of overgrazing and a patent cause of deforestation, leading to
flooding and siltation in adjacent areas because rains are no longer held back by the
sponge effect of the trees and carry with them large loads of eroded soil (Tilahun and
Eylachew, 2002). Overgrazing also leads to soil erosion. The scarcity of grazing land and
livestock feed has forced the widespread use of crop residue to feed livestock. When crop
residues are removed for feed and cow dung is used for fuel, the soil loses organic matter
and nutrients. This breach in the soil nutrient cycle seriously depletes soil quality,
increases erosion, and eventually reduces soil productivity (MOARD, 2007).

2.3.4 Population pressure

Though there are many arguments about the population growth being the cause of soil
erosion in Ethiopia it has undoubtedly direct consequences for the environment; growing
demand for more land for crop production; for fuel wood; shortening of fallow cycles and
contribution to over cultivation. Moreover, because of high population growth, the size of
individually owned plots is shrinking in the relatively fertile highland and medium
altitudes. This diminution was lead to intensive cultivation, which was inevitably result in
a loss of soil fertility. In the absence of modern techniques for enriching the soil, and with
dung being increasingly converted into a source of fuel, the reduction in soil fertility is
imminent. This diminishing land degradation lead to reduced soil fertility and
subsequently a decline both the capacity soil to produced food and to it’s in capacity to
resist drought (Oldeman,., Hakkeling,. and Sombroek, (2004).

2.4. Effect of soil erosion

2.4.1 On-site effects:
The implications of soil erosion extend beyond the removal of valuable topsoil. Crop
emergence, growth and yield are directly affected through the loss of natural nutrients and

10
applied fertilizers with the soil. The breakdown of aggregates and the removal of smaller
particles or entire layers of soil or organic matter can weaken the structure and even
change the texture. Textural changes can in turn affect the water-holding capacity of the
soil, making it more susceptible to extreme condition such a drought (Berry2003.).

2.4.2 Off-site effects:

Off-site impacts of soil erosion are not always as apparent as the on-site effects. Eroded
soil, deposited down slope can inhibit or delay the emergence of seeds, bury small
seedling and necessitate replanting in the affected areas. Pesticides and fertilizers,
frequently transported along with the eroding soil can contaminate or pollute downstream
water sources and recreational areas (Morgan, (2006).

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 3. MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1 Description of the study area
The research was conducted Chiro woreda . It is located West Hararghe Zone and far 327
from Addis Abeba. It is located between 9°05’ longitude and 40°52’E latitude. The
woreda is founded at an altitude ranging from 1826 to 1950 m above sea level. The town
has undulating topography and mountainous characteristics with low vegetation cover
and sparsely vegetated landscapes which is highly vulnerable to erosion problems.
Drought, shortage of water, soil erosion, flooding, animal forage scarcity, and lack of
income diversity are the main threats to food security and sustainability. The 2007
national census reported a total population for this district of 169,912, of whom 87,003
were men and 82,909 were women; none of its population was urban dwellers (CSA,
2007). The agricultural activities are mainly mixed type with cattle rearing and rop
production undertaken sideways. Major annual crops include sorghum, maize, bean,
barley, teff, wheat, and pea and from cash crops Khat and Coffee are widely produced.
It has a maximum and minimum temperature of 23 and 12°C, respectively and maximum
and minimum rainfall of 1800 and 900 mm, respectively. Rainfall type is bimodal and
erratic in nature. Main rainy season of the study area is from June to September while
short rainy season is from March to May.
3.2. Source of data
Source of data that was used are primary data and secondary data. Primary data would be
obtained through interview and group discussions. The secondary data would be collected
from published and unpublished works on agriculture, situation of the study area.
3.3 Sampling techniques and Sample size
3.3.1 Sampling techniques
In the study, the researcher was use simple random sampling techniques to select the
sample of respondant, because simple random sampling gives equal chance for all
participate in the study and purposive method to get reliable data.

3.3.2 Sample size

Simple random sampling and systematic sampling techniques were used to select
respondents from Chiro woreda.

This study used (Yamane, 1967) equation formula to calculate the sample size based on
the sample required estimating a proportion with an approximate 90% confidence level
and with a 10% level of precision.

12
 Assumptions: n= N
1+N (e) 2

Where n is the sample size, N is the population size, and e is the level of precision.
Based on above formula to get the sample size the researcher calculated as follow.
648
� = 1+648 0.05 2
648
�= 1+648 (0.01)

1148
�=
7.48
� = 87
3.4 Method of data collection
Data would be collected by using primary and secondary source through preparing
structure questionnaires and observation. The household survey was conducted through
interview tools (using both structured and semi structured questionnaire). So, simple
Random sampling techniques would be used to draw sample households and their farm
fields for the study from the total household. Concerning the group interview (key
informant interview and focus group discussions), the non-probability or purposive
sampling i.e. the convenient method was be used by the researcher. With regard to focus
group discussions, the samples would be drawn on the basis of non-probability sampling
grouped as men, and women. Group discussions were carried out with key informants and
focus groups in the study area using the early prepared qualitative tools such as semi
structured questionnaires and checklists. Before conducting the survey, questionnaires
would be pre-tested to modify some of the questions which are either irrelevant, missing
or are out of context.

3.5 Method of data analysis

After the data collection would be accomplished and the procedure ended, the collected
data analysis was conducted. In analysis of the collected data, there are different methods
by which the data had been analyzed. Both primary and secondary data were collected,
processed and presented by comparing the information gathered from communities,
Agricultural experts, development agency, and different document in the office. Then
talked the truth information with simple statics a table in result that obtained this source
from different sample of respondent in the kebele. This is used to describe what the
historical main cause of soil degradation was in this particular kebele.

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 4. RESULT AND DISCUSSION
The results that obtained from the household interviews, gathering information with the
representatives of the community are presented. Additionally, field level observation,
with skills from previous education and experience in the field of soil erosion and its
effect had been incorporated the level of soil erosion and impact. This was found to be in
line with the results from the interviews of households, key informants and discussion
within respondent.
For instance (FAO, 2009) reported that the negative impacts of soil erosion, including the
removal of nutrient rich topsoil in upland areas and subsequent reduction of agricultural
productivity in those areas affected livelihoods of farmers.
4.1. Socio-demographic characteristics
Table 1; Gender of respondents
Gender Frequency Percent
Male 47 54
Female 40 46
Total 87 100
The total number of households lived in the area was 648, of which 87 households were

selected through simple random sampling. From the sampled households are not equal

sample male and female participation for obtained information about soil degradation for

the study (Table 1) .

Table 2 Age of respondent (years)

Age Frequency
Minimum 19
Maximum 65
Average 43.5

Table 2 above indicates that the age of respondents ranged from 19 to 65 years with an
average of 43.5 years. The age range of the respondents is so divers that there has been
good information gathered in relation with the problem that cause soil erosion and its
impact in rural livelihood in the study area.

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4.2. Respondents’ perceptions on soil erosion
4.2.1. Knowledge of soil erosion

The sampled households were asked to describe whether or not they were aware of
the existence of soil erosion and causes of soil erosion. Irrespective of their gender,
age and educational level, all the respondents had their own perception of the extent
of land degradation, such as the formation of gullies and land dissection as a result of
soil erosion and the associated financial implications on their livelihoods. In trying to
avert the problem in future through community mobilization, such knowledge is vital.

Table 3; knowledge of farmers on soil erosion

Knowledge of soil erosion Frequency Percentage
Yes 64 87.5
No 23 12.5
Total 87 100

Table 3 above indicates that 87.5% of the respondents have knowledge of the existence of
soil erosion and with 12.5% of the households not having noticed the existence of soil
erosion. Households understand problems when they face the challenges associated with
soil erosion such as a decline in land productivity and an increase in chemical fertilizers
that need to be applied. From the responses of the farmers, it is clear that soil erosion has
affected their livelihoods.
4.3 Forms of Soil Erosion
Table 4; Forms of Soil Erosion
Erosion Form Frequency Percentage
Splash erosion 3 12.5
Sheet erosion 7 29.166
Rill erosion 1 41.66
Gully erosion 4 16.66

Based on the responses from the interviewed households (Table 4) indicated that splash
erosion, sheet erosion, rill erosion and gully erosion are the predominant forms of soil
erosion in the study area. The number of households that identified the above mentioned
soil erosion forms as the major problems were rill erosion about 41.66%, which form soil

15
erosion from farm land in study area. These variations in soil erosion forms are in line
with what was reported by the NRCS (2006), namely that water erosion results in the
formation of rills to gullies, stream-bank cutting at the site of removal, and down-slope
deposition and sedimentation of downstream channels and water bodies. (Tripathi and
Singh, 1993) also maintained that water erosion could occur as splash, sheet, channel
(gully) and stream.
4.4. Causes of soil erosion
Table 5; cause of soil erosion
Causes of soil erosion Frequency Percentage
Deforestation 7 29.16
Steep slope cultivation 5 20.833
Continuous cultivation 2 8.33
Rapidy population growth 6 25
Poor livestock management 4 16.66

Households were aware that the causes of soil erosion were: deforestation, steep-slope
cultivation, continuous cultivation and rapidy population, poor livestock management, all
these are related to the mismanagement of the land resources such as soil and forests. The
perception of the households as to the causes of soil erosion is in line with studies
conducted by others (Titilola, 2008; Descorois, Barios, Varmantes, Polenard, Anaya, &
Esteves, 2008)), who report that the most frequent cause of land degradation and soil
erosion stem from excessive human pressure or poor management of the land,
overgrazing, over-cultivation of crop land and deforestation, are the main culprits. As
observed in table 4 above. What households perceive the consequences and livelihood
impacts of soil erosion to be is in support of the objectives of the study therefore these are
vital for programming soil conservation and reforestation activities. The development
agents assigned to the area and the experts at district level are fortunate in that the
households are willing to mobilize the community to tackle the problem.

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4.5. Consequences of soil erosion
Table 6; consequences of soil erosion
Consequences of soil Frequency Percentage
erosion
Loss of crop production 10 41.66
Gully formation 9 37.5
Loss of soil fertility 5 20.9

Table 6 above shows the responses from the households in to the effects of soil
erosion. Loss in crop production was indicated by 41.66% of the households where as
37.5% indicated that the consequence of soil erosion was gully formation. The
number of households who responded that soil erosion led to loss of soil fertility was
20.9%. All the parameters indicated in the table are consequences of soil erosion
though the degree of severity varies. The overall impact of soil erosion means a loss
of land productivity with reduced farm income which directly affects the livelihoods
of the rural population with in the area.

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 5 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1. Conclusions
Soil erosion are serious problems that negatively affect livelihoods of farmers in Ethiopia.
Members of households, selected through simple random sampling were interviewed.
Perceptions of the effects of soil erosion and cause of soil erosion were identical,
regardless of the age groups of the participants. Both gender groups were included in the
sample, with 40% being women and 60% being men. The major livelihood earners
according to household members are farming and livestock rearing. When asked about
observation of change in land productivity, the majority of the respondents indicated that
they had observed changes (decline) in production over time. Soil erosion are major
drivers of land degradation and pose key problems to livelihoods of the community
members in the study area. Sheet, rill and gully erosion are the main types of erosion
within the study area and the middle form of erosion, namely rill erosion, is the most
common type of erosion the study area. Deterioration in soil fertility as a result of severe
soil erosion is a critical deterrent to crop production and a lack of fodder has been a major
factor in the decline in livestock production. The methods used in the design of the study,
specifically the sampling and data collection both households and key informants, have
addressed the objectives of the study. In general the results are in line with previous
studies and literature. Therefore, the aim of this research has been achieved as it has been
shown that both soil erosion are negatively affect livelihoods of small farmers in the study
area. Though it is appealing to generalize the results of this study from a micro-watershed
to the overall conditions of Ethiopia, the fact that the work was conducted in a very small
area, is limiting aspect of this study. This study has also not addressed the negative effects
of land degradation on livelihood of the study area. Carrying out similar assessments in
all the agro-ecological zones of the country was supplement the results of this study.

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5.2. Recommendations
Based on the above results obtained in the present study the following recommendations
are suggested:-

 The local people should be developed awareness to soil erosion control

measurement and to manage natural resource s in appropriate way and its purpose
must be in order increase its adoption. The government should be strength the
Farmers to advice change new technical systems traditional to modern techniques
for soil and water conservation practices like terracing, counter ploughing, soil bund
and stone bund. The woreda administration must develop and enforce soil use policy
and erosion control.
 The governments should be take account from a clear understanding of the problem
that cause soil erosion .like rapidly population growth, deforestation, continuous
cultivation, poor livestock management. For those results become low crop
productivity, loss of soil fertility, reduce water and nutrient storage, pollution of
rivers, reduce yield.
 Finally the government should be to take solve problems for the above results by
using different preventions. Such as; family planning, shifting cultivation,
protection over grazing pasture land live stock management, protection of forest
areas and the educational or training program aware to the farmers.

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 6 .REFERENCES
Aklilu Dalelo .2001.Degradation of Natural Resource in Ethiopia. Assessment of
Student awareness and views. Addis Ababa.
Badeg Bishaw. 2001. Deforestation and Land Degradation in Ethiopia Highlands: A
strategy for Physical Recovery. Oregon state University Corvallis NE African
Studies Vo.8, No. 1 (New Series) 2001. pp. 7-26.
Bekele S, (2008). Peasant Agriculture and Sustainable land use in Ethiopia. Economic
Analysis of Constraints and Incentives for Soil Conservation. Agricultural
University of Norway. Dissertation no: 1998:1.
Bennett, H.H. (2009). Soil Conservation. McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York.
USA.
Berry, L. 2003. Land Degradation in Ethiopia: its extent and Impact, Commissioned by
the GM with WB support.
Clark, E.H., (2003). Soil Erosion: Offsite Environmental Effects. In Harlin, J.M. and
Bernardi,G.M. (eds.): Soil Loss: Processes, Policies, and Prospects. West View,
New York.USA.
EPA (Environmental protection Authority). 1997: The conservation strategy of Ethiopia,
volume I. The Resource Base, its utilization and Planning for sustainability. Addis
Ababa.
Eswaran, H., R. and P.F. Reich.2001. Land Degradation: An overview. In:
Bridges, E.M., I.D, Hannam, and L.R. Oldeman, F.W.T penign de vries,S.J. Scherr,
and S.Sompat panit (eds.).Responses to land Degradation.Proc. 2nd
international conference on land degradation and desertification, Khon Kaen,
Thailand. Oxford Press, New Delhi, India.

Feoli, E.(2002). Evaluation of environmental degradation in northern Ethiopia using GIS

to integrate vegetation, geomorphological, erosion and socioeconomic factors.
Agriculture, Ecosystem and Environment. 91:313-325.

Hurni, H. (2005). Erosion-productivity-conservation systems in Ethiopia.Paper to the

4thInternational soil conservation conference, Maracay, Venezuela. pp.20.
, R. (2008). Soil erosion impact on agronomic productivity and environment
quality.Critical Review. Plant Sci. 24:45-90.

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, R. (2005). Erosion–crop productivity relationships for the soils of Africa.Soil Sci.
Soc.Am. J. 59:661–667.

Morgan, R.P.C. (2006). Soil Erosion and Conservation. 2nd edition, Longman,
London.UK.
Mulengera, M.K. and Payton, R.W. (2004). Modification of the Productivity Index Model.
Soil Till. Res. 52, 11–19.
Mulugeta Lemenih and Demel Teketay (2004). Restoration of Native Forest Flora in the
Degraded Highlands of Ethiopia. SINET: Ethiop. J. Sci. 27: 75-90.

Oldeman, L. R., Hakkeling, R. T. A. and Sombroek, W.G. (2004). World Map of the
Status of Human-Induced Soil Degradation.International Soil Reference and
Information Centre (ISRIC). Wageningen, The Netherlands.
Smaling, E. (2003). Soil nutrient depletion in sub-Saharan Africa. In Van Reuler, H. and
Prins, W. (eds): The Role of Plant Nutrients for Sustainable Food Production in
Sub-Saharan Africa. Leidschendam, VKP.
Shibru Tedela (2003). Conservation for survival.Journal of the Ethiopian wild life and
National History Society, Wallia 15:3-13.
TITOLA. T, 2008. Environmental degradation and its implications for agricultural and rural
development: The issue of land erosion. Journal of Sustainable Development in
Africa, 10(2):1-31.
TRIPATHI. R AND SINGH. H, 2001. Soil Erosion and Conservation. New age International
publishers. New Delhi.
Woldamlak Bewket and Sterk, G. (2003). Assessment of soil erosion in cultivated fields
using survey methodology for rills in the Chemaga watershed, Ethiopia.
Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 97 (1-3): 81 – 93.

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 APPENDIXES
Questionnaire to assess socioeconomic dimension of the causes, problems and
Consequences of soil erosion in Chiro woreda
1. Household head characteristics
Name_________________________________
Sex__________________________ Age______________________
A. Soil erosion
1. Do perceive erosion as a problem in own farm land?
a) Yes b) No
2. If the answer is yes for the above question, how do you view the level of ero4sion on
your
Field, since you started farming?
a) Very severeb) Severec) Moderated) Slight
3. Do you observe changes in erosion intensity over the last years?
a) Has become more severeb) Has become less severe
c) No change
4. Your perception for the major cause of soil erosion?
a) Poor Arable Land Managementb) Population Pressure
c) Soil being too erodibled) Deforestation
e) Over of Grazing Land f) expansion agricultural land on arable land
5. On question no four what main cause accelerated soil erosion?
a) Deforestationb) Population Pressurec) Over of Grazing Land
d) expansion agricultural land on arable lande) Poor Arable Land Management
6. What extent of impact of erosion on crop yields?
a) Severeb) Moderatec) Has no effect
7. Whatare the effects of soil erosion in your area?
a) On- site effectb) off-site effectc) other natural depletion
8. Have you observed a decrease in soil depth due to erosion in your area?
a) Yesb) Noc) Not certain
9). Do you believe that erosion can be controlled?
a) Yesb) No
B. Soil fertility
10. Do you perceive that soil fertility is declining due to soil erosion in your area?
a) Nob) Yes

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11. How serious is the decline in soil fertility, on your main field, since you started
farming, with reference to normal year (adequate rainfall)?
a) Very severeb) Severec) Minord) No probleme) Not certain
12. On the whole, what do you think of the quality of your land in your area?
a) Very poorb) Poorc) Adequated) Fertile
13. Do you think that soil fertility loss could be controlled?
a) Yesb) No
C. Forest Resource
14. Do you plant trees on your back yard/farmland?
a) Yesb) No
15. Is there natural forest in your community?
a) Yesb) No
16. What are the major causes of disappearance of forest/trees in your community?
a) Bringing forest land into agriculture (intensive cultivation)b) Human consumption for
fuel and other necessitiesc) Livestock grazing and fodderd) Settlements
e) Other
17. Do you think that deforestation is the cause for soil erosion in your area?
a) Yesb) Noc) Not certain
18. Do you think trees protect soil from erosion?
a) Yesb) No
DSoil and Water conservation
19. What kind of soil and water conservation structures do you construct by your own on
your farmland?
a) Stone bundb) Soil bundc) crop rotationd) terracing
e) Counter practicesf) others
20. Do you think that the conservation measures you took were or are enough?
a) Yesb) No

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