Introduction to

magma and
lava
Magma and lava are two closely related geological
phenomena that play a crucial role in shaping the
Earth's surface and the formation of various rock types.
Magma is the molten, or semi-molten, material found
beneath the Earth's surface, while lava is the extrusive
form of magma that flows out onto the surface.
Understanding the properties and behaviour of magma
and lava is essential for geologists, volcanologists, and
those studying the Earth's dynamic processes.

by Ali Essa kh
What is magma?
Magma is the molten, or semi-molten, material found beneath the Earth's surface. It is a complex,
high-temperature mixture of partially molten rock, dissolved gases, and suspended crystals that
forms deep within the Earth's crust and upper mantle. Magma is the primary source of volcanic
activity, as it is the material that is forced upwards through the Earth's surface during volcanic
eruptions. The composition and properties of magma, such as its viscosity, temperature, and gas
content, play a crucial role in determining the type and behaviour of volcanic eruptions.
Composition of magma
Magma is a complex, heterogeneous mixture composed of several key components. The primary
constituents of magma are:

Silicate minerals: These are the most abundant components, including quartz, feldspar,
pyroxene, and olivine. The relative proportions of these minerals determine the silica content
and viscosity of the magma.

Dissolved gases: Magma can contain significant amounts of dissolved gases, such as water
vapour (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2), and others. The gas content plays a
crucial role in the explosive potential of volcanic eruptions.

Suspended crystals: Magma often contains solid crystals of minerals that have already formed
and are suspended within the molten matrix. The presence and abundance of these crystals
affect the viscosity and flow behaviour of the magma.

The specific composition of magma can vary greatly depending on factors such as the depth of
origin, the temperature and pressure conditions, and the degree of differentiation (the separation of
minerals based on their density). This compositional diversity leads to the formation of a wide range
of igneous rocks with distinct properties and appearances.
Viscosity of magma
The viscosity of magma is a crucial property that determines its flow behaviour and the nature of
volcanic eruptions. Viscosity refers to the resistance of a fluid to flow, and in the case of magma, it is
influenced by several factors, including the chemical composition, temperature, and the presence of
suspended crystals.

Magmas with a high silica content, such as rhyolitic and dacitic magmas, tend to have a higher
viscosity, making them more resistant to flow. These magmas are typically associated with
explosive volcanic eruptions, as the high viscosity inhibits the efficient escape of dissolved gases,
leading to a buildup of pressure within the magma chamber. In contrast, magmas with a lower silica
content, such as basaltic magmas, have a lower viscosity and are more fluid, allowing for the easy
escape of gases and the formation of effusive, less explosive eruptions.

The temperature of the magma also plays a significant role in its viscosity. As the temperature
increases, the viscosity of the magma decreases, making it more fluid and easier to flow. This is
because higher temperatures cause the mineral crystals within the magma to melt, reducing the
overall resistance to flow. Conversely, as the magma cools, its viscosity increases, leading to a more
viscous, less mobile material.

The presence of suspended crystals within the magma can also affect its viscosity. The more
crystals present, the higher the viscosity of the magma, as the crystals act as obstacles to the flow
of the molten material. This is particularly important in the later stages of magma crystallization,
when the proportion of crystals increases, leading to a significant increase in viscosity and a
potential change in the style of volcanic eruption.
Temperature of
magma
The temperature of magma is a crucial factor that
determines its physical properties and behaviour.
Magma can have a wide range of temperatures, typically
ranging from around 700°C (1,292°F) for the most silica-
rich, viscous magmas, to over 1,200°C (2,192°F) for the
more fluid, basaltic magmas. The temperature of
magma is primarily influenced by the depth of its origin
within the Earth's crust and mantle, as well as the
specific chemical composition of the molten material.

Deeper within the Earth's interior, where temperatures

and pressures are higher, magma tends to be hotter. As
magma rises towards the surface, it may undergo
cooling and crystallisation, which can further affect its
temperature. The rate of cooling is influenced by factors
such as the rate of ascent, the surrounding rock
temperature, and the presence of water or other
volatiles in the magma. Faster-rising magmas tend to
retain more of their initial high temperatures, while
slower-moving magmas have more time to cool and
crystallise, resulting in lower temperatures.

The temperature of magma is a critical factor in

determining its viscosity and flow behaviour. Hotter,
more fluid magmas tend to be less viscous and can flow
more easily, often producing effusive, less explosive
eruptions. Cooler, more viscous magmas, on the other
hand, are more resistant to flow and can lead to more
explosive volcanic events as the buildup of gases within
the magma chamber is inhibited. Understanding the
temperature of magma is, therefore, essential for
predicting and managing the potential hazards
associated with volcanic activity.
Pressure and magma
The pressure within the Earth's interior plays a crucial role in the formation and behavior of magma.
As you delve deeper into the Earth's crust and mantle, the weight of the overlying rock and the
increasing temperature create immense pressure conditions. This pressure has a significant impact
on the physical properties and movement of magma.

The high pressure found at greater depths helps to keep the magma in a molten state, even at
temperatures that would normally cause the rock to solidify. This is because the pressure
suppresses the melting point of the minerals, allowing the magma to remain liquid. As magma rises
towards the surface, the decrease in pressure causes the dissolved gases within the magma to
expand and potentially contribute to explosive volcanic eruptions.

The composition of the magma also influences how it responds to changes in pressure. Magmas
with a higher silica content, such as rhyolitic and dacitic magmas, tend to be more viscous and less
able to escape the confines of the magma chamber. This can lead to a buildup of pressure, which
may ultimately result in a more explosive eruption. In contrast, less viscous, basaltic magmas can
more easily accommodate pressure changes and often produce effusive, less violent eruptions.

Understanding the relationship between pressure and magma is crucial for volcanologists and
geologists to predict the behavior of volcanic systems. By monitoring changes in pressure within
the Earth's interior, they can gain valuable insights into the potential for volcanic activity and the
likely style of eruptions, allowing for more effective hazard assessment and risk management.
Magma movement and eruption
Magma Generation
Magma is generated deep within the
Earth's interior, typically in the upper
mantle or lower crust, where high Magma Migration
temperatures and pressures cause As the magma rises, it encounters
the partial melting of rocks. This zones of lower pressure, which
molten material, enriched with causes the dissolved gases to expand
various minerals and dissolved gases, and potentially contribute to explosive
begins to rise upwards due to its lower volcanic eruptions. The magma's
density compared to the surrounding movement is influenced by factors
solid rock. such as the Earth's tectonic activity,
the presence of fractures or faults in
the crust, and the viscosity of the
Volcanic Eruptions magma itself.
When the magma reaches the Earth's
surface, it can erupt in a variety of
ways, depending on the properties of
the magma and the surrounding
environment. Effusive eruptions,
characterized by the relatively gentle
flow of lava, occur when the magma is
less viscous and the gases can
escape easily. Explosive eruptions, on
the other hand, happen when the
magma is more viscous and the
gases are unable to escape, leading to
a buildup of pressure that is suddenly
released in a violent manner.
Lava: the extrusive form of magma
Lava is the molten, or semi-molten, rock that flows out onto the Earth's surface during a volcanic
eruption. It is the extrusive form of magma, the hot, fluid material found deep within the Earth's
crust and mantle. When magma rises to the surface and is released from the confines of the Earth, it
becomes lava, which can take on a variety of forms and behaviours depending on its composition
and the conditions of the eruption.

The key difference between magma and lava is that lava is the surface expression of the molten
material, whereas magma remains underground until it is erupted. Lava retains many of the same
properties as its magmatic counterpart, such as temperature, viscosity, and chemical composition,
but the change in pressure and environment as it reaches the surface can lead to significant
changes in its appearance and behaviour.

Lava can range from highly fluid, basaltic flows that move quickly across the landscape, to thick,
viscous rhyolitic lava domes that slowly extrude from the vent. The speed and distance that lava can
travel is largely determined by its viscosity, which is influenced by factors like silica content,
temperature, and the presence of dissolved gases. Lower-viscosity lavas tend to be more mobile
and can cover large areas, while higher-viscosity lavas often form steeper, more rugged flows.

The extrusion of lava onto the Earth's surface is a key process in the formation of new landforms and
the shaping of volcanic landscapes. Lava flows can build up shield volcanoes, construct lava domes,
and even create new islands. The interaction between lava and the surrounding environment, such
as water or pre-existing topography, can also lead to the formation of unique volcanic features like
lava tubes, pahoehoe flows, and aa flows.
Types of Lava Flows

Pahoehoe Lava Aa Lava Flows Block Lava Lava Flow

Flows In contrast to the Flows Diversity
Pahoehoe lava flows smooth pahoehoe Block lava flows are a The diverse range of
are characterized by flows, aa lava flows type of lava flow that is lava flow types
their smooth, ropy are characterized by a characterized by the reflects the complex
surface texture, which rough, jagged surface presence of large, interplay between the
is created as the lava texture. This is due to angular blocks of physical and chemical
cools and solidifies. the higher viscosity of solidified lava. These properties of the
These types of lava the lava, which causes blocks are typically molten material, as
flows are typically the surface to cool formed when the lava well as the
associated with and solidify quickly, cools and fractures, environmental
basaltic eruptions and forming a brittle crust creating a more conditions in which
are known for their that is then broken up rugged and uneven the eruptions occur.
ability to travel long by the continued surface. Block lava Understanding the
distances due to their movement of the flows are often different lava flow
relatively low underlying molten associated with more characteristics is
viscosity. Pahoehoe material. Aa flows are viscous, silica-rich crucial for
flows often develop often associated with lava types, such as volcanologists and
intricate surface more viscous, silica- rhyolite, and can be geologists, as it allows
patterns and can even rich lava types, such found in a variety of them to better predict
form lava tubes as the as andesite and volcanic the behaviour and
outer crust solidifies dacite, and tend to be environments, potential hazards
while the interior less mobile than their including shield associated with
remains molten and pahoehoe volcanoes and lava volcanic activity, and
continues to flow. counterparts. domes. to develop more
effective strategies for
monitoring and
mitigating the risks
posed by these
dynamic geological
processes.
Hazards associated with magma and
lava
Magma and lava, the molten materials that drive volcanic activity, pose a range of hazards that can
have devastating consequences for nearby populations and infrastructure. Understanding these
risks is crucial for effective disaster preparedness and mitigation strategies.

1. Explosive Eruptions: Highly viscous, silica-rich magmas can lead to explosive volcanic
eruptions, where the rapid expansion of dissolved gases can propel volcanic ash, rocks, and lava
fragments into the air at high velocities. These explosive events can cause widespread
destruction, injury, and even loss of life within the affected areas.

2. Lava Flows: Regardless of their viscosity, lava flows can pose a significant threat as they slowly
advance across the landscape, destroying everything in their path. Faster-moving, low-viscosity
lava flows can cover large areas, while slower, more viscous flows can create towering,
impassable obstacles.

3. Pyroclastic Density Currents: These high-density, ground-hugging flows of superheated gas

and volcanic material can travel at speeds exceeding 450 km/h (280 mph), engulfing and
incinerating everything in their path. Pyroclastic density currents are among the most deadly
volcanic hazards, with little to no chance of survival for those caught in their path.

4. Ash and Tephra Fallout: Explosive eruptions can eject vast quantities of volcanic ash and
tephra (fragmented rock) into the atmosphere, which can then settle over wide areas, collapsing
buildings, disrupting transportation, and posing a significant health hazard to those exposed.

5. Lahars and Mudflows: Heavy rainfall or the sudden melting of snow and ice can trigger lahars,
or volcanic mudflows, which can flow rapidly down the flanks of volcanoes, sweeping away
everything in their path. These hazards can be particularly dangerous as they can travel long
distances and continue to pose a threat even after the initial eruption has ended.

Mitigating the risks associated with magma and lava requires a multifaceted approach, including
robust early warning systems, comprehensive evacuation plans, and ongoing monitoring and
research to better understand the complex behaviour of these dynamic geological processes. By
working to enhance our preparedness and resilience, we can strive to protect vulnerable
communities and minimize the devastating impacts of volcanic hazards.