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WHAT IS
LIMESTONE?

• Limestone is an organic/biological, sedimentary

rock.
• It is made up of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) which
requires clear, warm, shallow marine waters.
• Calcium carbonate CaCO3, contains calcium, carbon
and oxygen.

LIMESTONE ENVIRONMENTS
MODULE 2
TOPIC 2 1 2

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LIMESTONE LIMESTONE

• Limestone is comprised of several layers

called bedding planes.

• These have vertical cracks which are referred

to as joints.

• The presence of joints and these bedding

planes make the rock permeable.
JOINTS BEDDING PLANES

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Limestone requires an environment whereby organisms have

the ability to create calcium carbonate shells and skeletons by L I MESTONE F O RMATION-
PRECIPITATION
extracting the needed ingredients from the ocean water.

LIMESTONE • In caves, water droplets seep down from above through cracks and fissures in the cave ceiling.

F O RMATION When organisms die, their shells and other skeletal debris
accumulate along with their waste products adding
• These usually evaporate before they fall to the cave floor.

- MARINE sediments on the ocean floor.

• As the water evaporates, calcium carbonate which was dissolved in the water will be deposited on
IMPACT the cave ceiling.

• Overtime, these can accumulate on the cave ceiling.

As time progresses, these sediments are compressed into solid
rock. • Other times, it can fall to the floor and evaporate there, accumulating upward from the ground.

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L I MESTONE F O RMATION- TY PES 0F L IMESTONE-

PRECIPITATION CHALK
• Carbonic acid is when carbon dioxide mixes with water to form an acidic
solution. • This is a soft limestone comprised of a fine
texture and takes a white or light grey colour.
• Chemical weathering of limestone:
• It comprises of 97% calcium carbonate which is
(Limestone + Carbonic acid →Calcium hydrogen Carbonate solution)
formed from the remains of microscopic
marine organisms such as foraminifers or
marine algae.

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T YPES 0F LIMESTONE -
OOLITIES • This is formed by

• This is comprised of calcium carbonate precipitation of waters

T YPES 0 F
at hot springs,
oolities which are small spheres formed LIMESTONE -
by the precipitation of calcium TUFA lakeshores or other

carbonate on a sand grain or shell calcium laden water

fragment. locations.

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T YPES 0 F L IMESTONE - TY PES 0F L IMESTONE -

F OS S ILIFEROUS LITHOGRAPHIC
• The is formed from fossils whereby shell
• This is very dense and has a uniform grain
and skeletal fossils of the organisms
size which occurs in thin beds which
which produce limestone.
separate easily to form a very smooth surface.

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DEFINITION OF
DENUDATION

PROCESSES • Denudation is an erosive process which breaks down

and removes rocks from the earth’s surface.
OCCURRING IN • It is the wearing away of the land by processes of

LIMESTONE
weathering, erosion, moving water, wind and ice
waves.

AREAS • These are known as agents of denudation.

• It usually results in the lower levels of the land being
rounded which exposed rock surfaces.

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WEATHERING WEATHERING
• Weathering is the process of decomposition of rocks
• Physical weathering targets the decomposition
into smaller pieces.
and disintegration of rocks into fragments.
• This occurs “in situ” meaning that it occurs in the
• Chemical weathering results in chemical changes
rocks original place and does not encompass any
in the rock formation.
movement during weathering.
• Biological weathering focuses on the impact of
• This can be done either physically, chemically and
plants and animals in decomposing the rocks.
biologically.

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E R OSION This results in the breakdown of rocks due to its interaction

with air, water or acid which chemically alters the
composition of the rock.

Erosion can be defined as the movements of rocks and weathered This differs from physical weathering in that changes in the
materials due to natural agents such as rivers (running water),
wind and glaciers. rock is prevalent not only in size but in composition.

Mass wasting refers to the dynamic process of weathering or

loosened materials moving down slope in response to gravity. CHEMICAL These chemical weathering processes require water and the
W EATHERING higher the temperature is the more rapid its response.
This can include landslides and soil creep.

Thus, warm, damp climates such as tropical environments

This is often called mass movement. which experience high rainfall annually are integral to
chemical weathering.
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C A RBONATION
C A RBONATION
• This occurs when carbon dioxide from moisture in the Calcium Carbonate + Carbon dioxide + Water →
air reacts with carbonate minerals found in rocks. Calcium hydrogen carbonate (calcium bicarbonate)
• The result is carbonic acids which acts to break down
the rock. This is prevalent in warm, wet conditions.

• Carbon dioxide in the air can also react with water in

the form of raindrops which fall in the atmosphere.

• This generates a weak acid referred to as carbonic

acid which dissolves the rock.

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HY DROLYSIS SOLUTION
• This involves the process of acidic rainwater breaking down
• This occurs as many rock minerals are soluble and
the rock causing it to rot overtime. This results in clay and other
when they interact with water, they dissolved and are
soluble salts.
removed.
• Here, when the water reacting with minerals in the rock, the
chemical composition of the rock alters and becomes more • When the water dissolves them, the rock becomes
unstable.
structurally weakened.
• This causes the rock to become more susceptible or less
• Examples include calcium carbonate and rock salts.
resistant to decomposition.

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PHYSICAL
WEATHERING F R EEZE T HAW/ F R OST A C TION
• This is often referred to as mechanical weathering.

• This often occurs when rocks are broken down by

physical factors in the environment such as wind,
water and temperature changes.

• It does not involve any chemical change in the

composition of the rock.

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F R EEZE T HAW/ F R OST A C TION T EMPERATURE C HANGES/

E X FOLIATION
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The process of alternate
freezing and thawing of
moisture in soil, rocks
and other materials and
its associated effects on
material and structures
on the ground.
In regions with dry-
humid climates, cracks
within the rocks are
filled with water.
During the night as
temperatures drops, the
water freezes and expands.
When water freezes it
expands on average by 9%
which puts enhanced
pressure on the
surrounding rocks.
As this cycle continues
over several times, it
causes the rock to break
apart and pieces to fall
off.

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T EMPERATURE
C HANGES/
E X FOLIATION
• This a result of distinctively different daytime and nighttime
temperatures on dry rock.
• During the day in desert areas, high temperatures causes rocks RIVER
to expand slightly. E ROSION
• At night, when temperatures drop drastically, the same outer Limestone comprises of These can further erode
layers now contract slightly. bedding planes and joints limestone features especially
• This expansion and contraction continues to occur over times which allow water to flow underground.
resulting in the layers of the rock peeling away. through creating rivers.

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Limestone bedding planes can become broken

away and move downwards under the force of
LANDSLIDES
gravity resulting in landslides. • A landslide is the rapid movement of rock, earth or debris down a sloped

MASS
section of the land.

MOVEMENT • It is often the result of rain, earthquakes, volcanoes or other factors which
result in the slope being unstable.
This is further aided by frost action which breaks
apart the rock. Video of a major landslide

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S OIL CREEP
Soil creep is prevalent on gentle slopes
and is visibly evident from the wavy
surface it produces.
S OIL CREEP
• This is prevalent during the wet season in the Caribbean and usually
maintains alternating levels of expansion and contracting in response
to wetting and dry of freezing and thawing.

Here, damp soil moves in a slow- • As the sediments expand, individual particles are lifted at right angles

motion downslope due to the weight to the slope. When they freeze, get wet or heat up in the sun they

of water pushing it downwards. expand.

• When these sediments shrink, the particles fall straight back down.
Soil creep takes a long time as each particle may only move a
millimeter or centimeters at a time.

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LANDFORMS CREATED IN LIMESTONE PAVEMENTS

LIMESTONE ENVIRONMENTS
1.O N THE S U RFACE
• Limestone pavements are block-like flat surface of exposed limestone.
2.U N DERGROUND

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LIMESTONE PAVEMENTS LIMESTONE PAVEMENTS

• When glaciation occurs, glacial abrasion results in the scraping away of the topsoil leading the
bare rock underneath exposed.

• Water is able to enter cracks and the rock to the permeable/ pervious nature of limestone. This
water is a weak carbonic acid which reacts with the limestone as it travels through the rock.
This dissolves the rock while enlarging joints and bedding planes.

• On the surface, chemical weathering widens and deepens cracks to create grykes.

• The exposed blocks of limestone left behind creates clints.

• Together the pattern of blocky rocks creates a limestone pavement.

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Gorges are usually formed when the roofs of large

underground caves collapse, creating a steep-sided gorge
G O RGES A ND D RY V A LLEYS with a river flowing to the bottom.

Whereas dry valleys were formed when the ground froze

in periglacial era.

G ORGES As the land was frozen, rivers flowed over the limestone
AND DRY areas as opposed to flowing through them.
VALLEYS
This process carved out steep-sided valleys.

When the climate warmed, the river then flowed

underground leaving a dry valley behind.

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S WALLOW H OLES/ S INK H OLES/ S WALLOW H OLES/ S INK H OLES/

P OTHOLES P OTHOLES
• Water flowing in limestone areas do not travel far distances, as they often enter or infiltrate joints.

• When this joint or intersection is influenced greatly by weathering or through being dissolved, the
water is able to flow even more freely through the limestone.

• Thus, surface water will pass over the impermeable rock until it reaches the permeable limestone.

• It will then erode the vertical joints to create swallow holes.

• Overtime, the size will increase due to further erosion such as solution when the slightly acidic water
chemically weathers the limestone.

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I N TERMITTENT D R AINAGE
I N TERMITTENT D R AINAGE
• Sometimes a stream can disappear through the permeable limestone and travels
underground through caves. It will continue flowing until its reaches impermeable
rock or the top of the water table.

• The water will then flow over the impermeable rock until it reaches the surface as a
spring.

• When the limestone rock is formed over impermeable rock along a valley, several
springs can be formed especially at the intersection of two rocks. This creates a spring
line.

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Here, as the water flows underground

through sinkholes, it dissolves the limestone
CAVES along the bedding panes.

This dissolved limestone or calcium

carbonate is carried away by the water
through solution.

CAVES
This results in the formation of caverns.

A cavern is an underground cave which has

been hollowed out by the action of
underground streams and by processes of
carbonation and solution.
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S TALACTITES, S T ALAGMITES A N D
PILLARS
CAVES

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As water drips from the roof of caverns, it does so in a slow manner

and results in evaporation.
However, some drops of water can fall to the ground of the cavern,
ST ALACTITES, S T ALACTITES, splash and evaporate. This splash action spreads the calcium
ST ALAGMITES S T ALAGMITES
carbonate deposit.
AND As this water evaporates, it occurs through gas diffusion and results in AND
PILLARS solid calcium carbonate being deposited on the cavern roof.
PILLARS This then builds up on the floor. It results in features growing
upward from the ground. These are known as stalagmites.

These stalagmites and stalactites can grow towards each other and
This continues to build up over time, forming thin deposits which join to create a pillar.
grow downwards. These resemble icicles hanging from the ceiling of a
cavern. These are referred to as stalactites.

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S TALACTITES, S TALAGMITES A N D
PILLARS

KARST LANDFORMS IN THE

CARIBBEAN

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A landscape which comprises of star-shaped hollows

surrounded by steep, rounded hills, typical in tropical
karst. W HAT IS C OCKPIT KARST?
Chemical weathering in the form of carbonation and
solution is dominant resulting in enlarged joints which
WHAT IS
create cockpits.
C O CKPIT
After caves have been formed, grew and collapsed,
KARST?
formed caves form huge valleys and the limestone in
between remains as hills.
This is identifiable by a set of conical, rounded-topped
hills separated by star-shaped valleys.

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It can be described as a series of cone-liked hills with

J AMAICA- C OCKPIT C OUNTRY irregular elevations.

Jamaica karst landscape comprises of sinkholes, caves,

To the north of the Blue Mountains in Jamaica is the strongly titled limestone plateau which
has created the John Crow Mountains. caverns, disappearing streams, hills and terra rosa (residual
J A MAICA- red) soils.
C O CKPIT
The land is mainly rugged allowing the limestone layers to be broken by older rocks. There To the west of the mountains is the Cockpit Country which is
are numerous streams which rise and flow outward and sink upon reaching the limestone COUNTRY often described as a rugged terrain.
layers.

The limestone plateau covers two-thirds of Jamaica allowing karst landforms to dominate This is characterized by steep-sided hollows which are
the island. These karst areas are often created by the erosion of limestone through solution. separated by conical hills and ridges. Ridges between
sinkholes in the plateau have been dissolved to create dry
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H ISTORY The solution theory proposes that heavy tropical rainfall entering
cracks of the limestone plateau act to dissolve and erode the
Jamaica’s cockpit landforms are estimated to have begun forming
around 12 million years ago when the faulted limestone plateau cracks. This sediment is then washed away through sinkholes
emerged from the sea.
which flow into the sea.
H ISTORY
This then rose to 600m (2000 feet) above sea level.

The collapse theory states that it has been formed by the collapse
Further erosion of this plateau created the regular array of
round-topped, conical hills and sinks. of cave systems.

Here, there is erosion of chemical weathering whereby the water

flowing through limestone areas mix with calcium bicarbonate.
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J AMAICA- C OCKPIT C OUNTRY BARBADOS

• Harrison cave is a limestone cave which contains
streams, deep pools and towering columns.

• It comprises of mainly stalactites hanging from the

cave roof, stalagmites and pillars.

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LIMESTONE ENVIRONMENTS
MODULE 2
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TOPIC 2 62

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