i

saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com

CHEMI
STRY
FORM1NOTES
UNIT1: I
NTRODUCTI ONTOCHEMI STRY.
UnitChecklist .
Meaningofchemi stry
 Mat ter
 Stat esofmat ter
 Proper t
iesoft hedi fferentstatesofmat ter
.
 Conduct orsandnon- conduct ors
Roleofchemi stryi nsoci ety.
Laborat
oryr ules.
 Necessi tyf orl abor atoryrules.
 Thel abor at oryr ulesandr egul at
ions.
 Labor at or ysaf et ysymbol s.
Commonappar at ususedi nachemi strylabor
ator
y.
TheBunsenbur ner .
 Struct ur e
 Funct ionsoft hev ari
ouspar t
s.
 Ty pesofBunsenbur nerf l
ames.
Methodsofgascol l
ect ion.
 Upwar ddel ivery
 Downwar ddel i
v ery
 Ov erwat er
 Usi ngacol lectingsy r i
nge.
Dryi
ngofgases
 Usi ngconcent ratedsul phuricacid.
 Usi nganhy drouscal cium chlor i
de
 Usi ngcal cium oxi de.
Drugsanddr ugabuse.
Meaningofchemi stry .
-I
tisabr anchofsci encewhi chdeal swi t
ht hecomposi
ti
onandpr
oper
ti
esofmat
ter
.

Matt
er
-Matt
eri
sany
thi
ngt
hathasmassandoccupi
esspace.

St
atesofmatter
.
-Matt
erexi
stsinthr
eedi
ff
erentst
ates:
sol
i
ds,
li
qui
dsandgases.

Pr
oper
ti
esoft
hedi
ff
erentst
atesofmat
ter
.

Sol
i
d Liquids Gases
Mass Def
ini
te Definite Defini
te
Shape Def
ini
te Indefini
te:t
heyt
akethe Indefi
nit
e:theytaket
he
volumeoft hecont
aineri
n shapeoft hecontai
neri
n
whicht heyarei
n. whichtheyar e.
Vol
ume Def
ini
te Definite Indefi
nit
e:volumemay

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 1
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com
i
ncr
easewithincreasein
t
emperat
ure;anddecr ease
wi
thdecr
easei npressure

Note:Conductor
sandnon- conductor
s:
-Theflowofelectr
iccurr
entthroughmat er
ialsi
scalledelectr
icalconduct
ivi
ty.
-Soli
dsubstanceswhichallowelectr
iccurrentt
of l
owt hroughthem arecal
ledconduct
ors.
-Soli
dsubstancesthatdonotal l
owelectri
ccurrenttoflowthroughthem arecall
ednon-
conductor
s.

Roleofchemist
ryi
nasoci ety.
-Chemistr
yhasenabledext r
acti
onofchemi calsf
rom plant
s.
-Iti
susedinthemanuf act
ureofsubstancessuchassoap, glass,
plasti
cs,medi
cine,
rubber
,
text
il
esetcfr
om nat
ur al
lyoccurr
ingsubstances.
-Puri
fi
cati
onofsubstancesf r
om natural
rawmat eri
als.
-Itf
ormsabasisforentryintocareer
se.g.teachi
ng,medici
ne,chemicalengi
neer
ingetc.

Laborat
oryr
ulesandsaf etysy mbol s.
Necessi
tyoflaboratorysafet
yr ules.
1.Toavoidaccidentsandinjuriesduringpracti
calexper
imentsi
nthelabor
ator
y.
2.Toavoiddamaget oandbr eakageofappar atusandlabor
ator
yfi
tt
ings.
3.Toavoidwast ageoflaboratorychemi cal
s.

Thelabor at orysaf etyr ulesandr egul at i

ons.
-Nev errunwhi l
ei nt hel abor ator y;
Reason: Youmayi njur eot her sory our selfinthel abor atory.
-Nev ertast eoreatsomet hingi nt hel abor atory ;
Reason: toav oidpoi soni ng.
-Alway sconsul ty ourt eacherbef oret r
y i
ngoutanyexper iment ;soast oav oidacci dents.
-Label allchemi cal sinusesoast oav oidconf usi on.
-Alway suseacl eanspat ulaf orscoopi ngasubst ancef rom acont ainert omi nimize
contami nat i
on.
-Alway shol dt est -tubesandboi li
ngt ubesusi ngt estt ubehol derwhenheat ing; t
oav oidbeing
burned.
-Whenheat ingasubst ancenev erl ett heopenendoft hetubef acey our sel
forany bodyelse,
becauset hel i
qui dmayspur toutandcausei nj ur y.
-Nev erlookdi rect l
yi ntof lasksandt estt ubeswher ereactionsar et akingpl ace,becauset he
chemi calsmayspur tintoy ourey esandcausei njur y.
-Nev ersmel lgasesdi rect l
y .Inst ead, waf tthegaseousf umesneary ournosewi thy ourhand.
-Exper i
ment sinwhi chpoi sonousgasesandv apour sarepr oducedmustbecar ri
edouti naf ume
cupboar doranopenspaceout door s.
-Alway skeepf lammabl esubst ancesawayf rom f lamesbecauset heyeasi l
ycat chf ire.
-Alway srepor tanyacci dent stot het eacherort hel aboratoryt echniciani mmedi atelyf or
necessar yact ion.
-Incaseofanacci dentdonotscr ambl efort hesameexi t,becausei tmayhi ndereasyescape.
-Alway sputof ff lamest hatar enoti nusei nor dert oav oidacci dentsandmi nimizef uelwast age.
-Ifachemi cal get sony ourski normout hr i
nsei timmedi atelywi thal otofwat er.
-Alway sdi sposeof ft hechemi cal sal readyusedsaf el
ytoav oidexpl osionsandcont aminations.
-Alway swor konacl eanbench.Af tercompl et ingy ourexper iment ,cleanall t
hepi ecesof
appar at
usy ouhav eusedandr et ur nt hem t ot hei rcor r
ectst or agepl aces.
Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 2
 i
sabokemic
ah@gmail
.
com
-Al
way
sreadt
hel
abel
oft
her
eagent
sbef or
eusingt
hem.

Safet
ysymbols.
-Thesear
esignsfoundont helabelsofbott
lesorcar
tonscontai
ningdanger
ouschemi
cal
s.
-Thecommonsaf etysymbol sareasf ol
lows:
Symbol
s Meani ng.
Toxic:areverypoisonousandcaneasilyki
ll
if
swallowed,inhaledoroncontactwit
htheskin.
Exampl es:Chlori
neandmer cury
;

Har mful:Lessharmful(danger
ous)t
hant hetoxi
c
substances; ar
eonlyli
kelytocausepainand
discomf ort
.
Exampl es:copper(I
I)sulphat
e,l
ead(I
I)oxide

Highl
yflammable:
aresubst
ancesthatcat
chfi
re
easil
yandmustnotbehandlednearopenfi
re.
Examples:et
hanol
,hydr
ogen

Oxidi
zi
ng:rapi
dlyprovideoxy
genandcancause
fi
retoburnmorefiercely
.
Examples:pot
assium manganat
e(VII
),hy
drogen
peroxi
de

Corrosi
ve:ar
esubstancest hatcauseburnst o
skinandfabri
c;andcanal soreactwithother
substancessuchasmet als
Examples:ni
tri
c(V)aci
d, conc.sulphuri
cacid,
bromine.

Ir
ri
tant:cancausebli
ster
sorreddeni
ngofthe
skin;
usuallyi
rri
tat
etherespi
rat
orytr
act
,ski
n,
eyesetc.
Examples:calci
um chl
ori
deandzincsul
phate

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 3
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com

CommonChemi
str
ylabor
ator
yappar
atusandt
hei
ruses.

Nameofappar
atus Di
agr
am. Use.
Testt
ubes -General
labor
atoryexper
iments;
li
ke
heat
ingsoli
ds;qual
it
ati
veanaly
sisetc

Boi
l
ingt
ubes -Mainl
yusedf
orheat
ingsmal
lamount
s
ofsoli
dsandl
i
qui
ds.

Testt
ubehol
der Usedforhol
dingt
esttubesandboi
l
ing
tubesdur
ingheat
ingexper
iment
s.

Measur
ingcy
li
nder -Measuri
ngaccurat
evol
umesofl
i
qui
ds
i
nthelaborat
ory

Beaker -Glassbeaker
sareusedforboi
l
ing
-Lippedglassor l
iquidsubst
ances;
plasti
cvesselsof -Holdi
ngsolut
ionsdur
ingchemist
ry
variouscapacit
ies. experi
ments.

Fi
l
ter
ingf
unnel -Di
recti
ngli
qui
dsi
ntocont
ainer
swi
th
smallnar
rowmout
hs;
Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 4
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
ma il
.
com
-Holdi
ngf
il
terpaper
sdur
ingf
il
tr
ati
on;

Nameofappar
atus Di
agr
am Use
St
ir
ri
ngr
od

Wat
chgl
ass

Ther
momet
er -Measuri
ngtemper
atur
esdur
ing
exper
iments.

Coni
cal
flask -Normal labor
ator
yexper
imentsl
ike
ti
trat
ion.
-Maybeusedf ormeasur
ingvol
umesif
graduated.

Round-
bot
tomed -Usedwhenheati
ngli
qui
dsubstances
fl
ask becauseheati
ssuppl
i
eduni
formly.

Fl
at-
bot
tomedf
lask -Usedforgener
all
abor
ator
y
exper
iments.

Ev
apor
ati
ngdi
sh -Usedwhenev
apor
ati
ngl
i
qui
ds.

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 5
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com

Nameofappar
atus Di
agr
am Use
Cruci
ble -Usewhenheati
ngsoli
dsubst
ances
thatr
equi
rest
rongheat
ing.

Pest
leandmor
tar -Cr
ushingsubstanceswhi
let
hemor t
ar
hol
dsthesubstancesbei
ngcrushed.

Pieclay(cer
ami
c) -Suppor
ti
ngcr
uci
blesdur
ingheat
ing.
tr
iangle

Tr
ipodst
and -Support
ingbeaker
sandflasksin
whichli
quidsar
ebeingheated.

Wi
regauze -Usedwhengl assapparatusarebeing
heated;t
ofacil
it
ateevendistr
ibut
ionof
heatwhenheat i
ngsubstancesin
beakersorfl
asks

Cl
amp -Support
ingandhol
dingpi
ecesof
apparat
usduri
ngexperi
ments.

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 6
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com

Nameofapparat
us Di
agr
am Use
Def
lagr
ati
ngspoon -Hol
dingbur
ningsubst
ances.

Spat
ula -Scoopingsol
i
dsubst
ancesf
rom
contai
ners

Cr
uci
blet
ongs -Hol
dingsol
i
dchemi
cal
s.

Condenser

Separ
ati
ngf
unnel -Separ
ati
ngi
mmi
sci
blel
i
qui
ds.

Thi
stl
efunnel -Del
iver
ingl
iqui
dsubstancesint
oother
cont
ainersl
i
keflasksdur
ingreact
ions.

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 7
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com

Nameofappar
atus Di
agr
am Use
Washbot
tl
e -Hol
dingwat
erf
orr
insi
ngappar
atus

Dr
oppi
ngf
unnel

Testt
uber
ack -Hol
dingboi
l
ingt
ubesandt
estt
ubes.

Teatpi
pett
e -Sucki
ngli
quidchemicalsandplaci
ng
(dr
opper
) them i
nanothercont
ainerdropwi
se.

Buret
te -Del
i
ver
ingaccur
atev
olumesofl
i
qui
ds
-I
tconsistsofa
l
ongnar r
owt ube
wit
hat apandaj et
att
hebot t
om.

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 8
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com

Nameofappar
atus Di
agr
am Use
Pi
pet
te -Deli
veri
ngaspeci
fi
edv
olumeofl
i
qui
d
accurat
ely.

Gasj
ar -Gascol
l
ect
ion.

Tr
ough -Hol
dingsomeamountofwaterf
or
someexperi
ment
se.g.gaspr
eparat
ion.

Reagentbot
tl
es -St
ori
ngchemi
cal
sinl
i
qui
dst
ate.

Desi
ccat
or -Dryi
ngsubst
ancesorkeeping
subst
ancesfr
eefrom moist
ure.

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 9
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com

Nameofappar
atus Di
agr
am Use
Spi
ri
tlamp -Heat
ingsubst
ancesi
nthel
abor
ator
y.
Note:l
esspr efer
redf or
heati
ngbecauset heirfl
ames
arenothotenough; andthey
depositsootonappar at
us
makingt hem dir
tyhence
di
ffi
cultyinobservingchanges
duri
ngexper i
ment s

Ker
osenest
ove -Heat
ingsubst
ancesi
nthel
abor
ator
y.
Note:l
esspr efer
redf or
heati
ngbecauset heirfl
ames
arenothotenough; andthey
depositsootonappar at
us
makingt hem dir
tyhence
di
ffi
cultyinobservingchanges
duri
ngexper i
ment s

El
ect
ri
cheat
er -Heat
ingsubst
ancesi
nthel
abor
ator
y.

Candl
es -Heat
ingsubst
ancesi
nthel
abor
ator
y.
Note:l
esspr efer
redf or
heati
ngbecauset heirfl
ames
arenothotenough; andthey
depositsootonappar at
us
makingt hem dir
tyhence
di
ffi
cultyinobservingchanges
duri
ngexper i
ment s

Bunsenbur
ner -Heat
ingsubst
ancesi
nthel
abor
ator
y.

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 10
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com

Nameofapparat
us Di
agr
am Use
St
opwatch(cl
ock) -Measuri
ngtimepar
ti
cular
lyin
det
erminat
ionofr
eacti
onrates.

Beam bal
ance -Totakeaccur
atewei
ght
measurements

El
ect
roni
cbal
ance -Takeaccur
ateweightmeasur
ements;
andcantakeextr
emelylowweight
measurements.

Vol
umet
ri
cfl
ask

Note:mostchemi st
ryapparat
usaremadeofgl ass:
Advantagesofglassware:
-I
tdoesnotr eactwit
hmostchemi cal
s
-Glassistr
ansparentandhencereact
ionscaneasil
ybeobservedast
heypr
ogr
ess.
-Glassmaterial
sareeasytowashandr inseaf
terexper
iment
s.
-Theycanbeusedcomf ort
ablei
nheatingexperi
ments.

Disadvantages:
-Hav ehigherchancesofbreakagesi
ncasetheyf
all
dur
ingexper
iment
s.
-Theyarecompar at
ivel
yexpensiv
etopl
asti
cs

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 11
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com

-Somemat eri
alsli
kebeakersmayhowev
erbemadeofpl
ast
ics.
Advant
agesofpl ast
icapparatus.
-Havelowerchancesofbr eaking.
-Theyarerel
ati
velycheapertobuy .

Disadvant
ages:
-Plast
icstendtoreactwithsomelaborat
orychemicals
-maynotbet ransparentandhencereact
ionscannoteasil
ybeobser
vedast
heypr
ogr
ess.
-Glassmat er
ial
sarediffi
cul
ttowashandr i
nseafterexper
iment
s.
-Theycannotbeusedi nheatingexper
iments.

TheBunsenburner.
-i
sthemostcommonheat i
ngapparatusi
nthel
abor
ator
y.
-Wasinvent
edbyaGer manscient
istknownasWil
hel
m Bunsenhencet
hename.
-I
tusesnatur
al(cooki
ng)gasf
orheat i
ng.

Part
sofabunsenbur
ner
-Chimney
-Theairhole
-Coll
ar
-Thejet
-Base
-Gasinlet
Di
agr
am:
str
uct
ureofabunsenbur
ner
. Di
agr
am:
Bunsenbur
ner
-component
sdet
ached

Funct i
onsofthevar
iousparts:
 Thechi mney:
-Itisahollowmetal
li
ccy l
i
nderwi t
hanairholeneari
tslowerend.
Funct i
on:
-allowsairandthel
aboratorygasfrom t
hejetmixbef
oretheystar
tbur
ningatt
heupperendof
thechimney .
-Itsupperopenedendprov i
dedasitewherethegasburns.

 Theairhole:
-I
sasmall
aperturefoundatthel
owerendofthechi
mneyandsmal
l
ert
hant
hecol
l
ar.
-I
tsdi
amet
er(size)i
sregul
atedbythecol
lar
.
Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 12
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com
Functi
on:
-All
owsair(
oxy
gen)t
oent
erandmi
xwi
tht
hel
abor
ator
ygasi
nthechi
mney
.

 Thecol lar:
-Isamet all
i
cringwi t
hanairhol
ewhosediameteri
st hesamesizeast
hatoft
heai
rhol
einthe
chimney .
-Itf
it
si ntot
hel owerpar
tofthechi
mney;andcanrotatearoundt
hechi
mneyopeni
ngorcl
osi
ng
theairhol e.
Function:
-Regul atestheamountofairenter
ingt
hechimney.

 Thej et:
-I
tisav erytinyopeni
ngjustbel
owt heairhole,
thatconnectst
hegasi nl
ett
othechi
mney
.
Functi
on:
-al
lowst helaborat
orygas(methane)int
ot hechimneyathighpressur
e.

 Thegasi nl
et:
-I
tisaholl
owmet al connect
edtothebaseandext endi
ngint
othej et
.
-I
tsexter
nalopeningisusuall
yconnectedt
oar ubbertubi
ngthatisconnectedt
oagast ap.
Functi
on:
-All
owslaborat
orygasf rom t
hecyl
inders(
reser
voirs)i
nthel
ab;throughthegastapsi
ntothe
Bunsenburner.

 Thebase:
-Athi
ckheavymetal
,thati
susuall
ycir
cularorov
al.
Funct
ion:
-I
tsupport
stheBunsenburneronthebench.

TheBunsenburnerfl
ames.
-Aflameisamassofbur ninggases.
-Abunsenburnercanproducetwot ypesoff
lamesdependi
ngont
hesi
zeoft
heai
rhol
eand
henceamountofairent
eringthechimney.

Ty
pesoff
lames.
 Luminousfl
ame.
 Non-l
uminousf
lame.

(a).Theluminousfl
ame.
-Itisalargebri
ghtyel
l
owfl
amepr
oducedwhent
heai
rhol
eiscl
osedandhencenoai
rent
erst
he
chimney .

Charact
eri
sti
csofal uminousf l
ame.
-I
tislar
ge,quietandbri
ghty ell
ow.
-Col
ourisnotunifor
m andi tahsfourzones.
-I
tproduceslessheat.
-I
tgivesalotofli
ghttothegl owofunburnthotcar
bonpar
ti
cles
-I
tproducessoot.

Di
agr
am:
thel
umi
nousf
lame.

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 13
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com

Part
sofal umi nousf l
ame.
 Thet hinout erzone:
-Isafair
lyvisi
ble,narrowzoneontheout
ersur
faceofthefl
ame.
-Atthispoi
ntmet hane(labgas)mi
xeswi
thsuf
fici
entai
rfr
om t
heout
sideandbur
nscompl
etel
y
tocarbon(IV)oxideandwat er.

 Thei nnerbrightyellowzone:
-I
tisal argebri
ghty ell
owzonet hatl
iesbeneat ht
het hinouterzone.
-Here,airsupplyi
si nsuff
icientresulti
ngtoi ncompletecombust i
onoft hegas.
-Consequent l
ythegasbur nspr oducingtinycarbonpar ti
clesinsteadofcarbon(I
V)oxide.
-Thewhi tehotcarbonpar ticlesglowbr i
ghtlyandarer esponsiblefortheyell
owcolourandthe
emissionoflight.
-Oncool i
ngt hecarbonpar ticlesform soot,whichblackenst hebot t
om oftheapparat
usbeing
heated.

 Thealmostcol
ourl
essinnerzone.
-I
sfoundbel
owtheyel
lowinnerzone;andconsi
stsmai
nlyofunbur
ntgases.

 Thebluezone(r
egi
on)
-I
sfoundont heout
ersi
deofthebaseofthefl
ame.
-Here,
airneart
hefl
amerisesr
apidl
yduetoconvect
ioncur
rent
sandmixeswi
tht
hebur
ninggas.
-Thi
smakesbur ni
ngmorecompletethani
nthetwoupperpart
sabov
eit.

Advant
agesoftheluminousfl
ame:
-Canbeusedforli
ghti
ngpurposes;
becausei
tpr
oducesmor
eli
ght
.

Disadvant
ages.
-Produceslessheathencei
nef
fi
cienti
nheati
ng.
-Duetoproductionofsooti
tbl
ackensappar
atusthuspr
event
ingbet
terobser
vat
ionsof
experi
ments.

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 14
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com

(b).Thenon-l
uminousf
lame.
-Itisasmallbluef
lameproducedwhent
heai
rhol
eiscompl
etel
yopenandhenceal
otofai
r
entersthechi
mney .

Charact
eri
sti
csofanon- l
uminousf l
ame.
-I
tissmall,
noisyandbl ue.
-Col
ourisuniform anditahsthreeregions.
-I
tproducescompar ati
velymore( alotof)heat.
-I
tdoesnotpr oducesoot ,
duetocompl etecombusti
onhencenocar
bonpar
ti
clesr
emai
n.
-I
tproduceslessli
ghtduet olackofwhi te-hotcar
bonpar
ti
cles.
Di
agr
am:
thel
umi
nousf
lame.

Part
sofanon- luminousfl
ame.
 Theout erpalebl
ueregion.
-I
tisalargeli
ghtbluezone.
-Here,
thereisalotofaircomi ngupthechimneyfrom t
heairhol
eandf
rom t
heout
side.
-Theairgasmi xt
urethusburnscompl et
elytocar
bon( I
V)oxi
deandwater
.
-Nosootf or
mat i
onbecauset herear
enocar bonpart
icl
es.

 Themi ddlegreenishblueregi
on.
-consist
sofparti
all
ybur ntgas-
airmixt
ure,duet
oinsuf
fi
cientai
rsuppl
y.
-Howev erasthemixturerisesupthepalebluer
egi
on,i
tundergoescomplet
ecombust
ionduet
o
plent
yofair(f
rom outsi
de)

 Thei nneralmostcol
ourlessregi
on.
-I
slocat
edatt hebaseoftheflame.
-I
tconsi
stsofunburntgas-ai
rmi xt
ure.

Advant
agesofanon-luminousf
lame.
-Gi
vesoutalotofheathenceveryef
fi
cienti
nhati
ng.
-I
tdoesnotfor
m soothencewilll
eaveapparat
uscleanev
enaf
terexper
iment(
heat
ing)
.

Disadvant
ages:
-Itusesalotofl
abor
ator
ygasinburni
ng.
-cannotbeusedforl
ight
ingpur
posessincei
tpr
oducesv
eryl
i
ttl
eli
ght
.

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 15
 i
saboke
mi c
a h@gmail
.
com
Di
ff
erencesbet
weenal
umi
nousandanon-luminousfl
ame.

Luminousf l
am Non-l
uminousf lame
Bri
ghty ell
owi ncolour Bl
uei ncolour
Producesal otofl i
ght Producesal otofli
ght
.
Largeandunst eady Smallandst eady
Producessoot Doesnotpr oducesoot
Hasf ourzones Hasthreezones
Burnsqui etl
y Burnsnoisil
y
Moder atelyhot Veryhot

Exper
imentsonBunsenburnerfl
ames.
1.Toinvest
igat
etheheat
ingeff
ectsoftheluminousandnon-
lumi
nousfl
ames.
Apparat
us:
-Bunsenburner
s,250mlbeakers,
li
ghter,
stopwatch,
tri
podst
and,
wiregauze.

Procedur
e
-100cm3ofwat erisputi
ntoachoft hetwo250ml beaker
s.
-Onebeakerisputoveraluminousflamewhiletheot
herissi
mul
taneousl
yputov
eral
umi
nous
fl
ame
-Timetakenforwatertoboi
li
snot edforeachsetup.
-Thebottom ofachbeakeri
sobser v
edforanychanges.

Appar
atus

Obser vat
ions.
-Wat erheatedov ert
henon-l
umi nousflameboil
edionashort
ertimethanthesameamountof
waterheat edoveranon-luminousflame.
-Thebot tom ofthebeakerheatedov erthenon-
lumi
nousfl
amer emai
nedclearbutt
heone
heatedov ertheluminousfl
amewascov er
edwithbl
ackdeposi
tsofsoot.

Explanat
ions.
-Thenon- l
uminousflameishotterthanthel
uminousfl
ame; henceboil
sthewat erfaster
-Thehot t
estpartoftheluminousflam i
stheout
erbluezone.
-I
ncompl etecombust i
onintheluminousfl
ameleadstoproductionofcarbonparti
cles,whi
ch
whenhotgl owy el
lowandoncool i
ngf or
msblacksootonthebeaker ;
-I
ncompl etecombust i
oninanon-luminousfl
ameleadstoproductionofcarbon(IV)oxideand
steam only
,hencenosootf ormati
on.

Concl
usi
ons.
-Thenon-
lumi
nousf
lamei
shot
terthantheluminousfl
ame.
-Thenon-
lumi
nousf
lamei
scl
eanerthantheluminousfl
ame.

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 16
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com

2.Toinvest
igatethehott
estpartofanon-l
uminousfl
ame.
Requir
ement s
-Bunsenburner,sti
ffwhi
tepaper(car
dboard)
,woodenspl
i
nt.

Procedure
-Abunsenbur neri
signi t
edwi tht
heai rholeopentogetanon- l
uminousfl
ame.
-Apieceofwhi t
epaper( cardboard)issli
ppedintotheflamei nregionmar kedXasshownbelow.
-Thepieceofpaperisr emov edquicklybeforei
tcatchesf i
re.
-Afreshpieceofpaperi sthensli
ppedi ntoregi
onmar kedYasshownbel ow; t
henagai
nqui
ckly
removedbef or
eitcatchesf i
re.
-Theexperimentforeachoft her
egionsmar kedXandYi st henrepeat
edusi ngwoodenspl
i
nts.
-Thesplint
sshouldbehel dlongenoughf orsomeoft heirpartstogetchar r
ed
Apparatus

Observat
ions.
 Usingpiecesofpaper
.
-Inregi
onX, t
hepartoft
hepapert
hatwasi
ncont
actwi
tht
hefl
amewascharr
eduni
for
mlyas
shownbel ow.
-Inregi
onY, t
hepartoft
hepaperi
ncont
actwi
tht
hefl
amehadachar
redr
ingwit
hanunbur
nt
partint
hemi ddl
eoftheri
ngasshownbel
ow
Di
agr
ams

 Usi ngwoodenspl
int
s.
-InregionX,t
hepartoft
hespli
nti
ncont
actwi
tht
hef
lamewaschar
reduni
for
mlyasshown
below.
-InregionY,t
hepartoft
hespli
nti
ncont
actwi
tht
hef
lamehadanunbur
ntpar
tinbet
weent
wo
charredregi
onsasshownbelow.
Di
agr
ams:

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 17
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com

Explanations.
-Regionswhi chbecomechar redindicatethattheyaret
hehot testpartoft heflame.
-RegionXcor respondst otheout er
mostbl ueregionofanon- l
umi nousf lame.
-RegionYi st
healmostcol ourlessregionofthenon-luminousf l
ame, whichi showev er
surroundedbyt hemi ddlegreenishblueandt heouterpalebluezones.
-Thusi nr egi
onX, t
heuni f
orm charringoft hepaperandsplintindicat
et hattheout erpal
eblue
zonei sthehottestpatofthef l
ame.
-Similar
lythecharredringforexperimenti nregionYshowt hatt hepartsi ncontactwitht
heouter
palebluezoneget sbur ntf
asterbefor ethepartsincontactwit
ht healmostcol our l
essorthe
greenishbluezones.

Conclusi
ons.
-Thehottestpartofthenon-
luminousfl
ameistheout
ermostpal
ebluezone.
-Duri
ngheat ingtheobj
ectbeingheat
edshoul
dnotbeplacednear
erthechi
mney;t
hesepar
tsar
e
l
esshot .
-Foreffi
cientheati
ngtheobj
ectbeingheat
edshoul
dbeplacedattheout
ermostr
egionoft
he
fl
ame.

3.Toshowthepresenceofunbur
ntgasesi
naBunsenbur
nerf
lame.
Apparat
us:
-Bunsenbur
ner
,tongs,nar
rowhardgl
asstubi
ng.

Procedure
-Abunsenbur nerislitandadjust
edtogetanon-l
uminousfl
ame.
-Anarrowhar dglasst ubi
ngisheldwit
hapairoft
ongsandoneofit
sendsi
spl
acedi
nthe
colour
lesszoneoft hef l
ame.
-Amat chisli
tandpl acedatthefreeendoft
heglasstubi
ng.

Appar
atus

Obser
vat
ions.
-Afl
ameisobtai
nedatt
hef
reeendoft
hegl
asst
ubi
ng.

Expl
anations.
-Thetubingtrappedunbur
ntgasesattheal
mostcolour
lesszoneoft
hef l
ame.
-Thetrappedgasescombinedwithatmospher
icai
r(oxygen)att
heother(f
ree)endoft
het
ubi
ng
hencethef l
ame.

Concl
usi
ons.
-Theal
mostcol
our
lessr
egi
oncont
ainsunbur
ntgases.

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 18
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com

4.Toshowthehot
testpar
toft
hef
lame.
Apparat
us:
-Bunsenbur
ner
,matchsti
ck

Procedure
-Amat chsti
ckisplacedatthetopoft
hebunsenburnerchi
mneyusi
ngapi
n.
-Abunsenbur nerisli
tandadjust
edtogetanon-
luminousfl
ame.
-Themat chsticki
sobservedfrosometimef
oranychanges.
-I
fnoobser vablechangesaremade,themat
chsti
ckisthensl
owl
yrai
sedt
owar
dst
hebl
uezone
andobservedkeenly.

Appar
atus

Observat
ions.
-Themat chst
ickdi
dnotigni
tewhil
eitwasatt
hebottom oft
heflame(
rest
ingont
opoft
he
chimney)
.
-Iti
gni
tedasitwasbeingrai
sedtowardst
heouterpal
ebluezone.

Expl
anati
ons.
-Thebott
om oft hefl
ame( justontopofchimney)corr
espondstothealmostcolourl
esszone.
-Thi
szonecont ainsunburntgases,hencenoburni
ngoccursandisthusleasthottocause
i
gnit
ionofthemat chsti
ck.
-Asthemat chstickisrai
sedupwar dsitmovespastthegreeni
shbluezone(wherethereispar
ti
al
combusti
on)t hent otheouterpalebluezonewheretherei
scompletecombust i
onandhence
mostheat.
-Theheatinthisr egi
onisadequat etocausei
gni
t i
onofthematchsti
ck.

Concl
usi
ons.
-Theout
erpal
ebluezoneisthehot
testpar
toft
henon-
lumi
nousf
lame,
andi
sthust
hecor
rect
posi
ti
ontopl
aceanobjectduri
ngheati
ng.

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 19
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com

Methodsofgascoll
ecti
on.
-Vari
ouschemical
reacti
onsproducegases;
someofwhicharecol
ourlesswhi
l
eothersare
col
oured.
-Addit
ional
l
ysomegasesar epoisonoust
othehumanbody,whi
leothersar
emajorcausesof
envi
ronmental
poll
uti
on.

Examples:
 Colouredgases:
Chlor
ine(gr
een-y
ell
ow);ni
tr
ogen(
IV)oxi
de(
brown)
;br
omi
ne(
red-
brown)

 Colour
lessgases:
Ox
ygen;
carbon(II
)oxide;
car
bon(
IV)oxi
de;
sul
phur(
IV)oxi
de;
hydr
ogen;
ammoni
aet
c.

Fact
or saff
ecti
ngmethodusedi
ncol
l
ect
ingagas.
-Density
-Sol
ubi l
i
tyinwater
.
-Colour
-Toxici
ty

Summar
yoncol
l
ect
ionmet
hods.

Method Appar
atus Char acterist i
cofgas
Upwarddeli
very -Mustbel essdenset hanair.
-Al
socalleddownwar
d Exampl es: Hy drogen, ammoni agas.
di
splacementofai
r Not e: beingl i
ght erthegasi s
suppor tedbyt hedenserai rfrom
bel ow;
-Whenusedf orcol our l
essgases, it
i
snotpossi bletoknowwhent hegas
j
ari sf ull;
Downwarddel
iv
ery(
upwar
d -Mustbedensert hanai r.
di
spl
acementofai
r) Exampl es: carbon( IV)oxide;nit r
ogen
(IV)oxi de; chl ori
negas;
Not e: -Thegasdi splacesai rand
set tleatt hebot tom oft hecol lecting
vessel
-Unl essthegasi scolour ed,i
ti s
difficulttoknowwhent hecont ai
ner
i
sf ull
Ov
erwat
er -insol ubleoronl ysl i
ghtlysolubl ein
wat er;
-doesnotr eactwi thwat er
Exampl es: carbon( IV)oxide;
hy dr ogen; car bon( I
I)oxide;
Not e: -wit ht hismet hodi ti
seasyt o
tellwhent hegasj arorcol l
ecting
tubei sfull ofgas;
-Thi smet hodcannotbeusedwhen
thegasi sr equi r
eddr y;

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 20
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com

Coll
ecti
ngsyri
nge -Mai nlyforpoisonousgases; si
nce
-thegasproducedis thegasesar econf i
nedandleakages
coll
ect
edinasy ri
nge; arel i
mi t
ed;
Not e:thi
smet hodal lowscol
lecti
on
ofsmal lvol
umesofgases;
-Italsoal l
owsdi rectmeasur
ementof
volumeofgaspr oduced;
Dryi
ngofgases.
-I
stheprocessbywhichthemoisturei
nagasbeingprepar
edisremovedpri
ort
ocol
l
ect
ion.
-Thi
sisdonebypassingthegasthroughchemi
calst
hatabsorbmoist
ure.
-Suchchemical
sarecall
eddryi
ngagents.
-Thedryi
ngagentsshoul
dnotreactwitht
hegasesbei
ngdried.

Examplesofdr yi
ngagents.
-Anhydrouscalci
um chl
oride
-Concentrat
edsulphuri
cacid.
-Cal
cium oxide.

Appar
atusanddr
yingagent
s

Col
l
ect
ionanddr
yingofsomegases
Gas Coll
ect
ionmet
hod Dry
ingagent
Oxy
gen Overwater Concent
ratedsul
phur
ic(
VI)aci
d;anhy
drouscal
ci
um
chl
ori
de.
Hy
drogen Ov
erwat
er,
upwar
ddel
i
ver
y Concent
ratedsul
phur
ic(
VI)aci
d;anhy
drouscal
ci
um
chl
ori
de
Ni
tr
ogen Ov
erwat
er Concent
ratedsul
phur
ic(
VI)aci
d;anhy
drouscal
ci
um
chl
ori
de
Car
bon(
IV)oxi
de Overwater
,downwar
d Concent
ratedsul
phur
ic(
VI)aci
d;anhy
drouscal
ci
um
del
iver
y chl
ori
de
Ammoni
a Upwarddeli
ver
y Cal
cium oxide

Dr
ugsanddr
ugabuse.
Dr
ug:i
sachemi
calsubst
ancet
hatal
ter
sthef
unct
ioni
ngoft
hebody
.

Typesofdrugs
(i
).Medici
nal dr
ugs(medici
nes)
:
-Aredrugsmai nl
yusedfortr
eatmentandprev
entionofdi
seases.
-Areal
socl assi
fiedi
ntot
wo: ov
erthecount
erdrugsandprescri
pti
ondr
ugs.

 Ov
er-
the-
count
erdr
ugs.
Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 21
 isaboke
micah@g mai
l.
com
-Aremedi
cinaldr
ugsthatcanbeboughtatapharmacyorr etai
lshopwit
houtwr
it
teni
nst
ruct
ions
fr
om adoct
or.
Exampl
es:Mildpai
nki
l
lersli
keaspi
ri
n,panadol
,paracet
amol ,
drugsforf
luet
c.

 Pr escripti
ondrugs:
-Ar
estrongmedi ci
neswhichshoul
donlybetakenuponadoctor
sinst
ruct
ion(
prescr
ipt
ion)
.
-I
nthi
spr escript
ion,t
hedoctor
sgiveadosage,whi
chindi
cat
estheamountandtherateatwhi
ch
i
tshoul
dbet aken.

(i
i
).Lei
suredrugs.
-Aredr
ugst hatar
eusuall
ytakenforpleasur
e.
-Arecl
assif
iedint
otwo:
 Mil
ddr ugs:al
cohol
,tobacco;
 Narcoticdr
ugs:mari
juana,cocai
ne,her
oin,
mandr
axet
c.

Drugabuse:
-I
st heindi
scr
iminateuseofadrugforpurposeswhichitismeantf or;oradmini
str
ati
onofan
overdoseorunderdoseofadrug;aswellasuseofdrugsf orlei
surepurposes.
Note:
-Thewor stf
orm ofdrugabuseisthet
akingofdrugsforleisurepurposes;andthemost
commonl yabuseddrugsarethelei
sur
edr ugs.

Effect
sofcommonl yabuseddr ugs.
 Al cohol:
-Affectsthebrainandt henervoussy stem
-Damagest heli
v er
, andi
sacommoncauseofl i
verci
rr
hosis.
-Poorheal t
hduet olossofappet i
te.
-Timef orworkingi swastedindr i
nkingandhencel
essproducti
vi
tyandev
enl
oseofj
obs;
whi
ch
result
stopov ertyandf amil
ydisintegrat
ions.

 Tobacco.
-Badbreath,discol
our
edfingersandt eet
h
-Causediseasessuchasbr onchit
isandtubercul
osis.
-damagest helungsandisacommoncauseofl ungcancerduetochemical
sfoundi
nthe
ci
garet
tes.
-Smokingdur i
ngpregnancyisacommoncauseofmi scarr
iagesorsti
l
lbi
rt
hs.
-I
tisexpensive:moneyusedf orotherbett
erusesiswastedincigar
ett
esmoking.

 Narcoti
cdr ugs:
-I
nterf
ereswiththef uncti
oningofthebrai
n.
-Resul
tstoaddictionanddr ugdependency.
-Somear eadministereddirect
lyi
ntothebloodt
hroughsy
ringesandhencecommonr
out
esof
tr
ansmissionofHIV/ AIDS.

Generalef
fectsofdr
ugabuseonthesoci
ety
.
-Drugabusesspendmostofthei
rmoneyondrugsandhencenegl
ectt
hei
rfami
l
yleadi
ngt
o
miseryandsociet
albr
eakdown.
-Drunkdri
verscauseacci
dent
s.

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 22
 isa
bokemicah@g mail
.
c om
-Peopl
ewhoar edrunkwi t
hadrugareunreasonableandcannotmakel ogi
caldecisi
ons;and
hencecannotbeproducti
veatthatt
ime.
-Drugabusehasresult
edintol
ossofmoralsleadingtohigherratesofr
apes,vi
olentcr
imes,
murders,
prost
it
uti
onet c.
-Drugabusehasfueledthespr
eadofsexuall
ytransmitt
eddi seasesandHIV/
AIDS.

Note:
Drugaddict
ion:
-Isasit
uati
oninwhi
chani ndi
vidual
becomesdependentonapart
icul
ardr
ugsucht
hathecannot
funct
ionnormall
ywi
thoutit
;andlackofi
tresul
ttosomediscomf
ort.
UNIT2: SI
MPLECLASSIFICATIONOFSUBSTANCES

UnitCheckl i
st :
1.Element scompoundsandmi xtures.
2.Mi xtur
es
 Ty pesofmi xtures
 Separ ationofmi xt ures
 Basi cconcept s
 Met hodofsepar at i
onofmi xt
ures.
 Decant ation
 Ev apor at ion
 Condensat i
on
 Filtrat ion
 Cr yst allizati
on
 Separ at i
ngf unnel separ
ati
on
 Di stillation
 Subl imat ion
 Chr omat ography
 Sol v entext racti
on
3.Criteri
af orpur it
y
 Ef f ectsofi mpur i
tyonmel tingpoint
 Ef f ectsofi mpur i
tyonmel tingpoint
4.Nat ureofmat t
erandki net ictheor yofmat t
er.
 Ef f ectsofheatonmat ter
 Mel ting
 Ev apor at ion
 Condensat i
on
 Fr eezi ng
 Fr eezi ng
 Subl imat ion
5.Per manentandnon- per manentchanges
6.Const it
uent sofmat ter
 At oms
 El ement s
 Mol ecules
 Compounds
 Mi xtur es.
7.Namesandsy mbolsofcommonel ements
8.Simpl ewor dequat i
ons.

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 23
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com

Elementscompoundandmi xtur
es.
(a).El
ement:
-Isapuresubstancethatcannotbespli
tupi
ntosi
mpl
ersubst
ancesbychemi
cal
means.
Examples:copper,
hydrogen,carbon.

(b)
.Compound:
-Apuresubst
ancet
hatconsi
stsoft
woormor
eel
ement
sthatar
echemi
cal
l
ycombi
ned.
Examples:
Compound El
ement sinthecompound
Cal
cium carbonate Cal
cium, car
bonandoxy gen
Sodi
um chlori
de Sodium andchlori
ne
Ammoni um nit
rate Nit
rogen,hydrogen,oxy
gen
I
ron(II
)sulphate I
ron,sul
phur,oxygen

(c)
.Mixt
ure:
-Asubstancethatconsi
stsoftwoormoreel
ementsorcompoundsthatar
enotchemi
cal
l
y
combi
ned
-Somemi xtur
escanbenat ur
all
yoccur
ri
ngwhil
esomeareart
if
ici
al.

Examples
Natur
all
yoccur
ri
ngmi
xtur
es.
Mixtur
e Component s
Air Nit
rogen,oxygen,car
bon( I
V)oxi de,watervapour,noblegaseset
c
Seawat er Waterandv ari
oussaltsli
kechloridesofsodium, potassi
um and
magnesium
Cr
udeoil Ami xt
ureofhy dr
ocarbonslikemet hane,petrol
,bit
umen, et
c
Magadi
soda Sodium car
bonate,sodium hydrogencar bonateandsodium chl
ori
de

Ar
ti
fi
cial
mixt
ures.
Mixtur
e Components
Softdr
inks Water
,ci
tri
cacid,
sugar,carbon(I
V)oxide,
stabi
l
izer
s,sodi
um benzoat
e
Bl
ackink Bl
ue,bl
ack,yel
l
owdy esandsol v
ent
Cement Oxi
desofalumini
um, i
ron,sil
i
con,cal
ci
um andcalci
um car
bonate.

Typesofmixt
ures:
-Therear
etwot y
pesofmi xt ur
es;
 Homogenousmixtur es
 Heter
ogenousmixtur es

(
i)
.Homogenousmi
xtur
es.
Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 24
 i
sabokemic
ah@gma i
l.
com
-I
sami xtur
ewit
hauni f
orm composit
ionandproper
ti
esthroughoutit
smass.
-Theparts(
components)ofthemixt
ureareunif
orml
ydistr
ibutedthr
oughoutt
hemi
xtur
e
Examples:
Teawit
hsugarsolut
ion.

(i
i)
.Het erogenousmi xt
ure:
Isami xturewithoutunif
orm composi
ti
ont
hroughouti
tsmass.
Exampl es:
-Soil
,rocksandsandmi xtur
e.

Separati
ngmi xt
ures.
Ami xtur
ecanbesepar atedi
ntoit
sv ar
iouscomponent
s(const
it
uent
s)byappr
opr
iat
ephy
sical
means, dependi
ngont ypeofmixt
ure.

Basi
cconcept
s:
Resi
due:
soli
dthatr
emai
nsont
hef
il
terpaperdur
ingf
il
tr
ati
on

Fi
l
trat
e:l
i
qui
dthatpassespastt
hef
il
terpaperdur
ingf
il
tr
ati
on

Sol
ute:
asol
i
dthatdi
ssol
vesi
napar
ti
cul
arl
i
qui
d

Sol
vent
:thel
i
qui
dinwhi
chasol
utedi
ssol
ves.

Sat
urat
edsol
uti
on:
asol
uti
oni
nwhi
chnomor
esol
utecandi
ssol
veatapar
ti
cul
art
emper
atur
e

Unsaturatedsol
uti
on:
asol
uti
ont
hatcant
akemor
eoft
hesol
ute(
sol
ute)atapar
ti
cul
ar
temperature.

Mi
sci
blel
i
qui
ds:
li
qui
dst
hatcanmi
xtoget
hercompl
etel
y.

I
mmi
sci
blel
i
qui
ds:
li
qui
dst
hatcannotmi
xtoget
hercompl
etel
y.

Therearev ari
ousmet hodst hatcanbeusedt osepar
atemixt
ures.
Theseinclude:
 Decant ation
 Evapor at ion
 Condensat ion
 Fi
ltration
 Crystallizat i
on
 Separ at i
ngf unnelseparati
on
 Distil
lation( si
mpleandf racti
onal
)
 Sublimat ion
 Chromat ogr aphy
 Solventext r
action
1.Decantation:
-I
samet hodusedt osepar ateinsolubl
esolidsfr
om l
iqui
ds;aheter
ogenousmi
xtur
e.

Pr
ocedur
e:

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 25
 i
sabokemic
ah@gma i
l.
com
-Thesol
i
d- l
i
quidmixt
ureisal
l
owedt ostandinacont
ainer.
-Thei
nsolublesol
i
dsettl
esatthebott
om andtheupperli
quidpor
ti
onpour
edoutwi
thcar
e.

Appar
atus.

Examples:
-Separ
ationofsand-
watermixt
ure
-Separ
ationofmaizefl
our-
watermixt
ure.

Li
mitat
ions(di
sadvant
ages)ofdecant
ati
on.
-I
tisnoteff
ici
entassomef i
nesuspendedsol
i
dsmaycomel
ongwi
tht
hel
i
qui
ddur
ingpour
ing.

2.Fil
tr
ation.
-Isthesepar at
ionofani nsol
ublesolidfrom ahet
erogenousmi xt
ure(l
iqui
d)usi
ngaporousf
il
ter
thatdoesnotal lowthesolidstopasst hrough.
-Uponf i
ltr
ationtheundissolvedsolidislef
tonthefil
terpaperandiscall
edther
esi
due.
-Theliquidthatpassesthef i
lterpaperiscall
edfi
l
trate.

Examples:separati
onofsandfr
om wat
er.
(i
).Pr
ocedure.
-Thefi
lterpaperisfol
dedint
o¼andopenedt
ofr
om acone.
Di
agr
am:
fol
dingaf
il
terpaper
.

-I
tiscar
efull
yplacedinsideaf i
lt
erfunnel
.
-Theapparat
usar ethenar r
angedasshownbl ow.
-Thesand-watermixtureisthenpouredint
ot hefi
lterpaperi
nthef
il
terf
unnel
.
-Thecol
lecti
ngliqui
di sdir
ectedint
oaconi calfl
ask.

(
ii
).Appar
atus.

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 26
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com

Appli
cati
onsoffi
l
trat
ion.
-Fi
lt
rati
onofdomesticwat er
.
-Extr
acti
onofmedici
nal substancesf
rom pl
ant
s.
-Extr
acti
onofsugarfrom sugarcane.
-Operati
onofavacuum cleaner.
-Fuelfi
l
tersi
nautomobileengines.

3.Evapor
ati
on.
-I
susedt oseparat
easolubl
esoli
dfrom i
tssol
uti
on.
-Suchsolut
ionsareusual
l
yhomogenousmi xt
ures.
-Thesoli
discall
edasolutewhi
l
et heli
qui
discall
edasol
vent
.

Example:separati
onofsaltfr
om saltsol
uti
on.
(i
).Pr
ocedur e:
-Thesaltsoluti
onispouredinanev apor
ati
ngdish.
-Thesetupi sthenarrangedasintheapparat
usshownbel ow.
-Thesoluti
oni sboi
ledundersteam orsandbathunti
lal
lthewateri
nthesal
tsol
uti
onev
apor
ates
andsaltcrystal
sremaininthedish.

(
ii
).Appar
atus.

(i
i
i).Observati
onsandexpl anat
ions.
-Uponheat i
ngt hesoluti
on,waterevaporatesbecausei thasl
owerboili
ngpointt
hanthesalt.
-Thesoluti
oni sboil
edunt i
lsal
tcrystal
sstartappeari
ngonagl assri
ddippedint
othesolut
ion.
-Thisshalli
ndicatethatthesolut
ionissaturated.
-Thesaturatedsolutioni
sallowedtocool andcr y
stal
li
ze.
-Themot herli
quor(liqui
dthatremainswi t
ht hecryst
als)ispouredandthesalt(
sol
id)dr
ied
betweenabsor bentpapers.

Not
e:
Acr
yst
al:
isasol
i
dthatconsi
stsofpar
ti
clesar
rangedi
nanor
der
lyr
epet
it
ivemanner
.

-I
tisadvantageoustoboi
lthesolut
ionunderast eam orsandbathrat
herthandi
rect
ly.
Reason:
-Thesteam orsandbathprevent
sthemi xt
urefrom splashi
ngout(spi
tt
ing)oft
heevaporat
ing
di
sh.
-I
talsoreduceschancesoftheevaporat
ingdishcracking.

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 27
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com

Appl
icat
ionsofevapor
ati
on:
-Ext
ract
ionofsodaashfrom LakeMagadi
.

4.Cr y
stal
li
zati
onandrecr
y stal
l
izati
on.
(a).Cryst
all
i
zati
on:
-istheprocessoffor
mationofcr yst
alsf
rom asol
uti
on.
-Itinvol
vesevapor
ati
onoft hesoluti
ontofor
m aconcent
rat
edsol
uti
on.

Exampl e:crystall
izati
onofpot assi um nit
ratefrom i t
ssol ut
ion.
(i
).Pr ocedur e:
-About5gofpowder edpot assi um nitrat
eisaddedt o10cm3ofwat erinaboili
ngt
ube.
-Thesol uti
oni sheat edunt ilallthesol i
ddissolvesandt henall
owedt ocoolandcr
ystal
l
ize.
Not e:
-Mor epotassi um nitratedissolv esinhotwat ert hani ncoldwater.
-Ther esult
antsol utionisthenheat eduntilcr
yst alsstartappear
ing;andthi
scanbeconfir
medby
di
ppi ngagl assr odint othesol utionandf eeli
ngf orcrystal
s.
-Thi siscalledasat uratedsol utioni .
e.asoluti
ont hatcannottakeinanymor eoft
hesoluteata
gi
v ent emper atur
e.
-Thesat uratedsol utionisthenal lowedt ocool andcr ystal
li
ze.

(i
i
).Observati
ons:
-Theresult
antsoli
dpart
icl
eshavedefini
teshapes.
-Somear eneedle-
li
kewhil
eothersarefl
atandsharp-
edged.
-Thesearethepotassi
um nit
rat
ecrystal
s.

(b).Recr
yst
all
izati
on:
-Isusedinobtaini
ngpur
ecrystal
sfrom asol
ubl
esol
i
dcont
aini
ngi
mpur
it
ies.
-Invol
vesfi
l
trati
onandevaporati
on.

Examples:
Obtai
ningpur
ecopper(I
I)sul
phat
ecr
yst
alsf
rom i
mpur
ecopper(
II
)sul
phat
e.
Puri
fi
cati
onofrocksal
t.

Note:Theprocesscanbeenhancedbysuspendi
ngasmal
lpi
eceofpur
ecr
yst
ali
ntot
he
sat
uratedsolut
ion.

Di
agr
am:
recr
yst
all
i
zat
ionofcopper(
II
)sul
phat
e.

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 28
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com

Appli
cati
onsofcr
yst
all
i
zat
ion.
-Separat
ionofTr
onafr
om sodi
um chl
ori
dei
nLakeMagadi
.

5.Disti
ll
ation.
-I
sthev apour isat
ionofali
qui
df r
om ami xt
ureandthencondensi
ngthevapour.
-I
susedi nthepur i
fi
cati
onofl
iquidsandseparat
ionofl
iqui
dsfrom amixt
ure.
-I
tut i
l
izest hediff
erencesi
nboil
ingpoint
softhecomponentsofthemixtur
e.
-Areoft wot ypes:

 Simpledisti
ll
ati
on
 Fract
ionaldist
il
lati
on.
(i
).Si
mpledisti
ll
ati
on.
-I
smai nl
yusedf orpurif
icat
ionofl
i
quidscontai
ningdi
ssol
vedsubst
ances.
-I
tisalsousefuli
nsepar ati
ngtwomisci
blel
iqui
dswi t
hwidel
ydif
fer
ingboi
li
ngpoi
nts

Note:
Misci
blel
i
qui
ds:Li
quidst
hatmixt
ofrom aunif
orm aunif
orm homogenoussolut
ion
-Theli
qui
dwit
hthelowerboi
l
ingpoi
ntusual
lydist
il
lsov
erfi
rst,andi
scoll
ect
ed.

Exampl e:Toobt ai
npur ewaterfr
om seawat er.
(i
).Procedur e:
-Saltyseawat erispouredintoadisti
l
lat
ionflask.
-Af ewpi ecesofpumi ceorporcel
ainisaddedt othesol
uti
on.
Reason:
-Toi ncreasethesurfaceareafrocondensati
onandev apor
ati
on.

-Thesoluti
onisheat
eduntil
itst
artsboi
li
ng,t
hentheburnerremovedsot
hatthel
i
qui
dboi
l
s
gent
ly.
-Theboili
nggoesonunti
ltheli
quid(di
sti
l
lat
e)st
artscol
l
ectingint
hebeaker
.

(
ii
).Appar
atus.

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 29
 is
abokemicah@gma il
.c
om
(i
i
i).Observat
ionsandexplanations:
-Thewat erboil
sandtheresultantsteam ispassedthroughtheLiebigcondenser
.
-Ast hevapourpassesthrought hecondenser,i
tiscooledbycircul
ati
ngcoldwaterthr
ought
he
j
acketoft hecondenser
.
-Thecoldwat erent
ersthrought helowerbottom andleavesthr
ought hetopupperpar
t.
Reason:
-Topr ov
idemor eti
mef orthecol dwatertocondenset hevapours.

-Thedi
sti
l
lat
eiscol
l
ect
edi
nthebeakerwhi
l
ether
esi
duer
emai
nsi
nthedi
sti
l
lat
ionf
lask.

Appli
cationsofsimpledist
il
lat
ion.
-Manuf actureofwinsandspiri
ts.
-Desali
nizationofseawatertoobtai
nfreshwater
.
(i
i)
.Fractionaldi
sti
ll
ati
on:
-I
samet hodusedf rotheseparat
ionofmisci
blel
iqui
dswi
thv
erycl
oseboi
l
ingpoi
nts.
Examples:
Ethanolandwat er.

-Iti
samodi f
icati
onofsi
mpledisti
l
lat
ioni
nwhi cht
hef r
act
ionat
ingcolumnisinser
tedont
opof
thedist
il
lat
ionf l
ask.
-Allt
hecomponent smustbevolat
il
eatdi
ffer
entextent
sinorderforsepar
ati
ontobepossi
ble.

Thefr
act
ionat
ingcolumn.
-I
susual
lyanelongated(
glass)t
ube,
packedwi
thpi
ecesofgl
assbeadsorpi
ecesofbr
oken
gl
ass.

Roleofgl assbeads.
-Toi ncr easethesurfacear eaf orv apourisat
ionoft hevari
ouscomponent softhemixtur
eand
al
lowt hesepar ati
onoft hev apour st ooccur.
-Thust hemor ethegl assbeadsi nt hefracti
onatingcolumn, t
hehighertheef
fi
ciencyof
separ ation.
Note:
-Theef fici
encyofthef ract
ional distil
lat
ionsost ogetmor epurecomponentscanalsobedone
by:
1.Increasi ngthelengthoft hef ractionati
ngcol umn( makingitl
onger)
2.Maki ngt hefr
acti
onat i
ngcol umnnar r
ower( decreasi
ngt hediameter
)

Vol
ati
leli
quids:
-Ar
eliqui
dswi t
ht heabil
it
ytochangeint
ov apour
.
-Morevolat
ilel
iquidsvapour
izeandcondensefastert
hant
hel
essv
olat
il
eli
qui
ds.

Note:
-Duri
ngfracti
onal
dist
il
lat
ion,thecomponent
sofamixtur
earecol
lect
edati
nter
val
s,oneata
ti
mewi t
ht hemostvol
atil
e(lowestboi
li
ngpoint
)comi
ngoutfi
rst
.
-Eachcomponentcoll
ectedint her
ecei
veri
scall
edafr
acti
on.

Example:separ
ati
onofet
hanol
andwat
er.
(i
).Appar
atus.

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 30
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com

(i
i
).Procedure:
-Water-
ethanolmixtur
eispouredint
oar ound-
bot
tomedf
lask.
-Theapparatusisthenconnectedandsetupasshownbelow.

Note:
-Thethermometerbul
bmustbeatt
hevapourout
lett
othecondenser
.
Reason:
-Foraccurat
edeter
minat
ionoft
hev
apouri
sat
iont
emperatur
eforeachfr
act
ion.

-Themi xtur
eisthenst
ronglyheatedunti
lthefi
rstfr
acti
oncomesoutofthedisti
ll
ati
onf
laskint
o
theconicalf
lask.
-Coll
ectionofthefr
act
ionsshouldbedonei naconicalfl
askothert
hani
nabeaker .
Reason:
-Toreducet herat
esofevaporat
ionofthef r
act
ions,especi
all
ythehi
ghl
yvol
atil
eones(i
nt hi
s
caseethanol)

-Forthi
spart
icul
arseparat
ionthefi
rsttemper
atur
esr
ecordedbyt
het
her
momet
ershoul
dnot
o
exceed80C;toensurethatthefi
rstfr
acti
onisonl
yet
hanol.

(ii
i).Discussion.
-Et hanol boisat78oCandwat
l erboisat100oC.
l
-Whent hemi xtur
ei sheated, ethanolandwaterevaporateandpasst hroughthefr
acti
onati
ng
columnwhi chisfil
ledwi t
hgl assbeadst oofferalargesurfacearea
-Thel ar
gesur f
acear eaencour agesev apor
ationofethanol andcondensati
onofwatervapour
.
-Wat ercanbeseendr oppingbacki ntothedisti
ll
ati
onflask.
-Ethanol vapourpassest hrought hecondenserandwar ml iquidet
hanol i
scoll
ect
edintheconi
cal
flask.

Note:
-Thefi
rstpor
ti
onisalmostpureet
hanol
(about97%)andbur
nsqui
etl
ywi
thabl
uef
lame.
-I
talsohasthechar
acter
ist
icsmell
ofal
cohols.

I
ndust
ri
alappl
i
cat
ionsoff
ract
ional
dist
il
lat
ion.

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 31
 i
saboke
mi c
a h@gma i
l.
com
-Separat
ionofai
rint
ovari
ouscomponentsinBOCgasesKeny ali
mit
ed.
-Separat
ionofcr
udeoili
ntopar
aff
in,pet
rol
,kerosenedieselandothercomponent
sint
heKeny
a
oi
lrefi
nery.
-Dist
il
lat
ionofet
hanolf
rom mol
assesatMuhor oniAgro-chemical
scompany.

6.Subli
mat i
on.
-I
st heprocessbywhichasoli
dchangesdi
rect
lytogaseousst
ateuponheat
ing.
-I
tisusedt osepar
ateamixtur
einwhichoneofthecomponentssubl
imesonheati
ng.
Note:
Soli
d Gas

Soli
dsthatsubl
imehavever
yweakf
orcesofat
tract
ionbet
weent
heat
omsandhencear
eeasi
l
y
brokenonsli
ghtheat
ing.

Examplesofsolidsthatsubli
meonheat i
ng.
-I
odine;subl
i
mest ofrom apurpl
ev apour.
-Ammoni um chlor
ide;subl
imest ofrom densewhi
tefumes;
-Sol
idcarbon(IV)oxide(dryi
ce);
-Anhydrousi
ron( I
II
)chlori
de;subli
mest ogiver
edbrownfumes.

Examples:separ
ati
onofi
odi
nef
rom sodi
um chl
ori
de.
(i
).appar
atus:

(i
i
).Pr
ocedur e:
-Thei
odine-commonsal tmixt
ureispouredi
ntoabeakerandplacedi
natr
ipodst
and.
-Awatchglassf ul
lofcol
dwaterisplacedonthebeaker
.
-Thebeakerisheatedgentl
yunti
lsomedensepur pl
efumesareobser
ved.

(i
i
i).Obser
vati
ons:
-Apurplevapourappearsi
nthebeaker.
-Adark-gr
eyshinysoli
dcoll
ectsonthebot
tom oft
hewat
ch-
glass.
-Whitesol
idremainsinthebeaker
.

(i
v).Expl
anati
ons:
-Uponheatingthemixt
urei
odi
nesubl
i
mesandcondensesont
hecol
dwat
chgl
asst
ofor
ma
subli
mateofpureiodi
ne.

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 32
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com
Note:
-Soli
dcarbon(IV)oxide(dryice)i
susedasr efr
igerantbyicecream andsoftdri
nkvendors.
Reason:
-I
tsublimesonheat ing;
asitsubli
mesittakeslatentheatfrom i
cecream (
softdri
nks)thus
l
eavingitcol
d.
-I
tisalsoadvantageousasi tdoesnott
urnintoliqui
d,whichcouldbecumber sometocar r
yand
wouldmessupt heicecream.

7.Chr omat ogr aphy .

-I
st hesepar ationofcolouredsubst ancesusi nganel uti
ngsolvent.
-I
tisal sousedt oidenti
fythecomponent sofacol our
edsubstance.
-I
tinv olvest heuseofamov ingliquid( eluti
ngsol vent)onamat er
ialthatabsorbst
hesolvent.
-I
tinv olvest womaj orprocesses:
 Sol ubi l
i
ty:
Thet endencyofasubst ancet odissolveinasolvent.
 Adsor ption:
Thet endencyofasubst ancet ost i
ckonanadsor bentmat eri
al.
Exampl es:
1.Separ ationofcomponent sofbl acki nk.
(i
).Procedur e:
-Af i
lterpaperi splacedont her i
m ofanev aporatingdishorasmal lbeaker.
-Adr opoft hebl ackinkisplacedatt hecent reofthef i
lt
erpaper;all
owedt ospreadoutanddry.
-Adr opofwat er(ethanol)i
st henaddedt ot heinkandal l
owedt ospr ead.
-Aftercompl etespr eadofthedr op, aseconddr opi sadded.
-Wat erdr opsar eaddedcont i
nuousl yunt ilthediscofcol our
edsubst ancesal
mostreachesthe
edge.

(
ii
).Obser
vat
ions:

Note:
Thedryf
il
terpapershowi
ngt
hesepar
atedcomponent
sofami
xtur
eiscal
l
eda
chr
omatogr
am.
(i
i
i).Explanations:
-Wat eristheel uti
ngsolventsinceinkissolublei nit.
-Thev ariousdy esintheblacki nkmov eatdifferentdistancesfr
om theblackspothencethe
bands.
Reasons:
-Thedy eshav ediff
erentsolubil
it
iesi
nt hesolvent ;t
hemor esol
ubl
et hedye,t
hefurt
herthe
di
stancei ttravelsont heabsorbentpaper
-Theyhav ediffer
entratesofadsor pt
ioni.e.t
het endencyoft hedyest ost
ickontheabsorbent
mat eri
al;dyeswi thlowratesofabsorptiont r
av elfarfr
om theorigi
nalspot.

Not
e:
Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 33
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com
Sol
ventfr
ont.
-I
sthefurt
hestdi
stancer
eachedbyt
heel
uti
ngsol
ventont
hef
il
terpaper
.

Basel
i
ne:
-Thepoi
ntatwhi
cht
hedy
etobesepar
atedi
spl
aced;
i.
e.i
tist
hest
art
ingpoi
ntofsepar
ati
on.

2.Tov er
if
ycontent
sofr
ed,
blackandbl
uei
nks.
(i
).appar
atus:

(
ii
).Obser
vat
ions:

(i
ii
).Explanati
ons:
-Themi xturesAtoDhav evariouscomponent swit
hv ar
yingsolubi
l
iti
esinthesol
vent(et
hanol
)
-MixtureDi sthemostpurebecausei thasonl yonespot.
-MixtureCi sthel
eastpure(mosti mpure),asithasthehighestnumberofspotsindi
cati
ngiti
s
composedofsomanydy es(four)
-MixtureChast hemostsolubledy e;i
tslastcomponentist heonenearesttot
hesolventfr
ont
.
-Mixtureswi t
hsimil
ardyesi
nt heircomposi t
ionhavespot satsamelevel
s;int
hiscaseA,BandD.

Appl
icati
onsofchr
omat ography.
-Pur
ifi
cati
onofnat
uralproductssuchashormones,
vit
aminsandnat
ural
pigment
s.
-Det
ectionoff
oodpoisonse. g.i
ncannedf
oodsandsoftdri
nks.

8.Sol
ventextr
acti
on.
-I
stheextract
ionofasol
utef
rom i
tsor
igi
nal
sol
ventbyusi
ngasecondsol
venti
nwhi
chi
thasa
hi
ghersolubi
li
ty

Example:ext
ract
ionofoi
lfr
om nut
s.
(i
).Appar
atus.

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 34
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com

(i
i
).Pr
ocedur e:
-Somenut sarecrushedinamor tarusi
ngapest l
e;t
oincreaset
hesurfacear
eaforsol
ubil
i
ty.
-Asuitabl
esolventsuchashexaneorpr opanone(acetone)i
sadded.
-Thenutsarefurthercr
ushedinthesolvent.
-Theresul
tantsoluti
onisdecantedinanev apor
ati
ngdish,andl
efti
nthesuntoevapor
ate.
-Thel
iquidremainingintheevaporat
ingdishissmearedontoacleanfi
lt
erpaper
.

(i
v).Observat
ions;
-Apermanentt ransl
ucentmarkappearsonthefil
terpaper
.
(v)
.Explanati
ons:
-Thenut sarecrushedwhenincontactwit
hthesolventtobri
ngmoreoft
heoi
li
nthenut
scl
oser
tothesolvent.
-Uponev aporat
ionoili
slef
tbehi
ndbecausei thasahigherboil
i
ngpoi
ntt
hant
hesol
vent
.
-Apermanentt ransl
ucentmarkver
ifi
esthepresenceofoil
s.

Appli
cat
ionsofsolventextract
ion.
-Usedbydry-
cleanerstoremov edir
t(gr
ease)andst
ainsf
rom “
dry
-cl
ean-
onl
y”cl
othessuchas
sweater
s,sui
ts,dr
esseset c.

9.Separatingfunnelseparati
on.
-Isusedf roseparati
ngami xturewi t
ht woormoreimmisci
bleli
quids.
-Suchl i
quidsdonotmi xbutinsteadformlayer
sbasedontheirdensit
ies.
-Theheav iestl
iquidlayeri
sfoundatt hebottom oft
hesepar
atingfunnel;
whil
ethel
ightestli
qui
d
i
sf oundatt hetopoft heseparatingfunnel
.
-Theliquidsaredrainedoneaf tertheotherbyopeni
ngandclosingthetapoft
heseparating
funnel.

Example: Separat
ionofoil
from wat
er
Apparatus:
Beakers,separati
ngfunnel
,paraf
fi
noil
,di
sti
l
ledwat
er,
rubberst
opper
.

Appar
atus.

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 35
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com

Procedure.
-Thetapoft hesepar at i
ngfunnel i
sclosed.
-Equalvolumesofwat erandpar af
finareputinasepar ati
ngf unnelunti
liti
shalfful
l.
-Themout hofthef unnel i
sclosedwi t
hast opperandt hemi xtureshaken.
-Themi xtureisal l
owedt ostandunt i
ltwodisti
nctlayersaref ormed.
-Thestopperi sr emov edandt hetapopenedt oallowthebot tom layert
odrainint
othebeaker.
-Thetapi sclosedaf termostoft hebottom layerhasdrainedof f.
-Thebeakeri sremov edandt herestofthebottom layerisdrainedintoaseparatecontai
nerand
di
scarded; t
oensur ethatnopar tofthetoplayer(paraf
fin)getsintothebeakercontaini
ngthe
bott
om ( water)layer.
-Theother( top)layeristhendr ai
nedintoanotherbeaker .

Observ
ations:
-Aft
erthemi xt
urehassett
ledoi
landpar
aff
insepar
atei
ntotwolayer
s.
-Thefi
rstbeakercont
ainsonlywat
er;
whil
ethesecondbeakercont
ainsonl
ypar
aff
in.

Conclusi
on.
-Paraff
inandwaterarei
mmisci
ble.
-Thetoplayercont
ainswat
erwhi
chisdenserwhi
l
ethet
opl
ayercont
ainsoi
l(par
aff
in)whi
chi
s
l
ight
er.

Pract
ical
appl
icat
ion:
-Extr
acti
onofuseful
subst
ancesf
rom compl
exmi
xtur
es.

Example:
Separ
ati
onofi
odinefr
om sodi
um chl
ori
de.
***
***
****
***
***
***
***
***
***
* *

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 36
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com

10.Useofmagnets.
-I
susedtoseparatesoli
dmi
xtur
es,oneofwhichismagneti
c(usual
l
yir
on).
-Their
onispi
ckedwi t
hamagnetleavi
ngtheothercomponent
softhemixt
urebehi
nd.

Examples:
-Separ
ationofpowder
edi
ronf
rom i
ronpowder
-sul
phurmi
xtur
e.

Pract
icalappl
icat
ions:
-I
ntheextract
ion(mini
ngofi
ron)
;wher
emagneti
cir
onoreissepar
atedfr
om ot
hermateri
alsi
n
thecrushedore.
-Separati
onofscrapir
onfr
om non-
magnet
icmater
ial
sli
kegl
assandplasti
csi
nrecy
cli
ngplants.

Cr
iter
iaf
orpurit
y.
 Pur esubstance:
-I
sasubstancethatcontai
nsonl
yonet
ypeofcompoundorel
ement
.

Deter
minationofpur
it
y
(a)
.Soli
ds:
-Puri
tyofsoli
dsisdeter
minedbymeasuri
ngt
hemelti
ngpoint
.
-Puresoli
dsmeltsharpl
yoveranar
rowtemper
atur
erange.
Examples:
-Naphthal
enemeltsat80oC–81oC.
o
-Watermeltsat0C.

Effect
sofimpur i
tyonmelt
ingpoint
.
-Impurit
ieslowerthemel
ti
ngpointofasubst
ancemaki
ngi
tmel
tov
erawi
der
angeof
temperaturesi.
e.themel
ti
ngpointi
snotshar
p.

Appl
i
cat
ions:
Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 37
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com
1.Extr
act i
onofmet als.
-Impuriti
esareaddedt opurif
iedmetalorestol owert
heirmelt
ingpoi nts,
hencesaveener
gyand
extr
actioncosts.
2.Topr eventknockingofenginesduetof r
eezingofwaterincarradiatorsdur
ingcol
dseasons,
i
mpur i
tiesli
keethyleneglycolorsal
t(NaCl)isadded.
3.Defrosti
ngoff r
ozenr oadsandsidewalksintemperatecountri
es,byspr i
nkl
ingasal
tsuchas
sodium chlori
de.

(b)
.Li
quids:
-Puri
tyofali
quidi
sdeter
minedbymeasur
ingi
tsboi
l
ingpoi
nt.
-Apureli
quidhasasharpboi
li
ngpoi
nt.
Exampl
es:
Purewat sat100oCat1at
erboi
l mospher
icpr
essur
e.
o
Pureet
hanolboil
sat78C.

Eff
ectofimpuri
tyonboil
ingpoint.
-I
mpuriti
esrai
setheboil
ingpointofali
quid.
Example:
-Seawaterboi
lsatahighertemperat
urethanpur
ewat
erduet
othepr
esenceofdi
ssol
vedsal
ts.

St
atesofmatter.
 Mat ter
:
-Matt
erisanythi
ngt
hatoccupi
esspaceandhasmass.
-I
tiscomposedofeit
herpuresubst
ancesorami
xtur
eofsubst
ances.

St
atesofmat ter
:
Matterexi
stsinthr
eest
ates:
 Sol id
 Li quid
 Gas.

Kinet
ict
heoryofmatter
:
-Stat
esthatmatt
erismadeupofsmallparti
cleswhicharei
nconti
nuousrandom mot
ion.
-Theconti
nuousrandom mot
ionofpar
ti
clesinmat t
eriscal
l
edBrownianmotion.
-Therat
eofmov ementofpar
ticl
esi
nmat terdependsonthest
ate

(a)
.Soli
dstate:
-Havecloselypackedparti
clesheldbystr
ongf or
cesofatt
ract
ion.
-Part
icl
esdonotmov efrom onepointtoanotherbutv
ibr
ateaboutaf
ixedposi
ti
on.
-Uponheating,t
heystarttov i
brat
evigor
ously
.
Reason:
-Duetoincreaseinthei
rkineti
cenergy.

(b)
.Liquidst
ate:
-Parti
clesar
efurt
herapartf
rom oneanothert
hanthoseinthesoli
dstat
e
-Forcesofatt
ract
ionbetweent
heparti
clesareweakerthanthoseint
hesol
i
d.
Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 38
 i
saboke
micah@gma i
l.
com
-Thepar
ti
clesremai
ncl
ose,butar
efreetomovefrom oneposi
ti
ont
oanot
her
.
-Onheat
ingtheygai
nener
gyandmov erapi
dly
.

(c)
.Gaseousst ate:
-Theparti
clesaref arapar
tandfreet
omov erandomlyinall
dir
ecti
ons.
-Consequentl
yt heylackdefi
nit
eshapeandvolume,butoccupythewhol
espacewi
thi
na
contai
ner.
-Forcesofattr
act i
onbetweenthepart
icl
esar
ev eryweak.

Theeffectofheatonsubst ances.
-Asubstancecanchangef rom onest
atetoanotheruponheat
ingorcool
i
ng.
-Thesear ephysicalchangesandcanbereversed.
-Therearefiveprocessesinvol
vedinchangesofstate:
 Mel ti
ng
 Ev aporat
ion
 Condensat i
on
 Freezing
 Subl i
mation

Theprocessesinvol
vedinchangeofst
atesofmatt
er.
(i
).Melt
ing:
-I
sachangeofst atefr
om soli
dtoli
qui
d.
 Mel t
ingpoint
:
-I
st heconstantt
emperatur
eatwhicht
hemel t
ingt
akespl
ace.
Examples:
-I
cemel sat0oC.
t
-Sodi
um chlor
idemel
tsat800oC.

-Duringmelti
ngtheener
gysuppl
i
edt
othepar
ti
clesi
susedt
oweakent
hef
orcesofat
tr
act
ionso
thatpart
icl
escanmov eabout
.

(i
i
).Vapour
isat
ion( ev
apor
ation)
-I
schangeofst atefr
om l
iquidt
ogas.
 Boil
i
ngpoi nt:
-I
stheconstanttemperat
ureatwhichal
i
qui
dchangesf
rom sol
i
dtoagas.

-Dur
ingboi
l
ing,
theenergysuppli
edisusedtobreakt
hef
orcesofat
tr
act
ioni
nthel
i
qui
dthus
movi
ngthepart
icl
esfarawayfrom eachot
her.

Examples:
Waterboisat100oC,
l whil
eethanol sat78oCatoneat
boi
l mospheri
cpr
essur
e.
Reason:
Theforcesofat
tract
ionbetweenthewaterpar
ti
cl
esar
estr
ongert
hant
hoseofet
hanol
.

(c).Condensat
ion:
-Isthechangeofstatefr
om agastoaliqui
d.
-Isachangeduet odecreasei
ntemperatur
e.
-Whent hetemperatur
eofgasisdecr
eased,thepar
ti
clesl
oseki
net
icener
gyt
othesur
roundi
ngs
tomov eslowly
.
Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 39
 is
abokemic
ah@gmai
l.
com
-Theatt
ract
iveforcesbecomest r
onger,
andthesampl
echangestoali
quid.
Note:
-Thetemperatur
eatwhi chcondensat
ionoccur
sist
hesameast heboi
l
ingpoint
.

(d).Freezi
ng:
-Ist hechangef rom aliqui
dtoasol i
d.
-Itisalsoduet odecreasei ntemperatur
e.
-Whenal iquidiscooled,thepart
icl
esloseenergyandmoveverysl
owly.
-Theyat tractoneanot herstr
ongl
y ,
andulti
matelyremai
ninf
ixedposi
ti
ons.
Not e:
-Thef reezingpointi
st hesameast hemelt
ingpoint.

(e).Subl
i
mat i
on.
-Istheprocesswher
ebyasol
i
ddoesnotmel
twhenheat
ed,
butchangesdi
rect
lyt
othegaseous
state.

Exampl e:
-I
odinesol idchangestopurplevapourwhenheatedto70oC.
-Dryice( sol
idCO2),usedtocoolicecream,
evaporat
eswithoutl
eavi
ngali
qui
d.
Note:
-Ther everseofsubli
mation,wherebyagaschangesdir
ectl
ytosoli
discal
l
eddeposi
ti
on.

Summar
yonchangesofst
ate.
E

Sol
i
d Li
qui
d Gas

Key
:A:
mel
ti
ng;
B:v
apour
isat
ion;
C:Fr
eezi
ng;
D:Condensat
ion;
E:Subl
i
mat
ion;
F:Deposi
ti
on;

Experi
ment:Invest
igati
ngchangesint emperatur
ewheni ceisheated.
(i
).Pr
ocedure:
-A250ml beakerishalf-
fi
ll
edwithdryice,andtheinit
ialtemperaturerecorded.
-Theicei
sheat ed,whil
estir
ri
ngwithat hermomet erandt hetemper atur
erecordedev
ery30
seconds.
-Heati
ngandr ecordi
ngisdoneunt i
ltheresult
antwat erstar
tstoboi l.
-Agraphoftemper atur
eagainstti
mei splott
ed.
(
ii
).Resul
ts:
o
Temperatur
es( C) -
10 0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210
Ti
me( seconds)

(
ii
i)
.Gr
aph:
Ef
fectofheatonpur
eice
Temp(C)
o

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 40
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com

Ti
me(
seconds)

(i
v).Expl
anat
ions:
 PointA-B:
-Ast hei
ceisheatedthet emper
aturer
isessteadi
l
yf r
om -10oCto0oC.
Reason:
-Theheatsuppli
edincreasesthekinet
icener
gyoft heice(sol
idwater
)mol
ecul
es;
col
l
isi
ons
betweenthem henceincreasedt
emper at
ure.
 Poi ntB-C:
-Thetemper at
ureoft heicer
emai nsconst antevenasheati sapplied.
Reason:
-Heatsuppl i
edisusedt obreakthef orcesofattractionbet weenthewat ermol ecul
esinice.
-Thisisthemel t
ingpointhenceatB- Ctheicemel ts.
 Poi ntsC-D:
-AtC, al
ltheicehasal r
eadymelted( turnedtowat er ).
-BetweenCandD, t
het emperat
ur eoft hewaterincr easesasheatingcont i
nues.
Reason:
-Theheatsuppl i
edincreasestheki neticener
gyoft hewat ermolecules;
theirrateofcoll
i
sion
i
ncreaseshencei ncreasedtemper atures.

 PointsD-E:
-Temperatureofthewat
erremainsconstantevenasheatisbeingsuppl
i
ed.
-PointD-
Eist heboi
li
ngpoi
ntie.100oC.
.
Reason:
-Theheatsuppliedi
susedtobreaktheforcesofatt
ract
ionbetweenwatermol
ecul
esi
nthel
i
qui
d.

 Poi
ntsE-F:
-Atpoi
ntE,al
lthel
iqui
dwaterhast
urnedi
ntovapour.
-Thusbet
weenEandF, thet
emperat
ureofthevapourri
sesasheati
sappl
i
ed.

Not
e:Heat
ingcur
vef
orani
mpur
esol
i
d.
Ef
fectofheatoni
mpur
eice
Temp(C)
o

Ti
me(
seconds)

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 41
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com

Thecool
ingcurve.
-I
sacurvethatshowshowt het
emperat
ureofasubst
ancechangeswi
tht
imeasi
tiscool
ed
fr
om agasint
oasol i
d.
-I
tist
heoppositeofaheat
ingcurv
e.
Exampl
e:t
hecool
i
ngcur
veofwat
er
Temp(C)
o

Ti
me(
seconds)

Expl
anations:
 Poi nt
sA-B:
-Gaseousst at
e;temper
atur
eisdecl
i
ning.
-Heatlossresult
sint
odecreasei
nkinet
icener
gyoft
hegaseousmol
ecul
es.

 Point
sB-C:
-Thi
sisthecondensati
onpoint
;
-Thewatervapourcondensest
othel
i
qui
dst
ate;
bondsar
efor
medast
hehesti
slost
.

 PointsC-D;
-Temperatureoftheli
qui
dwat eri
sdecl
i
ning;
-Heatl
ossr esul
tsint
odecreaseinki
net
icener
gyoft
hel
i
qui
dmol
ecul
es.

 Point
sD- E;
-Thi
sisthefreezingpoint
;
-Thetemperatureremainsconst
antastheheati
sbei
nglost
;
-Theheatbeinglostresul
tsi
ntobondformati
on;
asthel
i
quidfor
msasol
i
d.

 Point
sE-F;
-Thewateri
snowi nsoli
dstat
e.
-Thetemperat
ureofthesol
i
ddecli
nesasheati
sbei
ngl
ost
.

Permanentandtemporar
ychanges.
-Heatcausesmattert
ochange.
-Changesduetoheatcanei
therbeper
manentornon-
per
manent(
tempor
ary
).

(a).Permanentchanges.
-Ar eal
socall
edchemi calchanges.
-Involv
essubstancesthatarerelat
ivel
ylessst
abl
etoheat
.

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 42
 isaboke mica
h@g mail
.c
om
Characteri
sti
csofpermanent( chemical)changes.
(i
).Newsubst ancesareformed.
(i
i
).Involv
esconsiderableheatchanges; energyisei
thergi
venoutorabsor
bed.
(i
i
i).Themassoft hesubstancechanges.

Typesofpermanent( chemical
)changes.
-Chemicalchangesar eoftwomai nty
pes:
 Reversibleper
manentchanges.
 Ir
reversibl
e(non-r
eversi
ble)per
manentchanges.

(i
).Reversi
blepermanentchanges.
-Arechemi calchangesinwhichthefi
nal
newpr
oduct
scanr
ecombi
net
ofor
mtheor
igi
nal
substance,undercertai
ncondit
ions.

Gener
all
y:
A+B C+D
React
ant
s Pr
oduct
s

Examples:
1.Eff
ectofheatonhy dratedbluecopper(I
I)sul
phat
e.
(i
).Apparat
us:
-Testtubes,Bunsenburner,t
esttubeholder
-Hydratedcopper(I
I)sulphat
e

(
ii
).Appar
atus:

(i
i)
.Procedure:
–Dr ycry
st al
sofhy dratedbluecopper(
II
)sulphateareputinacleandryt
esttube.
-Theappar atusarear r
angedasabov e.
-Thecopper( II
)sulphateisheatedunti
lnofurtherchange.
-Thedeliverytubeisremov edfrom t
hecoll
ectedliqui
dwhileheati
ngcont
inues.
Reason:
-Toav oi
dsucki ngbackoft hecondensi
ngliquidwhichwouldotherwi
serehydrat
etheanhy
drous
copper(I
I)sulphate

-Thetestt
ubeisal
l
owedt ocoolandtheremai
ningsol
i
disdi
vi
dedintot
wopor t
ions.
-Tooneporti
onofthepowder,
adddisti
ll
edwater,
whil
etot
heotherpot
ionaddthecondensed
l
iqui
d.

(i
i
i).Obser
vati
ons:
-Awhi t
esoli
d/powderremainsi
nthetesttubeaft
erheat
ing.
-Acolourl
essli
quidcondensesi
nthetestt
ubedippedint
otheicecol
dwat
er.
-Thecolourl
essli
qui
dturnsthewhit
esoli
dintobl
ue.
Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 43
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com

(i
v).Expl anations:
-Hy dr at
edbl uecopper(II
)sulphatehavewaterofcryst
all
izati
on,giv
ingitthecharact
eri
sti
cblue
col
our .
-Dur ingheat i
ng, t
heheatenergysuppli
edisusedtodr i
veoutt hewatermol ecul
es(part
icl
es)out
ofthecr ystal
s;
-Wit houtwat er,thecopper(I
I)sul
phateturnswhit
eandt huscalledanhydrouscopper(II
)
sul
phat e;
-Thewat erdriv
enoutoft hecryst
alscondensesi
nt hetesttubeimmer sedintheicecol
dwat er
.

Equati
on Heat
Hydrat
edcopper(
II
)sul
phat
e anhy
drouscopper(
II
)sul
phat
e+Wat
er
Bl
ue Cool Whi
te

Chemical
l
y: Heat
CuSO4.
5H2O(s) Cool
CuSO4(s)+5H2O(g);

Confi
rmatorytestforwater.
 Ittur
nswhi t
eanhy drouscopper( I
I)sul
phatet
obl
ue;
 Itchangesbl uecobaltchlori
depaperpink;
Confi
rmatorytestthatthewat erispur
e:
 Itboisat100oC;
l
 Itmeltsat0oC;
 Ithasadensi tyof1gcm-3;
 Ithasar ef
ractiv
eindexof1. 33;

Note:
-Thedel
iver
ytubeisremovedfrom t
hecoll
ecti
ngli
quidwhil
eheati
ngisconti
nued;t
oensur
ethat
nowatercondensesbacki
ntothecopper(I
I)sul
phateasthi
swouldcauserehydr
ati
on;
-Addi
ti
onofwat ert
otheanhydrouscopper(I
II
)sul
phatechangesi
tscol
ourfrom whi
tet
oblue;

Concl
usion:
Theeff
ectofheatoncopper(
II
)sul
phat
eisar
ever
sibl
echemi
cal
change;

2.Effectofheatonammoni um chl
ori
de.
-Whenammoni um chl
ori
dei sheat
ed,itpr
oducesammoniagasandhy dr
ogenchl
ori
degas.
-Thesear eseenasdensewhi t
efumes.
-Reversibl
e,whenammoni aandhy dr
ogenchlori
dear
egasesarereact
edorall
owedtocool
,they
produceammoni um chl
ori
de;

I
nsummary
: Heat
Ammoni
um chl
ori
desol
i
d ammoni
um chl
ori
de+hy
drogenchl
ori
de;
Whi
te Cool Densewhi
tef
umes

Chemi
call
y: Heat
NH4Cl(
s)
Cool
NH3(g)+HCl
(
g);
Ammoni
um chl
ori
de Ammoni
agas hy
drogenchl
ori
degas

3.Decomposi
ti
onofcal
cium car
bonat
e.

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 44
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com
I
nsummar y: Heat
Cal
cium car
bonat
esol
i
d Cal
cium oxi
de+Car
bon(
IV)oxi
de;
Cool

(i
i)
.Ir
reversi
blechemi calchange.
-Arechemi calchangesi nwhichther
esul
tantproduct
scannotr
ecombi
net
ofor
mtheor
igi
nal
substance(reactant
s);
-Majorit
yoft hechemi calchangesar
eir
rever
sible;

Gener
all
y:
A+B C+D
React
ant
s Pr
oduct
s

Examples:
1.Acti
onofheatonpot assi
um manganat
e(VI
I)
(i
).Apparat
usandchemi cal
s.
-Bunsenburner
,testt
ube, t
rough,
woodenspl
i
nt;
-Potassi
um managnate(VII)
;

(
ii
).Appar
atussetup.

Potassi
um manganat
e
(VI
I)

Heat

(i
i
i).Pr
ocedure:
-2end-ful
lsofaspatulaofpotassi
um manganate(VII
)areputi
nahar dgl
asstestt
ube;
-Thesetupi sassembledasshownabov e;
-Thesolidpotassi
um manganate(VII
)isheated,
andt her
esul
tantgascol
l
ectedoverwat
er;
-Theresult
antgas(es)i
stestedwithaglowingspli
nt;

(i
v).Obser
vati
ons:
-Thepurplesol
idturnsbl
ack;
-Acolourl
essgascol l
ect
soverwater
;
-Thecolourl
essrel
ightsagl
owingspli
nt;

(v
).Explanati
ons:
-Potassium manganat
e(VI
I)
,apur
plesol
i
dwasdecomposed(
spl
i
ntup)onheat
ingt
oyi
eld(
giv
e

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 45
 is
abokemica
h@gmail
.
com
potassi
um manganat
e(II
I)andoxy gen.
-Thepotassi
um manganate(II
I)istheblackresi
due;
-Thecolourl
essgasi
soxy gen;andr el
ight
ingaglowi
ngspli
nti
stheconf
ir
mat
oryt
est
;

I
nsummary:
Pot
assi
um manganat
e(VI
I)→ Pot
assi
um manganat
e(I
II
)+oxy
gen
Pur
plesol
i
d Bl
acksol
i
d Col
our
lessgas

Not
e:Itisnotpossi
blef
oroxygenandpot
assium manganate(I
II
)tor
ecombi
nebackt
o
pot
assium manganate(
VII
);hencet
hechangeisi
rrev
ersi
ble;

2.Ther
mal decomposi
tionofcopper(I
I)ni
tr
ate.
-Thebluesoli
ddecomposestof or
m ablacksoli
d;copper(
II
)oxi
de,
red-
brownf
umesofni
tr
ogen
(I
V)oxi
deandacol our
lessgas,oxygen;

I
nsummar y:
Copper(
II
)ni
trat
e→ Copper(
II
)oxi
de+Ni
tr
ogen(
IV)oxi
de+oxy
gen
Bl
uesol
i
d Bl
acksol
i
d Br
own(
red-
brown)f
umes Col
our
lessgas

Note:Furt
herexamplesofchemi calchanges
-Theburningofanysubstance(exceptplati
num);
-Therusti
ngofiron;
-Addit
ionofwatertocalci
um oxide;
-Expl
osionofnaturalgasorhydrogenwi t
hair;
-Reacti
ngofsodium inwater;

Note:Exother
mi candendother
micreact
ions:
(i
).Exot
hermicr eact
ions.
-Arereact
ionsinwhi chheati
srel
eased//giv
enouttot
hesurroundi
ng;
-Usuall
ythefinaltemperat
ureoft
hereacti
onvessel
//mixt
ure(e.
g.beakeri
shi
ghert
hani
nit
ial
l
y;

Examples:
-Freezi
ng;
-Condensati
on;
-Deposit
ion//subl
i
mat
ionoff
umest
osol
i
d;

(i
i)
.Endothermicreacti
ons.
-Arechemi cal
reacti
onsinwhi
chheati
sabsor bedfrom t
hesurr
ounding;
-Thef i
naltemperat
ureofther
eact
ionvessel
orr eacti
onmixt
ureisusual
lyl
owert
hant
hei
nit
ial
i
.e.theyareaccompaniedbyadropint
emper ature;

Examples.
-Melt
ing;
-Vapouri
zat
ion;
-Subl
imati
on(ofsol
i
dtogas)

Summar
yonchemi
cal
changes.
React
ion Appearance Changesdur
ingr
eact
ion Newsubst
ance(
s) Typeof
ofsubstance change

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 46
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com
Heati
nghydr
ated Bl
ue Bluecry
stal
sturni
ntoawhi
te Anhydr
ouscopper(I
I) Chemi
cal
copper(
II
) powder;col
ourl
essl
iqui
d sul
phateandwater
sul
phate condensesoncooli
ng;

Heat
ingpotassi
um Shi
nypurpl
e Thepurpl
esol
idt
urnsbl
ack; Potassium Chemi
cal
;
manganat
e( VII
) cr
ystal
s evol
uti
onofacol
ourl
essgas; manganat e(I
II
)and
oxygen;
Heati
ng Whit
esoli
d// Densewhit
efumedt
hatcool
sto Ammoni agasand Chemi
cal
;
ammonium powder
; awhitesol
i
d; hydrogenchlori
de
chl
ori
de gas;
Heati
nglead(
II
) Whi
tesol
i
d Thewhi t
esol idt
urnsi
ntoared -Lead(II)oxi
de; Chemi
cal
;
ni
tr
ate; sol
iddur i
ngheatingwhichon ni
trogen( I
V)oxi
de
cooli
ngt urnsyel
low; andoxy gengas;
-Decrepitati
ngsound;
-Brownf umes;
-colour
lessgas;

Heat
inglead(
II
) Whi
tesol
i
d Thewhi t
esol i
dtur nsintoay el
l
ow -Zi
nc(I
I)oxide; Chemi
cal
;
ni
tr
ate; sol
idduringheatingwhi chon ni
tr
ogen(IV)oxide
cooli
ngturnswhi te; andoxy
gengas;
-Decrepi
tati
ngsound;
-Brownfumes;col our
lessgas;
Heat
ingcopper Brown -Brownturnings/ /solidturn -Copper(
II
)oxi
de; Chemi
cal
;
t
urni
ngs tur
nings; bl
ack;

Rust
ingofi
ron; Gr
eysol
i
d -Gr
eysol
i
dtur
nsi
ntoar
edbr
own -Hydr
atedi
ron(
II
I) Chemi
cal
;
sol
i
d; oxi
de;

Heat
ingCopper(
II
) Bl
uesol
i
d Thebl uesol
i
dt ur
nsi
ntoabl
ack -Copper(I
I)oxi
de; Chemi
cal
;
ni
tr
ate; sol
id; ni
tr
ogen(IV)oxide
-Brownf umes; andoxygengas;
-colourl
essgas;

Heati
ngcopper(
II
) Gr
eensol
i
d Thegr eensol
idt
urnsi
ntoabl
ack -copper(I
I)oxi
deand Chemi
cal
;
car
bonat
e sol
id; carbon(I
V)oxide;
-colourl
essgas;

(b)
.Temporar
y(non-
permanent)changes.
-Areal
socall
edphysi
calchanges;
-Theyar
echangesthati
nvolvesubst
ancesthatar
emor
establet
oheat;
-Onheati
ngtheydonotdecomposehencenonewsubstancesar
efor
med;
Charact
eri
sti
csofpermanentchanges.
1.Allar
erever
sibl
euponchangesintemperat
ure;
2.Nonewsubst ancei
sformed(inst
eadther
eareonl
ychangesofst
ate)
;
3.Themassoft hesubst
ancesdonotchange;
Exampl
es:
Sol
i
d Ori
ginal Obser
vat
ionsdur
ingheat
ingt
hencool
i
ng
appearance
1.Candl
ewax Whitesti
ckysol
i
d; -Thesoli
dmel t
sintoacol our
lessv i
scousliqui
d;andoncool
ing
sol
idi
fi
est otheoriginalsol
idwaxagai n;
2.I
odi
nesol
i
d. Shi
nydark-
grey -Thesoli
dt urnsdirectl
ytopurplevapour(subli
mat i
on)
;
cr
ystal
s; -Oncoolingthepur pleiodi
nev apour(gas)changesdir
ect
lyt
osoli
d
i
odine(depositi
on);

i
e.I
odi
nesol
i
d═ i
odi
nev
apour
;

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 47
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com
Dar
kgr
ey Pur
ple

3.Zi
ncoxi
de Whi
tesol
i
d; -Thewhi
tesol
idtur
nsy
ell
owonheat
inganduponcool
i
ngchanges
backt
otheori
ginal
whi
tecol
our
;

i
e.Zi
ncoxi
de═ Zi
ncoxi
de;
Whi
te(
col
d) Yel
l
ow(
hot
)

4.I
ce Whi
te -Thesoli
dwatermelt
sintol
iqui
dandonfur
therheat
ingtheli
qui
d
vapour
izesandtur
nsint
ogas;
-Oncoolingt
hegascondensestol
iqui
dwhi
cht henf
reezesback
i
ntosoli
d;

i
.
eIce═ Wat
er═ Gas

5.Pl
ati
num wi
re; -Awhi
teglowofthemet
ali
sseenonheating,
butoncool
i
ngt
he
met
alchangesbackt
oit
sori
ginal
greycol
our;

6.Lead(
II
)oxi
de; Yel
l
ow -Theyel
l
owsoli
dtur
nsredonheati
nganduponcool
i
ngchanges
backt
otheor
igi
naly
ell
owcolour
;

i
e.Lead(
II
)oxi
de═ Lead(
II
)oxi
de;
Whi
te(
col
d) Yel
l
ow(
hot
)

Di
ff
erencesbet
weenPhy
sical
andChemi
cal
changes.

Physical
change Chemi calchange
1.Producesnonewki ndofsubst
ance; -Alway sproducesanewki ndofsubst ance;
2.UIsusuall
y(gener
all
y)i
rrev
ersi
ble; Aregener al
lyir
reversi
ble;withonlyfewexcepti
ons
(i
.e.mostar eir
reversi
ble);
3.Themassoft hesubstancedoesnotchange; -Themassoft hesubst ancechanges;
4.Noenergyisgiv
enoutorabsor bedi
.e.ar
enot -Energyisusual l
ygivenoutorabsor bedi.eare
accompaniedbygreatheatchanges; usuall
yaccompani edbygr eatheatchanges;

Constituent sofmat t
er
-Adet ail
edexami nati
onofmatt
err
eveal
sthatiti
sbuil
tofv
er yt
inyunit
scalledt
oms;
-Present l
yabout115at omshav
ebeenident
if
ied;
-Thear rangementandnumberofat omsinasubstancewil
lresulti
ntoothermuchl
arger
consti
tuent sofmatter;
-Thesear e:
 El ement s;
 Mol ecul
es;
 Compounds;
 Mi xtures;

1.Theat om;
-Isthesmal l
estparti
cleofmatterthatcantakepar
tinachemi
cal
reacti
on;
-Iti
st hesmallestpart
icl
eint
owhi chanelementcanbedivi
dedwi
thoutl
osi
ngt
hepr
oper
ti
esof
theelement ;
-Atomsofv ari
ouselementsall
differfr
om oneanother
;
Exampl es:
-Copperi smadeupofmanycopperat oms;
-Sodium elementismadeupofmanysodi um at
oms;

2.El
ement
s.
Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 48
 i
s a
bokemic
ah@g mail
.com
-Anelementi
sasubst ancethatcannotbespli
tint
oany t
hingsi
mpl ebyanyknownchemi
cal
means;
-Anelementconsist
sofasi ngletypeofatom;
-Ther
eareabout155knownel ements,90ofwhichoccurnatur
all
y.
-El
ementsareclassi
fiedintotwomai ngroups;
 Metals:
-Al
lar
esol
idsatr
oom t
emper
atur
e(exceptmer
cur
y);
andar
egoodconduct
orsofel
ect
ri
cit
y;
 Non-metals;
-Exi
stsassol
idsandgases;
-All
arepoorelectr
icconduct
orsexceptgr
aphi
te;
Examplesofel
ements.
(i
).Metal
s:
-Sodium,magnesi
um,pot
assi
um,
alumi
nium,
lead,
iron,
zinc,
sil
ver
,gol
d,t
in,
plat
inum,
urani
um,
calci
um,manganeseet
c.

(i
i).Non-elements.
-Car bon,nit
rogen,sulphur
,oxy gen,chlor
ine,fl
uor
ine,ar
gon,neon,bromine,
iodine,
sil
icon,boron,
xenon, krypt
on.
3.Mol ecule.
-Isthesmal lestpart
icleofasubst ancethatcanexistindependent
ly;
-Itismadewhen2ormor eat oms( simil
arordissi
milar)ar
echemi cal
l
ycombi nedtogether;
-Howev eratomsofnobl e/inertgasesexi stassi
ngleatoms;

Note:
-Dependingonnumberofatomsmol
ecul
escanbecat
egor
izedi
nto:
(i
).Monoatomicmolecul
e;
-madeupofonl yoneatom;
Examples:
-Argon;
→
Ar
gonat
om Ar
gonmol
ecul
e;
-Neon;
-Hel
ium;

(i
i)
.Diat
omicmol
ecul
es.
-Madeupof2simil
arat
oms;
chemi
cal
l
ycombi
nes;
Examples
-Oxygengas;
→
Oxy
genat
om Oxy
genmol
ecul
e;
-Nit
rogengas;
-Hydrogengas;
-Chl
orinegas;

(i
i)
.Tri
atomi
cmolecules.
-Madeupof3similaratoms;
chemi
cal
l
ycombi
nes;
Examples
-Ozonemolecul
e;

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 49
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com
→
Oxy
genat
om Ozonemol
ecul
e;

Note:
-Othermolecul
esareal
somadef
rom at
omsofdi
ff
erentel
ement
schemi
cal
l
ycombi
nedt
oget
her
;
Examples:
(i
).Hydr
ogenchlor
ide;
+ →
Hy
drogen Chl
ori
ne Hy
drogenchl
ori
demol
ecul
e;
Atom. At om;

(
ii
).Wat
ermol
ecul
e;
+ + →
Hy
drogenat
oms oxy
genat
om; Wat
ermol
ecul
e;

4.Compounds.
-Acompoundi sapuresubst
anceconsisti
ngoftwoormor eel
ementsthatarechemical
l
y
combined.
-Compoundsusuall
yhavedif
fer
entproperti
esfr
om thoseofi
tsconst
it
uentelements;
-Proper
tiesofacompoundareuni
for
mt hr
oughoutanygiv
ensampleandf r
om onesamplet
o
another
;

Exampl
esofcompoundsandt
hei
rconst
it
uentel
ement
s.

Compound Constit
uentel ement s
Colour
lesswaterliquid; Oxygenandhy drogen;
Greencopper(II
)car bonat
e; Copper,carbonandoxy gen;
Whitesodium ni
trate; Sodium,nitrogenandoxy gen;
Bl
ackcopper( I
I)oxide; Copperandoxy gen;
Bl
uecopper( I
I)nitr
ate; Copper,nit
rogenandoxy gen;
Bl
uecopper( I
I)sulphate; Copper,sulphur ,oxygenand
hydrogen;
Ammoni
um chl
ori
de; Nit
rogen,hy drogenandchl ori
ne;

Note:
-Carbonatesareder
ivati
vesof(deri
vedfr
om ormadeof )car
bonandoxygen;
-Nit
ratesarederi
vat
ivesofnit
rogenandoxy gen;
-Sulphat
esarederiv
ativesofsul
phurandoxy gen;
-Hydrogencarbonatesarederi
vati
vesofhydrogen,car
bonandoxygen;

5.Mi
xtur
es
-Asubst
ancet
hatconsi
stsoft
woormor
eel
ement
sorcompoundst
hatar
enotchemi
cal
l
y
combi
ned.

Char
acter
isti
csofmixt
ures.
-I
tproper
tiesar
etheaverageoft
hepr
oper
ti
esofi
tsel
ement
s;
Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 50
 i
sabokemicah@gmail.
com
-I
tscomponent
scanbeseparatedbyphysical
meanse. g.fi
l
trat
ion,
magnet
ism,
dist
il
lat
ionet
c.
-I
tscomponent
sarenotnecessar
il
yiff
ixedpositi
ons;
-Aref
ormedbyphysi
calmeans;i.
e.t
hereisusuall
ynoheatchangeduri
ngit
sfor
mation.

Exampl
esofmixt
ures:
1.Ai
r:
-Amixtur
eofoxy
gen,ni
tr
ogen,
car
bon(
IV)oxi
de,
wat
erv
apour
,andnobl
egases.

2.Sugarsol
uti
on.
-Ami xt
ureofsugarandwat
er.

3.Seawat
er.
-Water
,di
ssol
vedsal
ts;

Experi
ment:Todist
ingui
shbet
weenanelementandacompound.
(i
).Appar
atus.
-Watchglass,
testt
ube,woodenspl
i
nt,
magnet,ir
onfi
l
li
ngs,
sulphurpowder
,di
l
utehy
drochl
ori
c
acid.

(i
i
).Procedur
e.
-Approxi
mately7gofi
ronf
il
li
ngsand4gofsul
phurar
emi
xedi
nat
estt
ubeandt
hemi
xtur
e
str
onglyheat
ed;

Obser
vations:
-Aredglowst art
sandspreadsthr
oughoutt
hemixt
urefor
mingablacksol
id.
-Theblacksolidi
sir
on(II
)sulphi
de.
-Thetwopr oducts/
/substancesi
nsteps1and2aresubj
ectedt
othefoll
owingt
est
s;

Obser
vations
Test/
/Anal
ysi
s
Iron-sulphurmi xture. Ir
on( II
)sul phi de
1.Colour:Thecol ourofthe -Ther esul
tantsubst anceisyell
ow- -They el l
ow- gr eymi xtur echanges
substanceisnot ed; gr eyduet othey ell
owsul phurand t oabl acksol id; i
ron(II)sul phi deon
thegr eyironpowder ; heating;
2.Separati
on: Amagneti spassed -Bef oreheat ingthei roncouldbe -Magnet ism andsedi ment at i
on
overthesubst ancessepar atel
y; separ atedf r
om sul phurbyuseofa hav enoef fectoni ron( I
I)sul phide;
-Alt
ernativ
ely,wat erwasaddedto magnetorsedi ment at i
on;
eachsubst ance; Not e:Thesear ephy sicalmethods;
3.Reactionwithdi lut
e -Ironr eactedwi thdilute -Iron(II)sul phider eact edwi th
hydrochl
oricaci d: Toeachofthe hy drochlori
caci dtof orma hydrochl oricaci dt oproducea
substances,af ewdr opsof col ourl
essgast hatbur nswitha colourlessgaswi thachar act eri
sti
c
hydrochl
oricaci di sadded; popsound. pungent( rottenegg)smel l
;
-Thi sishy drogengas; -Thegasi shy dr ogensul phide;
-Sul phurisnotaf fect ed;
4.Heatchange. Noheatwaspr oducedorappl ied -Af t
erheat i
ngt hemi xtur e,the
i
nmi xingironandsul phur
; format i
onoft henewsubst ance,
i
ron( II
)sul phi depr oducedenough
heathencet hebr i
ghtr edgl ow;

Expl
anati
ons:
-Thesefourexper
iment
ssummar
izet
hef
ourmai
ndi
ff
erencesbet
weencompoundsand
mixtur
es.

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 51
 i
saboke
mica
h@g mail
.c
om
-Fr
om t
her
esul
ts,
ironandsul
phurpowderisamixt
ure;
whilei
ron(
II
)sul
phi
dei
sacompound.

Di
ff
erencesbet
weenami
xtur
eandacompound.
Compounds Mixt
ures
1.Component sareinfixedposit
ions; -Component
sar
einanyposit
ions;
2.Component scanonl ybeseparatedbychemi cal -Component
scabesepar
atedbyphysi
cal
means;
means; whichrequir
elargeamount sofenergy;
3.Thepr opert
iesarediff
erentf
rom thoseofthe -Theproperti
esaretheaver
ageofthepropert
iesof
consti
tuentsubstances; theconsti
tuentel
ements;
4.Areformedbychemi calmeans/ /methods;i.
e.a -Areformedbyphy si
calmans;nonewsubstanceis
newsubst anceisformedandt hereisevolut
ionof for
medandt her
eisno//negli
gibl
eheatchange;
heat;
5.Format i
oninvol
vesheatchanges; ei
therli
berat
ion -Noheatchangei
nthef
ormat
ionofami
xtur
e;
orabsorption;

Namesandsy mbol sofcommonel ement s.

Chemicalsymbols.
-Arechemicalshor
thands, wri
tt
entorefertoelement
s.
-Theyareusuall
ybasedont helett
ersoftheelement;
-Chemicalsymbolsconsistofoneortwol et
ter
swhichareusual
l
yder
ivat
ivesoft
heLat
inor
Engli
shnameoft heelement;

Rulesi
nwr i
tingchemicalsy
mbol s.
1.Thefir
stlettermustal
way sbeacapit
all
ett
er;
2.Thelett
ersshouldnotbejoinedwit
heachother,
li
kei
nhandwri
ti
ng;
theymustbepr
int
ed.
3.I
fpresent,thesecondl
etterofasymbolmustbeasmalll
ett
er;

Note:Theabbr eviati
onsoft hechemi calsy
mbolsaremainl
yderi
vat
ivesofEngl
i
sh,
Lat
inor
Germannames.
Examples:
Copperisy mbol i
sedasCu; deri
v edfrom Cupr
um whichisl
ti
n;
 Iron;→ Fe( Ferrum –Lati
n)
 Pot assium; → K( Kal
ium –Latin)
 Sodi um; → Na( Natri
um –Lat i
n)
 Lead; → Pb( Plumbum –Lat in);
-Thesymbol ofeachel ementrepresentsoneatom oft
hatel
ement.
Example:
-Agrepresentsoneat om ofsilver;
-2Agrepresent s2at omsofsi lver;

Somecommonel
ement
sandt
hei
rsy
mbol
s.
El
ement Lat
in/
/Gr
eek/
/Ger
manname Symbol
Car bon - C
Fl
uor ine - F
Hy drogen - H
I
odi ne - I
Nitrogen - N
Oxy gen - O
Phosphor us - P
Sulphur - S
Alumi ni
um - Al
Argon - Ar

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 52
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com
Barium - Ba
Calcium - Ca
Chlorine - Cl
Helium - He
Magnesi um - Mg
Neon - Ne
Sil
icon - Si
Zinc - Zn
Copper Cupr um Cu
Ir
on Ferrum Fe
Lead Plumbum Pb
Mer cury Hy dagy r
um Hg
Potassium Kalium K
Sil
ver Argent um Ag
Sodium Nat ri
um Na
Gold Aur um Au
Tin - Sn
Manganese - Mn

Import
anceofchemi calnamesandsy mbol sov ercommonnames.
1.Chemi calnamesandsy mbolsindicatethenamesi nthecompounds.
Examples:
-Compoundswhosenamesendi n- ide;containsonlyt woelement s;
 Iron( I
I)sul
phide:i
ronandsul phur;
 Magnesi um ni
tri
de:magnesium andni trogen;
-Compoundswhosenamesendi n–at econtainthreeelement sandoeoft hem isoxy
gen;
2.Chemi calnamesar euniver
sall
yknownandaccept ed;henceprov i
demeanofeasy
communi cat
ionamongchemi st
sall overthewor ld;
Simpl
ewor dequations.
Equati
ons:
-Isali
nearsummar yofachemi calreaction,showi ngthereactantsandproducts.
Examples:
Copper(II)oxide+hy dr
ogen→ copper+wat er;

Expl
anati
ons:
-Subst
ancesonthelefthandsi dearecall
edreactants;
-Subst
ancesontherighthandsi dearecall
edproduct s;
-Theaddit
ionsi
gn(+)ont helefthandsidemeans“ reactswit
h”;
-Thearr
ow( →)meanst of or
m;
-Theaddit
ionsi
gn(+)ont herighthandside(productsside)means“
and”
.

Concl
usi
on:
Copper(
II
)oxi
der
eact
swi
thhy
drogent
ofor
m copperandwat
er;

Note:
-Somechemi cal
react
ionsarerev
ersi
bleandhencehavetwoopposi
tearr
ows( )
betweenreact
antsandproduct
s
-Thearrows( )i
nchemistr
ymeansar ever
sibl
echemi
calreact
ion;

Furt
herexamples:
1.Copper(I
I)car
bonate→ Copper(
II
)oxi
de+car
bon(
IV)oxi
de;
2.Magnesium +oxygen→ magnesi
um oxi
de;

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 53
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 54
 is
aboke micah@gma i
l.
com
UNIT3: ACIDSBASESANDI NDI CATORS.
Unitcheckli
st
1.Acids:
 Meani ngofaci ds;
 Or ganicaci ds
 Mi neral acids;
2.Bases.
 Meani ng;
3.I
ndicators.
 Meani ng;
 Pr eparationofaci d-baseindicators;
 Commer ci
al aci d-baseindicators;
 Col ourofi ndi cat orsinacidsandbases;
 Cl assifi
cat i
onsofsubst ancesasaci dsorbasesusi ngaci
dbaseindi
cat
ors;
 Theuni versal indi cator
;
 ThepHscal e;
 pHv aluesofv arioussol uti
onsi nuniversali
ndiactor;
4.Properti
esofaci ds.
 Phy sical proper t
ies;
 Tast e;
 Ef fectonlitmuspaper s;
 El ect r
icalconduct i
vit
y;
 Chemi cal proper ti
es.
 React i
onwi thalkali
sandbases;
 React i
onwi thmet al
s;
 React i
onwi thcarbonatesandhy drogencarbonat
es;
5.Properti
esofbases
 Phy sical proper t
ies;
 Tast e;
 Text ure;
 Ef fectonlitmuspaper s;
 El ect r
icalconduct i
vit
y;
 Chemi cal proper ti
es.
 React i
onwi thacids;
 Pr ecipit
ati
onofsomehy droxi
des;
 Ef fectofheat
6.Usesofsomeaci dsandbases.

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 55
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com
1.Acids:
-Aresubstancesthatdissol
veinwat
ert
oreleasehy
drogeni
ons.
-Acidscaneitherbeorganicaci
dsormi
neralaci
ds;

(i
).Organicacids:
-Areaci dsfoundi nplantsandanimals;
Exampl es:
-l
acticacidinsourmi lk;
-Citr
icacidinci t
rusf r
uit
slikeor
anges;
-Ethanoicacidi nvinegar;
-Tartari
cacidi nbakingpowder ;
-Met hanoicacidinbeeandantst i
ngs;
-Tannicacidi ntea;

(i
i
).Mi neral acids.
-Areacidsmadef r
om mi neralscont ainingelement ssuchassul phur,chl
ori
ne,nit
rogenetc.
-Areformedf r
om r eact
ionsofchemi cals;
-Mainexampl esinclude:
 Sul phur ic(VI)acid(H2SO4); containshy drogen,sulphurandoxy gen;
 Hy dr ochl or
icacid;containshy dr ogenandchl orine;
 Ni tri
c( V)aci d(HNO3); containsni tr
ogen,oxy genandhy drogen;
Note:
-Mineralaci dsar emor epower fulthanor ganicacids;becausetheyyield//rel
easemor e
hydrogeni onsi nwat er
-Theyar et husmor ecorrosi
v e.

2.Bases.
-Aresubstancest hatdissol
veinwatertoy
iel
d//releasehy
droxyli
ons;
-Justli
keacidst heyarebitt
ertotaste;
Examples:
-Sodium hydroxide;
-Ammoni um hy droxi
de;
-Calci
um hydroxide;
Note:
-Somebasesi nsolubl
ei nwaterwhil
esomearesolublei
nwater;
-Solubl
ebasesar ecal
ledalkali
s;

3.I
ndicators.
-Aresubst anceswhichgivedefi
nit
ecol oursinacidi
corbasicsol uti
ons;
-Aresubst anceswhichcanbeusedt odeterminewhet herasubst ancei
sanacidorabase;
-Consequent l
ytheyarecall
edacid-baseindicators;
-Thedet erminat
ionisbasedoncolourchanges, whereeachindicatorhavepar
ti
cul
ar
col
ourationsinacidsandbases.
-I
ndicatorscanbecommer cial
l
yorl ocall
ypreparedinthelaboratory;

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 56
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com
Indicators:
Exper i
ment :preparat
ionofsimpl
eacid-
baseindicat
orsfr
om fl
owerext
racts.
(i)
.Appar atusandchemi cal
s.
-Testt ubes;
-Pest l
eandmor t
ar;
-Flowerpet als;
-Ethanol //propanone;
-Wat er;
-Var i
oust estsoluti
ons:sul
phuri
c(VI
)acid,
hydrochlor
icaci
d,Et
hanoi
cacid,sodi
um hy
droxi
de,
magadi soda,ammoni asol
uti
on.

(i
i)
.Procedure:
-Fl
ower sfr
om select
edplantsarecoll
ectedandassemblede.g.bougainvi
ll
ea,hi
biscusetc;
-Theyarecrushedinamor tarusingapestl
eandsomeet hanoladdedwi thconti
nuedcrushi
ng;
-Theresult
antli
quidisdecantedintoasmallbeaker
;andit
scolourrecorded.
-Usingadropper,twotothreedropsoftheresul
tanti
ndi
catorareaddedt othetestsol
uti
ons.

(
ii
i)
.Obser
vati
ons:
(
a).Col
ourofext
racti
naci
dsandbases

Pl
antext
ract Col
ouri
nhy
drochl
ori
caci
d Colouri
ndil
utesodi
um
hydroxi
de
1
2

(
b).Resul
twi
thv
ari
oust
estsol
uti
ons:
Testsubst
ance Col
our(
change) Ty
peofsubst
ance(
aci
d/base)
Lemonj uice
Woodash
Ammoni a
Sourmi lk
Vinegar
Nitr
ic(V)acid
Toothpaste
Li
mewat er
Bakingpowder ;
Sugar
Potassium hydr
oxi
de

Note:
-Pl
antextract
sacid-
baseindi
cat
orsar
enotnormall
yprefer
redi
nChemi str
yexper
iment
s.
Reason:
-Theydon’tgiv
econsist
ent(r
epr
oduci
bler
esult
sbecausetheyareimpure.
-Commer cial
indi
cat
orsgivemoredi
sti
nct
iveandr
eproduci
bleresul
ts.

Commer
cial
indi
cat
ors.
Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 57
 i
sabokemi
cah@g
mail
.c
om
-Ar
ecommer
cial
l
ypr
epar
edi
ndi
cat
orswhichar
esol
dinal
readypur
if
iedf
orms.

Advant
agesofcommer ci
alindi
cat
ors.
-Theyarer
elat
ivel
ypurehencegiv
econsist
entandrepr
oducibl
er esul
ts;
-Theyarer
eadil
yavai
labl
eandeasyt ost
oreinaChemistr
ylaboratory
;

Mainexamples:
-Phenol
pthal
ein;
-Methylor
ange;
-Bromothymolbl
ue;
-Li
tmuspaper;

Note:
-Li
tmusi
sabl ueveget
abl
ecompoundwhi chi
sext
ract
edfr
om “
plant
s”call
edli
chens;
-Li
tmuspaperisanadsor
bentpaperwhi
chhasbeendi
ppedinl
i
tmusindicat
orsolut
iont
hen
dri
ed;

Col
our
sofv
ari
ouscommer
cial
indi
cat
orsi
naci
dsandbases.
I
ndi
cat
or Colouri
n.
Neut
ral Base Aci
d
1.Li
tmus; Purple Bl
ue; Red;
2.Phenol
phthal
ein; Colourl
ess; Pink; Colour
less;
3.Methyl
orange; Orange Yell
ow Pink;
4.Bromothy
mol blue Bl
ue Bl
ue Yell
ow;

Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionofv
ari
oussubst
ancesasaci
dsorbasesusi
ngi
ndi
cat
ors.
Subst
ance Col
ouri
n Cl
assi
fi
cat
ion
Li
tmus Phenol
pht
hal
ein Methyl
orange Br
omothy
mol
bl
ue
Hy drochl ori
cacid
Sodi um
hydr oxide
Omo( det ergent
)
Soda
Act altablets
Lemonj uice
Sourmi lk
Bleach( j
ik)
Freshmi l
k
Woodash

Theuniversali
ndicator.
-I
saf ul
lrangeindicatorwhichgivesr
angeofcol oursdependingonthest r
engthoft
heaci
dor
al
kali
.
-I
tispreparedbysui tabl
emi xi
ngcert
ainindi
cators;
-I
tgivesar angeofcol ourdependi
ngonthestrengt hofacidsandbases;
-Eachuniversali
ndicatorissuppli
edwit
hachar t,tofaci
l
itatet
hiscl
assif
icati
on.

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 58
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com

ThepHscal e.
-I
sascal eofnumberswhichshowsthestr
engthofacidsorbases.
-I
trefer
st othepot
enti
al(
power)ofhydr
ogen;
-I
trangesf r
om 0–14;
-Todeterminethestr
engt
hofanacidorbase,thecol
ouritgi
vesinuni
ver
sal
indi
cat
orssol
uti
on
i
scompar edt ot
heshadesonthepHchartoftheindi
cator
;

Di
agr
am:
ThepHscal
e.

Note:
-Thestrongestaci
dhasapHof1;
-Thestrongestal
kali
hasapHof14;
-Neutr
al subst
anceshaveapHof7;
-AnypHl essthan7isacidi
csol
uti
on;
whi
l
eanypHabov
e7i
sforaal
kal
i
ne/basi
csol
uti
on;

Col
ourandpHofv
ari
oussol
uti
onsi
nuni
ver
sal
indi
cat
or;
Subst ance Col
our pHonchar
t Cl
assi
fi
cat
ion
Hy drochloricacid
Sodi um hy droxi
de
Omo( deter gent
)
Soda
Act altabl
et s
Lemonj uice
Sourmi l
k
Bleach( ji
k)
Freshmi l
k
Woodash

Proper
ti
esofaci ds.
(a)
.Physicalproper
ti
es.
1.Theyhav easourtaste.
Examples:
-Thesourt ast
eofcitr
icfr
uit
sisduetotheci
tr
icaci
dint
hem.
-Thesourt ast
einsourmilkisduet
olacti
caci
d;

2.Theytur
nbl
ueli
tmust
ored;
-Redli
tmuswi
llr
emainr
edinaci
dicsol
uti
on;
bluel
i
tmuswi
l
ltur
nred;

3.El
ectr
icalconducti
vit
y;
-Aci
dsconductel ect
ri
ccur r
entwhendissolv
edinwater;
-Thi
sisbecauset heydissol
veinwatertorel
easehy
dr ogeni
ons;
whi
char
etheonest
hatconduct
el
ectr
iccurrent
;

4.Thydest
roycl
othi
ngwhenst
rong;
i.
e.t
heyatawaycl
othi
ngmat
eri
all
eav
inghol
esi
nit
;

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 59
 isabokemicah@g mail
.com
5.Str
ongacidsar ecorrosi
ve;henceabletobur nplantandanimalt
issues;
Chemicalproperti
es.
1.React
ionwi t
hal kal
isadbases.
-Aci
dsreactwi thalkal
istofor
m saltandwat eronly;
-Thesetypesofr eacti
onsarecaledneut
l r
ali
zationreacti
ons;
-Thehydrogeni onsoftheacidreactwiththehy dr
oxylionoftheal
kalit
oform wat
er;
-Thenameoft hesaltisusual
lyderi
vedf r
om theacid;
Exampl
es:
Aci
d Deri
vati
vesalt
Sul
phur i
c(VI)aci
d Sul
phates;
Hydrochlori
cacid Chl
orides
Nit
ri
c( V)acid Nit
rat
es;
Phosphor i
cacid Phosphates;

Summar
y:
Aci
d+base(
alkal
i
)→ sal
t+wat
er;
(aneut
ral
i
zat
ionr
eact
ion)
;

Examples:
1.Sodi
um hydroxi
de+Hy dr
ochl
ori
caci
d→ Sodium chl
ori
de+wat
er;
2.Cal
cium oxi
de+Sulphuri
c(VI
)aci
d→ cal
cium sul
phat
e+water
;

2.React
ionwit
hmetal
s;
-Aci
dsreactwit
hsomemet
alst
opr
oducehy
drogen;

Exampl es:Reacti
onwi t
hdilut
ehy dr
ochl
oricacidandzi
ncmet
al;
Procedur e:
-2cm3ofhy dr
ochlori
cacidisputinatesttube;
-Aspat ulaend-f
ullofzi
ncpowderi sadded.
-Abur ningspli
ntisloweredinthetestt
ube.

Observ
at i
ons.
-Eff
ervescenceofacol
our
lessgas;
-Thecolourl
essgasbur
nswi t
hapopsound;

Explanat
ions.
-Zincmet aldi
spl
acesthehydrogenionsintheaci
dwhichfor
mt hehydrogengas;
-Whenagl owi
ngspli
ntisi
ntroducedintothehydr
ogengas;i
tburnswit
hapopsound;
-Thisisthechemicalt
esttoconfir
mt hatagasishydr
ogen;

Conclusi
on;
-Thegasproducedishydr
ogengas;
-Thus,aci
dsreactwi
thsomemetalstopr
oducehy
drogengas,
andasal
t;

Gener
alequati
on:
Metal
+Di l
uteaci
d→ sal
t+Hy
drogengas;

React
ionequati
on:
Zi
nc+Hy drochl
ori
caci
d→ Zi
ncchl
ori
de+Hy
drogenchl
ori
de;

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 60
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com
Furt
herexamples:
i
.Magnesium +Dil
utesul
phuri
c(VI
)aci
d→ magnesi
um sul
phate+hy
drogengas;
i
i.Magnesium +Di
lut
eHydrochl
ori
caci
d→ magnesi
um chl
ori
de+Hydrogengas;

3.Reacti
onwi t
hcarbonat
esandhydrogencar
bonat
es.
-Metalcarbonatesandhy
drogencar
bonatesr
eactwit
haci
dst
ofor
m car
bon(
IV)oxi
de,
wat
er
andasalt;

Gener
alequati
on:
Metal
carbonate+Dil
uteaci
d→ Asalt+wat
er+car
bon(I
V)oxide;
Metal
hydrogencar
bonate+Dil
uteaci
d→ Asal
t+water+car
bon(IV)oxi
de;

Exampl es:Reacti
onofsodi um carbonatewithdil
utehy drochl
ori
caci
d.
Procedur e:
-About2cm3ofdi lut
ehy drochl
oricacidisputinat esttube;
-Aspat ulaend-f
ullofsodium carbonatepowderist henadded;
-Abur ningspli
ntiscaref
ullyloweredintothetesttube.

Appar
atus.

Obser
vati
ons.
-Aneff
ervescenceoccur
s(bubbl
es)
;andacolour
lessgasispr
oduced;
-Thecol
ourlessgasdoesnotrel
i
ghtagl
owingspli
nt;showi
ngthati
tiscar
bon(
IV)oxi
de;

Propert
iesofbases.
Note:
-Basesaresubstancesthatrel
easehy
droxy
lionswhenaddedt
owat
er;
-Solubl
ebasesarecalledalkal
i
s;

Exampl
es:
Sodi
um hy
droxi
de+Wat
er→ Sodi
um i
ons+hy
droxy
lions;

(a)
.Physicalproperti
esofbases
1.Theyarebittertotaste;
2.Theyareslipperyorsoapytofeel;
3.Theyturnli
tmusbl ue;
4.Theyconductel ectr
ici
ty/el
ect
riccur
rent
.Thisisbecausewhentheyar
eaddedt
owat
ert
hey
rel
easehy dr
oxy li
onswhi char
etheonesthatconductelect
ri
cit
y;

(
b).Chemi
cal
proper
ti
es.
Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 61
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com
1.Reacti
onwit
hacids.
-Theyreactwi
thaci
dstoform asaltandwaterast
heonl
yproducts;
-Thi
sisaneutral
i
zati
onreact
ion;andisusedtocur
eindi
gest
ion;

Exampl
e:
-Act
alt
abl
etscont
ainabaset
hatneut
ral
i
zest
hest
omachaci
d.

2.Theyprecipit
atesomemetalhydr
oxi
des.
-Addit
ionofsomeal kal
ist
osaltsol
uti
onsresul
tsinformat
ionofsoli
ds;
-Mostoft hesearenormal
lyhydr
oxi
des;
-Asoli
dt hatisformedwhentwosolut
ionsaremixediscal
l
edapr eci
pit
ate;

Example:
-Copper(I
I)sul
phat
e+Sodi
um hy
droxi
de→ Copper(
II
)hy
droxi
de+Sodi
um sul
phat
esol
uti
on;
Bl
uesol
i
d;

3.Ef
fect
sofheat
.
-Mostmetal
hydr
oxi
desar
edecomposedbyheatt
ofor
mthei
roxi
desandwat
er;

Gener
alequat
ion:
Metal
hydr deHeat
oxi Met
aloxi
de+Wat
er;

Example:
Zinchy
droxi
de→ Zi
ncoxi
de+wat
er;

Applicati
onsofaci dsandbases.
Applicati
onofaci ds
1.Manuf actureofaerat eddri
nks;
2.Cleaningmet alsurfacestoremov eoxi
del ayer;
3.Sulphuric(VI)acidisusedincarbatter
iest ostoreandproduceelect
ri
cit
y;
4.Treatmentofsomei nsectbi
tes.
Exampl es:
-Waspandbeest ingscanbet reat
edbyappl yingvinegar(
Ethanoi
cacid)orlemonj
uice;
-Theseaci dicsubstancesneut r
ali
zethealkali
neinsectsti
ngs;

Usesofbases.
1.Manufactur
eofant
i-
acidt
ablet
stoneut
ral
i
zeaci
dindi
gesti
onse.
g.actal
;
2.Cal
cium oxi
deadcal
cium chl
ori
dear
eusedtodr
ygasesinthel
aborat
ory;

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 62
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com
UNIT4: AIRANDCOMBUSTI ON.
Checkli
st.
1.Component s
2.Deter
mi nat ionofper cent ageoft heact i
v epartofair
.
 Bur ningcandl e.
 Heat ingcoppert ur nings;
 Heat ingmagnesi um t urnings.
 Smoul der ingofwhi tephosphor us.
 Rust ingofi r
on;
3.Deter
mi nat ionofpr esenceofwat erandcar bon( I
V)oxideinwat
er.
4.Fract
ional di still
ationofl iqui dai r
.
5.Rusti
ng
 Meani ngandf or mul a;
 Condi tionsnecessar yf orrust i
ng;
 Pr event ionofr ust i
ng;
6.Oxygen
 Labor ator ypr epar ationofoxy gengas;
 Chemi cal testf oroxy gengas;
 Al t
ernat i
v emet hodsofoxy genpr eparat
ion;
 Addi tionofwat ertosolidsodium peroxi
de;
 Heat ingpot assium manganat e(VI
I)soli
d.
 Useofoxy gen
7.Burni
ngsubst ancesi nai r;
 Changesi nmass;
 Bur ningsubst ancesi noxy gen;
 Met als;
 Non- met als;
 React i
v ityser i
es;
8.Compet it
ionf oroxy genamongmet al
s;
9.Appli
cationsf orthecompet iti
onf oroxy gen;
10.Atmospher icpol l
ut ion.

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 63
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com
Int
roduct
ion:
-Airi
sagaseousmi
xtur
econst
it
utedofsev
eral
gases,
wat
erv
apourandpol
l
utant
s.

Combusti
on:
-I
stheburni
ngofsubst
ances,
usuall
yinpr
esenceofai
r//oxygen;
-Dur
ingcombust
iononl
ytheoxygencomponentofai
risused;.
etheact
ivepar
tofai
r.

Per
cent
agecomposi
ti
onofai
r.
Component Percentagev
olume.
Nit
rogen 78%
Oxygen 21%
Carbon( I
V)oxide 0.
03%
Noblegases( argon) About1%
Watervapour Variabl
e
Smoke/ dustparti
cles Variabl
e;
Others Trace

Note:
-Fr
om thenobl
egasesar
goni
sthemostabundant
,const
it
uti
ngabout0.
93%oft
heent
ir
e1%

Oxygenandcombust ion.
-Whensubst ancesburninairt
heyconsumeoxy gen.
-Thustheprocessofcombust ionuti
li
zesmainlyoxygen;
-Thereacti
onsincombust i
onar enormall
yexothermic(giv
eoutheat
)andof t
eni
nvolveflame.
Note:
Combustioninwhichaf l
amei susediscall
edbur ni
ng;
-I
ncombust ionifal
ltheoxygeninagi v
env ol
umeofai risused,
thef
inal
volumeofairreducesby
about21.0%;
-Si
nceoxy genistheonlyconstit
uentofai
rparti
cipat
ingincombusti
onit
stermedtheactivepar
t
ofair
.

Experi
ment s:Determinat
ionoftheact
ivepar
tofai
r.
1.Burningcandleinair.
Apparatusandr equir
ement s.
-Candle;
-Cork/ev aporati
ngdish;
-Sodium hydroxidesolut
ion;

Procedure:
-Acandl eabout3cm longisputonawi decor k/evaporatingdish;
-Iti
sthenf l
oatedinadilutesolut
ionofsodi um hydroxi
desol uti
onjustabov
et hebeehi
veshel
f;
3
-Iti
scar ef
ull
ycoveredwi t
hadr y100cm measur ingcy l
inder,duri
ngwhichthelev
elofsol
uti
onin
thecyli
nderisnotedandmar ked;
-Themeasur ingcyli
nderisremov edandt hecandlelit;
-Thelighti
ngcandleisthencov eredwit
hameasur i
ngcy li
nder;
-Theexper i
mentisallowedtopr oceedunt i
lthecandlegoesof f
;

Obser
vat
ions:
Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 64
 i
saboke
mi c
ah@g ma
il.
com
-Thecandlewentoffaf
tersometi
me;
-Thesodium hy
droxi
deleveli
nsi
dethegasjarri
ses;
-Thesodium hy
droxi
deleveli
nthetr
oughgoesdown;

Di
agr
ams:

Explanati
ons:
-Thecandl ewaxi smadeupofhy drogenandcar bon,hencecall
edahy dr
ocarbon;
-Duringbur ningitmel t
sinairconsumi ngoxygenandpr oduci
ngcar bon(I
V)oxideandwat
er
vapour;
-Thewat erv apourcondensesgi vi
nganegl i
gibl
ev ol
umeofwat er;
-Ther esultantcarbon( I
V)oxideisabsor bedbythesodi um hydroxi
de;
-Absor pt
ionofcar bon(IV)oxi
dei nthegasjarcreatesapar ti
alvacuum withi
nit;
-Thesodi um hy droxideinthetroughr i
sestofil
ltheresult
antspace; andhenceadropi
nthe
sodium hy droxi
del eveli
nt hetough;

Conclusi
on.
-Oxygenistheacti
vepartofai
rthatisut
il
izedduri
ngburni
ng;
-Airi
sbasical
lymadeupof2par ts;anact
ivepartt
hatsuppor
tsbur
ningandani
nact
ivepar
tthat
doesnotsupportburni
ng;

2.Quantit
ativ
edeterminati
onofper
cent
ageofoxy
geni
nai
r.
Apparatusandchemi cal
s.
-Tough;
-Beehive;
-Candleandgasj ar
;
-A30ml r
uler;
-Sodium hydroxi
desoluti
on;

Procedure:
-Theentireappar atusi
sarrangedasshownbel ow;
-Anempt ygasj arisinver
tedov erthecandlebef or
el i
ght
ingit
;
-Theinit
ialheightA, i
smeasur edandr ecorded;
-Thegasj aristhenr emoved;thecandlelitandcov eredwit
hthegasjaragai
n;
-Thesetupi sallowedt orunti
llthecandleext i
nguishes(goesof
f);
andthefi
nalhei
ght(
B)oft
he
ai
rcolumnmeasur ed.

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 65
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com
Di
agr
ams

Calcul
ations:
-Amountofai rint hegasjarinit
ial
ly=Acm3;
-Fi
nal amountofai rr
emainingaf t
erburning;=Bcm3;
-Amountofoxy genused; =(A–B)
Thus;
Percentageofoxy geninai r
:=( A–B)x10
A
=C%
Sampledat a:
Volumeofai rint hegasjarbeforebur ni
ng=
Volumeofai rint hegasjarafterburning=
Volumeofai ruseddur ingburning=
Percentageofai r(byvolume)usedup=Vol umeusedinburni
ngx100
Ori
ginal(
ini
ti
al)v
olume
Substi
tuting:

Concl
usi
on:
-Whencandl
ebur
nsi
nai
r,about20%ofai
r,whi
chi
soxy
genusedup;

3.Determinati
onofper
cent
ageofai
rusedupi
nrust
ing.
Apparatus:
-Gasjar;
-Trough;
-Beehive;
-I
ronf i
l
lings/
/powder

Procedure:
-Thegasj arisdivi
dedi ntofiveequalport
ionsbymar kingarounditusi
ngawat erproofmarker;
-Thegasj ariswetneart hebot tom andsomei r
onf i
l
lingsspri
nkledonit;
-Somewat erisputinat roughandt hejarwit
hironfi
lli
ngs//wool //powderinvert
edov eri
t;
-Theinit
ialcolourofir
onf i
ll
i
ngsi snoted;
-Thesetupi sleftundisturbedforaf ewdaysuntilt
hewat ershowsnof urt
herchangei nri
sing;

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 66
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com
Di
agr
amsofappar
atussetup:

Observati
ons:
-Their
onf il
l
ingschangecolourf
rom agr eyt
oform abrownsol
i
d;
-Waterleveli
nthegasjarri
ses//increasesunt
ilt
hefi
rstmarki
nthegasj
ar;
-Thewat erl
eveli
nthetroughdecreases;

Expl
anat i
ons:
-Thegasj arismoi stenedtomaket heir
onf i
ll
ingsst
ickontoitssurfacesot hatthefi
ll
ingsdonot
fal
li
nt hewat erwhent hegasj ari sinver
ted;
-Thebr ownsubst ancef or
medi scal l
edrustanditschemicalnamei shy dr
atedi r
on(II
I)oxi
de;
-Duringrusti
ng,oxy genisutil
i
zed, t
huscr eat
ingaparti
alvacuum inthegasj ar;
-Thiscausest hewat erleveli
nt hegasj artoriseupandthewat erleveli
nthet roughtogodown;
-Ther i
seinwat erlevelisequivalenttoabout1/ 5oftheori
ginalai
rv olume,whicht r
anslat
esto
about20%;

Concl
usi
on:
-Whenrust
ingoccur
sabout20%ofai
r,whi
chi
soxy
gen,
isusedup;

4.Deter
mi nationofpercentageofai
rusedupwhenai
rispassedov
erheat
edcopper
.
Apparat
usandchemi cal
s.
-Two100cm3sy r
ingeslabeledYandY;
-Hardglasst estt
ube;
-Glasswool ’
;
-Bunsenbur ner;
-Copperturnings;

Procedure:
-Asmal lamountofcoppertur
ningsi
sputinahardgl
asst ubeandglasswool
putatbot
hendsof
thetube;
-Allt
heai ri
nthesy
ringeYisremovedbypushingt
heplungerinsi
de,uponwhi
chthesyr
ingei
s
ti
ghtl
yfixedatoneendofthetube//gl
asstube;
-Theplungerofsyr
ingeZispull
edouttothe100cm3mar k;tofi
ll
itwit
hair
.
Theappar at
usisar
rangedasbelow.

Di
agr
am:

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 67
 isa
boke mic
ah@gma i
l.
com
-Thetubecontai
ningcopperturni
ngsisstrongl
yheated;
-Airi
sthenpassedov erthehotcoppertur
ningsbyslowl
ypushi
ngtheplungerZt
oandf
rof
or
sever
alti
mes.
Reason:
-Ensurecomplet
er eact
ionbetweenthehotcopperturni
ngsandoxygen(ai
r)
;

-Whennofur
therai
rchangei
nvol
umeofairi
nthesy
ringeoccur
s,t
heappar
atusi
sal
l
owedt
o
cool
;
-Thevol
umeofairl
efti
nsyri
ngeZi
srecor
ded;

Obser
vati
ons:
-Thebrownsol
id(
copper)t
urnsintoablacksoli
d( copper(
II
)oxi
de)
;
-Thepl
ungerofsy
ringeZmov esinwar
dst oapproximatel
y80cm3mark;

Expl
anati
ons:
-Theheatedcopperreactedwit
hoxygeni
nai
rtoform bl
ackcopper(
II
)oxide;
-Thepercentageofoxygenthatwasi
ntheai
risappr
oximatel
y20%,causi
ngthepl
ungert
omov
e
i
nwardstot he80cm3mar k;

Equat
ion:
Copper+Oxy
gen→ Copper(
II
)oxi
de;
(
Brown) (
Col
our
less) (
Black)

2Cu(s)+O2(g)→ 2CuO(s)
Br
own (
Col
our
less) (
Black)

Conclusion:
-Burningofcopperi
nai
rut
il
izesoxy
genandpr
oducesbl
ackcopper(
II
)oxi
de.

Sampler esultsandcalculati
ons:
-I
niti
al ai
rv olumei nsy
ringeZ=cm3;
-Fi
nal airvolumei nsyrngeZ=cm3;
i
-Volumeofai rused=(100–80)=20cm3;
Percentageofoxy geninair=20x100=20%;
100

4.Deter
mi nationofper
centageofairusedupwhenai ri
spassedov erheatedMagnesium.
-Whent hesamesetupi susedtoinvesti
gatethepercentageofairusedupincombust i
onof
magnesium t hevolumeofairusedupisrelati
vel
yhigherthanthe20%.
Reason:
Magnesium pr oducesalotofheatduri
ngcombust i
onandt husr
eactswithbothoxygenand
ni
trogentof ormtwoproducts;magnesium oxideandmagnesi um nit
ri
derespect
ivel
y;

Obser
vati
ons:
-Magnesium gl
owsgiv
ingabr
ightbl
indi
ngfl
ame;
-For
mationofamixtur
eoftwowhitepowder
s.

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 68
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com
Equat
ions:
React
ionwithoxy
gen:
Magnesium +Oxygen→ Magnesi
um ox
ide;
(
Grey
) (
Col
our
less) (
Whi
te)

2Mg(s)+O2(g)→ 2MgO(s)
(
Grey
) (
Col
our
less) (
Whi
te)

React
ionwithni
tr
ogen:
Magnesium +Ni
trogen→ Magnesi
um ni
tr
ide;
(
Grey
) (
Col
our
less) (
Whi
te)

3Mg(s)+N2(g)→ Mg3N2(s)
(
Grey
) (
Col
our
less) (
Whi
te)

Note:
-Sodi
um met
alwi
llal
soreactwit
hbot hoxy
genandni
tr
ogendur
ingcombust
ion;
for
mingsodi
um
oxi
deandsodi
um ni
tr
iderespect
ivel
y;

5.Smoul der
ingofwhi t
ephosphorus.
Apparatusandr equi
rements.
-Graduatedmeasur i
ngcyli
nder;
-Watertough/ /pneumati
ct r
ough;
-Copperwi r
e;
-Whitephosphor us;

Procedur
e:
-Anempt ymeasur i
ngcyli
nderi
sinvert
edinawat ert
roughandthewaterlevelnot
ed;
-Asmal l
pieceofwhi t
ephosphorusisatt
achedtotheendofapi eceofcopperwir
ethenput/
/
i
nsertedi
ntot hei
nvert
edmeasuringcyli
nderensuri
ngiti
sabovet hewater
;
-Thesetupi slef
tundist
urbedf
or24hour s;

Precaut
ion:
-Avoidcont
actwitht
hephosphor
us;
-Avoidi
nhalat
ionoft
hefumes;

Observati
ons:
-Whitefumesi nsi
dethecyli
nderatthest
artoft
heexper
iment;
-Aft
er24hour s:
-waterlevel
insi
dethemeasur i
ngcyl
i
nderr
ises;
-Wat erl
eveli
nthetroughdr
ops;

Explanati
ons:
-Yell
oworwhi tephosphor ussmouldersinai
r;duetothef
actthatphosphor
usreactswithoxygen
toform phosphorusoxi des;
-Thephosphorusoxi desar ethewhitefumes;
-Thephosphor usoxidest hendissol
v esi
nwater;for
mingaci
dicsolut
ionsofphosphori
cacids;
-Thewat erl
evelrisesinsidethecyli
ndertooccupythevol
umeofoxy genusedupi nreact
ionwith
phosphorus;

Equat
ions:
Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 69
 is
abokemi
cah@g
mai
l.
com
Phosphor
us+Oxy
gen→ Phosphor
us(V)oxi
de
Whi
te/
/yel
l
ow Col
our
less Whi
tef
umes

P4(s)+5O2(g)→ 2P2O5(g);
Whit
e Col
our
less Whi
tef
umes
Yel
l
ow

Phosphor
us+Oxy
gen→ Phosphor
us(
II
I)oxi
de
Whi
te/
/yel
l
ow Col
our
less Whi
tef
umes

P4(s)+3O2(g)→ 2P2O3(g);
Whit
e Col
our
less Whi
tef
umes
Yel
l
ow

Conclusion:
-Phosphor ussmolderseasi
lyi
nair,
react
ingwi
thoxygen(
activ
epartofair
)tofor
m phosphor
us
(I
II
)orphosphor us(V)oxi
de;
-Forthisreasonphosphorusisst
oredunderwat
er;t
opreventi
tfr
om react
ingwit
hatmospheri
c
oxygen;

Note:
-Thisreact
ioncanbemademuchf ast
erbyheati
ngt hecopperwir
e;whi
chwil
ltr
ansmi
theatt
o
thepieceofphosphor
usatthet
ip,
causingr
apidburningofphosphor
ustogi
vedensewhi
te
fumesofphosphorus(V)oxi
de//phosphor
us(II
I)oxides;

Testforevi
denceofsomecomponent
sofai
r.
1.Watervapour.
(i
).Format
ionofdew;

(i
i
).Whenwhi t
eanhy drouscopper( I
I)sul
phatei
slefti
ntheopenoverni
ght;i
tformsabl
uesol
i
d
ofhydrat
edcopper( I
I)sul
phate;
Reason:
-Thewhiteanhydrouscopper( I
I)sulphat
eabsorbsatmospher
icwatervapour;
-Uponhydrat
ionthecopper( I
I)sulphatetur
nsblue;

(i
ii
).Sodium hydroxidepell
etsfor
m acol
ourl
esssol
uti
onwhenl
efti
ntheopenai
rover
night
.
Reason:
-Thesodi um hydroxidepel
letsabsor
bsat
mospheri
cwaterv
apouranddi
ssol
vesi
nitf
orming
sodium hydroxi
desol uti
on;

(i
v).Whenairi
spassedt
hroughanhy
drouscalci
um hy
droxi
desol
i
dinaU-
tubef
orsomet
ime;
therei
sfor
mationofacol
ourl
esssol
uti
onintheU-t
ube.
Apparat
us:

Reason:

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 70
 is
abokemic
ah@gmai
l.
com
-Theanhy
drouscal
cium chl
ori
deabsorbsat
mospher
icwaterv
apourf
ormi
ngacol
our
less
sol
uti
onofcal
cium chl
ori
de;

Equati
on:
Calci
um chl
ori
de+wat
er→ cal
cium chl
ori
desol
uti
on;
Whi
te Col
our
lesssol
uti
on;

Note:
-Substancesthatabsorbmoi st
urefrom theai
rtoform acol
ourl
esssol
uti
onar
ecal
led
del
iquescentsubstances.
-Otherexamplesofdeliquescentsubstancesi
nclude:i
ron(I
II
)chl
ori
de,
magnesi
um chl
ori
deand
zi
ncchl or
ide;

2.Car bon(I
V)oxide.
(i
).Glassstoppersofreagentbott
lescontai
ningsodium hydr
oxidesol
uti
ontendtosti
ckwhenlef
t
onf orsometimeinthelaborator
y;
Reason:
-Thesodi um hydr
oxidesolut
ionattheedgesoft hestopperi
sexposedtoai
r;andthusreact
s
withat mospher
iccarbon(IV)oxi
def or
mingwhi t
esodium carbonat
esoli
d.

Equat
ion:
Sodi
um hy dr
oxi
de+Car bon(IV)oxide→ Sodi
um car
bonat
e+Wat
er;
2NaOH(aq)+CO2(g)→ Na2CO3(s)+H2O(l);

(i
i)
.Bubbl
i
ngatmospheri
cairt
hroughl
i
mewat
er(
cal
cium hy
droxi
de)t
ofor
m awhi
tei
nsol
ubl
e
sal
tofcal
cium car
bonat
e.

Appar
atus:

Reason:
-Atmospheri
ccarbon(I
V)oxidereactswit
hli
mewat
er(
cal
cium hy
droxi
de)t
ofor
m awhi
te
i
nsolubl
epreci
pit
ateofcal
cium carbonat
esal
t;

Equati
on:
Calci
um hy
droxi
de+Car
bon(
IV)oxi
de→ Cal
cium car
bonat
e+Wat
er;

Ca(
OH)aq)+C
2( O2(g)→ CaCO3(s)+H2O(l);

Not
e:
-Whent
heai
risbubbl
edonev
enaf
tert
hef
ormat
ionoft
hewhi
tepr
eci
pit
ate;
thewhi
tepr
eci
pit
ate
Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 71
 isa
bokemica
h@g ma i
l.
com
dissol
vesaf
tersometi
metofor
m acol
ourl
esssolut
ion;
Reason:
-Excesscar
bon( I
V)oxi
der
eact
switht
hecalci
um carbonatetof
orm sol
ubl
ecal
cium hy
drogen
carbonat
e.

Equati
on:
Calci
um car
bonat
e+Wat
er+Car
bon(
IV)oxi
de→ Cal
cium hy
droxi
desol
uti
on;

CaCO3(s)+H2O(g)+CO2(g)→ Ca(
HCO3)
2( ;
aq)

Fract
ionaldistil
lat
ionofLi quefi
edair.
-Airi
sami xtureofgases;
-I
tcanbesepar at
edi ntoitsconsti
tuent
sbyfracti
onaldist
il
lat
ionofli
quidair
.
-Duri
ngt hepr ocessai ri
spassedt hroughaseriesofstepsduringwhichiti
spurif
ied,
some
component sel i
mi nat
edt henitiscompressedintoli
qui
dpr i
ortofract
ionaldi
sti
l
lati
on.
-Thepr ocesscanbedi v
idedintotwomai nst
ages;
Purif
icati
onandl i
quefacti
on;
Fracti
onal dist
ill
ati
onofai r
;

(a).Pur
ificati
onandl i
quefact ion.
Step1: Purifi
cation:
-Theairispur ifi
edbyr emov al ofdustparti
cles;
-Thisisdonet hrought hefollowi ngway s:
 Passaget hroughf i
l
ter s;duringwhichairispassedthroughaseri
esoffi
lt
ers;thedust
par t
icl
esr emainwi thint hefilt
erswhil
edustfreeairpassesontothenextstage;
 Electrostati
cpr eci
pitationwher eai
rispassedthroughchargedel
ect
rodeswhi cht
rap
opposi t
elychar geddustpar ticl
es;

Step2: Remov al ofcarbon( I

V)oxide.
-Thedust -f
reeai rispassedt hroughachambercontainingcalci
um hydroxidesol
uti
on;
-Thesodi um hy droxi
desol uti
ondi ssol
vesthecar
bon(IV)oxidepresentintheair
;
-Duringther eaction,sodium carbonateandwaterar
ef ormed;
-Overapr olongedt ime; t
hesodi um carbonat
eabsor
bsmor e(excess)carbon(I
V)oxidef
ormi
ng
sodium hydrogencar bonate;

Equat
ions:
Sodi
um hy dr
oxi
de+car bon( IV)oxide→ Sodi
um car
bonat
e+Wat
er;
2NaOH(aq)+CO2(g)→ Na2CO3(aq)+H2O(l);

I
nexcess;
Sodium carbonate+Wat er+Carbon(I
V)oxi de→ Sodi
um hy
drogencar
bonat
e;
Na2CO3(aq)+H2O(l)+CO2(g)→ 2NaHCO3(aq);

Step3:Removalofwat
ervapour
;
-Thedust-
fr
ee,CO2–freeai
rist
hencool
edt
o-25oC;

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 72
 i
sabokemicah@g mai
l.
com
-Thisprocesssol i
dif
iesthewatervapouroutasi ce;
-Thiscooli
ngpr ocessmaybedoneatt emperatur esasl
owas- 80;soastosoli
dif
yanycar bon
o
(I
V)oxide(freezingpoint-78C)thatmayhav eescapedabsorpti
onbythesodium hydroxide;
-Theremov alofwat ervapourandcarbon(IV)oxidearei
mpor t
antbecausei
tpreventsblockage
ofthepipesint herestofthesystem;

Step4: Li
quef acti
onofai r
;
-Thedr y,dust-f
reeandcar bon(IV)oxide-
fr
eeairi
scompr essedtoabout100at mospheresof
pressure;causingi tt
owar m;
-Thecompr essedai riscool
edbyr efr
iger
ati
on;
-Thecol dcompr essedairi
smadet oexpandrapi
dlybypassagethroughanozzlewhi chcoolsi
t
furt
her;
-Ther epeatedcompr essi
on,cooli
ngandexpansionofaircausesittol
iquef
yatabout- 200oC:
Note:
Atthistemper atureonlyneonandhel i
um whoseboi l
i
ngpointsrelowerthan-200oCremainin
gaseousst ates;

(b).Fractional dist
illati
on;
-Thel iquidai rnowconsi stsonl yofnit
rogen, oxygenandnoblegases( especi
all
yargon);
-Thel iquidai risfedatt hebot tom ofaf racti
onatingcolumn;
-Itiswar medt oat emper atureof-192oC;
-Nitrogendi stil
sov erf astat- 196oCbecausei thasal owerboi
li
ngpoint;andiscoll
ectedatthe
topoft hef r
actionat ingcol umn;
Not e:
-Anyv apour sofoxy genandar gonwhi chrisetogetherwithni
tr
ogenv apourcondenseinthe
columnandf allbackasl i
qui ds;
-Theni tr
ogencol l
ect edi s99%pur e;
Thesmal lamount sofi mpur i
ti
esincludeneonandhel ium;
-Thel iquidsr emai ningatt hebot t
om oft hefracti
onatingcol
umnafterv apori
zat
ionofallni
trogen
i
smai nlyoxy genandar gon; wit
htracesofkr yptonandxenon;

-Theli
quidi
sagai nwarmedfurt
hertoatemper atureof-185oC;causi
ngthevapour
izat
ionof
argonwhoseboili
ngpointi
s-186oC;
-Thisi
scoll
ectedasagasatt hetopofthefracti
onatingcolumn;
-Theresi
dueli
quidi smai
nlyoxy
genwithmi nutequant i
ti
esofkryptonandxenonwhichhaveev
en
hi
ghboili
ngpoints;
-Theoxygenisdrainedof
fandstoredaspressurizedoxy geninsteel
cyl
inder
s;

Usesoftheproducts:
Oxygen;
-Usedinhospit
alswi t
hpat
ient
swithbreathi
ngdiffi
cul
ti
es;
-I
tisusedbymount ai
ncl
imbersanddeep-seadiversf
orbreat
hing;
-I
tisusedtoburnf uel
s;
-I
tiscombinedwi t
hacetyl
enetoform oxy
-acety
lenefl
amewhi chisusedi
nwel
ding;
-Duri
ngsteelmakingoxygenisusedtoremov ecarbonimpuri
ti
es;

Ni
tr
ogen:
-Manuf
act
ureofammoni
a;

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 73
 isa
boke mic
a h@gma i
l.
com
-Usedi
nli
ghtbulbs;becauseofi
tsinertnat
ureitdiesnotreactwi
tht
hef
il
ament
;
-Asaref
ri
gerante.g.st
orageofsemenf orart
if
iciali
nseminati
on;

Rusti
ng.
-I
sthecorrosi
onofir
oninpresenceofoxy genandmoist
uretof
orm br
ownhydr
atedir
on(I
II
)
oxi
de;
-Thechemicalnamerusti
stheref
orehy dr
atedir
on(I
II
)oxidewi
tht
heformul
aFe2O3.
2H2O;
-Rustit
sel
fisabrownporoussubstance;

Di
sadvant
ageofr
usti
ng:
-I
tweakenst
hestr
uctur
eoft
hemet
al(
ir
on)andhenceev
ent
ual
l
ydest
roy
sthem.

Exper
iment
:Toshowt
hecondi
ti
onsnecessar
yforr
ust
ing.

Exper
iment Procedure Observ
ation Explanat
ion
-Twocl eanironnai
lsar
eputinsi
de -Ir
onnail
sturn -Thereispresenceofbot
h
thetesttube; brownimplyi
ng oxygenandwat er;
1 -10cm3oft apwaterar
ethenadded; ther
eisrust
ing;
-Examinef ortwodays;

-Twocl eanironnai
lsar
eaddedtothe -Norust
ing -Ther eiswat erbutnooxy genso
testtube; occur
s; nor ust ingoccur ;
-10cm3ofboi l
edhotwateri
sadded -Boi li
ngt hewat err emov esany
folowedbyabout3cm3ofoi
l l; dissol vedoxy gen;
2
-Exami nefortwodays; -Addi tionoft heoi lont op
prev entsdi ssolut i
on/ /ent ryof
anyai rcont ai
ningoxy geni ntot he
wat er;
-Twocl eanironnail
sareaddedtothe -Nor ust
ing -Ther eisnoai r//oxy genbutno
testtube; occur
s; wat er;
-Pushapi eceofcottonwoolhal
fway -Anhy dr ouscal cium chloride
thetesttube; absor bsanymoi stureformt he
-Placesomeanhy dr
ouscalci
um airint het estt ube;
3 chlori
deoni tandcorkthet
ubetight
ly; -Cor kingt het ubet ightlyprev ents
-Exami nefortwodays; mor emoi st ur
ef r
om t he
atmospher efrom get t
ingint othe
tubeast hecal cium chloridemay
getsat ur at edandal l
owmoi stur e
i
nt ot henai ls;
-Twocleanironnai
lsar
eaddedt
othe -Somelit
tle -Aircont ainsandoxy genand
testt
ube; rust
ingoccurs; somemoi st uret hatwi l
l f
acili
tate
4
-Examinefortwodays; rusting;

-Twocleanironnai
lsar
eaddedt
othe Rusti
ngoccurs; -Rustingoccursduet opr esence
testt
ube; andatafaster ofbot hwaterandoxy geni nthe
-Addsalt
ywat er
; rat
ethantherest
; salt
ywat er;
5 -Examinefortwodays; -Rustingisfasterbecauset he
salt
ywat ercontainsionswhi ch
gainelectr
onshencef aci
l
itate
fasteroxi
dationofiron;

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 74
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com
Summar
ydi
agr
ams

Furt
herexpl
anat
ions:
-Duri
ngrusti
ngt
hef i
rststepistheoxi
dat
ionofi
ronb7yxy
gen(
int
heai
r)t
ofor
m anhy
drousi
ron
(I
II
)oxi
de;
Equati
on:
Ir
on+Oxy gen→ Ir
on( I
II
)oxide;

4Fe(s)+3O2(g)→ 2Fe2O3(s);

-Theanhydr
ousion(II
I)oxi
det
henundergoeshydr
ati
onwi t
hwat
ert
ofor
m br
ownhy
drat
edi
ron
(I
II
)oxi
de;
Equati
on:
Anhydrousi
ron(
II
I)oxi
de+Wat er→ Hy
dratedir
on(II
I)oxi
de.
Bl
ack Br
own;

-Rusti
ngoccursfasterinsal t
yconditi
ons;
Reason:
-Theini
ti
alstepistheox idati
onofiron,f
rom iron(
II
)ions(Fe2+)toir
on(II
I)i
ons(Fe3+)
;
-Duri
ngoxidati
oniron(II)ionsgiveoutelectr
onstoundergooxi dat
ionandformiron(II
I)i
ons;
-Sal
tywatercontai
nssev eraldi
ssolv
edsal t
swhoseionseasi l
yacceptelect
ronsfrom thei
ron(I
I)
i
onsandt husaccelerat
ingt heoxidat
ionofironandhencer usti
ng;

Preventionofrusti
ng.
Note:
-Rustingdestroysmateri
als;equipmentandr oofsmadeofiron;
-Rustispor ousandthusallowsai randwatertoreachthei
ronbeneath.
-Thusi fnotremovedironwi l
lcontinuecor
rodingunti
li
tisal
l eat
enup.

Methodsofpr eventi
ngr usti
ng.
1.Galvani
zi
ng.
-I
st hecoati
ngofi r
onwi t
hasmal llayerofzinc;
-Canbedonebyei therdippingtheironobjectinmoltenzinc,spr
ayingwi
thasprayofmol
tenzi
nc,
orbyelectr
oplati
ng( elect
rol
y t
icdepositi
on);
-Onexposur etoairthezincacquiresani nertl
ayerofzincoxidethati
simper
vioust
obothai
rand
water;
-Theironbeneathist huspreventedf r
om airandwaterandt husrusti
ng.

Not
e:
Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 75
 is
a bokemicah@g ma i
l.
com
-Their
onisprotectedev enifthezi
nccoat i
ngisscr atched.
Reason:
-Uponscrat
chingbot htheironandzincgeti nt
ocont actwithai
randwater
;
-Si
ncezinci
smor ereactiv
et hanir
on,airandwat erreactswit
hzincatt
heexpense(
inst
ead)of
i
ron;

2.Electr
opl
ati
ng:
-Referstoel
ectrol
yti
ccoati
ngofmet al
s(i
ron)wit
hlessreact
ive(
lesscorr
osivemetal
s);
-Thisisdonethroughtheprocessofel
ectr
oly
siswherefl
oeofelectr
iccur
rentcausest
heless
reacti
vemetaltocoatthemet albei
ngpr
otect
edfrom r
usti
ng;

Exampl e:
-Mostt incansar ei nfactmadey upofst eelcoatedwithathinl ayerofti
n.
-Othert hanbei ngnon- toxicti
nisunreactiveandr ar
elyr
eactswi ththecontent
soft hecanorair;
Note:
-Unlikeingal vani
zing, whenanel ectr
oplatedmat eri
algetsscrat ched,t
hemet alunderneath(
ir
on)
rusts,andv eryfast;
Reason:
-Bot hir
onandt heel ectroplat
ingmetal(ti
n)areexposedt oairandwat er;
-Sinceironi smor ereact ivethanti
n(thelessr eacti
veel
ectroplat i
ngmat er
ial
)itr
eactswi t
h
oxygenandwat eri
npr eferencetoti
n;

-Thisexplai
nwhygal vanizati
onismoredurabl
ethanel
ectroplati
ng;
-Otherlessreacti
vemet alsthatar
eusedtocoati
ronobjectsincl
udechromium,sil
verandgol
d;
-Someel ectr
oplati
ngmet alssuchasgoldandsil
veral
soincreasetheaest
heti
cv al
ueofthe
el
ectroplat
edobject;

3.Sacri
ficialpr
otect
ion.
-Blocksofamor ereact
ivemetalsuchaszi ncormagnesi um areatt
achedtotheironstr
ucture;
-Themor ereacti
vemetalwil
lbecorrodedinpreferencetoiron;
-Tokeept heir
onstruct
urefr
om rusti
ng,theblockofr eacti
vemet al
hastober epl
acedregularl
y;
-Thismet alisusedforthepr
otecti
onofunder groundwat erpipesaswell
asshi phull
s;
-Theblocksofr eacti
vemetalareeit
herattacheddirectl
ytot heir
onstr
uctur
eorconnectedt oit
byawi re.

Di
agr
ams:

4.Pai
nti
ng.
-Thepaintcoatst
hemetalsurfaceandt huspreventscont actwi
thai
randwat
erhencenor
ust
ing;
-Howeverifthepai
nti
sscratched,r
ustingoccursqui ckly
;
-I
tisusedmai nl
yini
onrai
l
ings, gat
es,bridges,r
oofs, shi
psadcars;

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 76
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com
5.All
oying.
-All
oysar emixturesoftwoormor emet
als;
-Thust opreventironf
rom rusti
ngi
tmaybemi xedwi
thoneomoremetalsr
esult
ingint
oa
substancethatdoesnotr ust;
Exampl e:
-Stai
nlesssteelisanall
oyofi r
onwit
hchromium,ni
ckel
andmanganeseanditr
esist
antto
rusti
ng.

7.Oili
ngandgr easi
ng;
-Oili
susedi nmov i
ngengi nepartswhi l
egr easeisusedIothermovabl
emet alj
oint
s;
-Theoi l/
/greaseformsabar r
ierthatpreventswaterandairfr
om comingintocont
actwit
hthe
metal sur
faceandhencepr ev
entingrusti
ng;
-Oil
ingandgr easi
ngar euniqueint hesenset hatt
heyaretheonlymethodsthatcanbeusedto
prev
entr ust
inginmov abl
ecarpar t
s;

Oxygen.
-Av eryimpor tantconsti
tuentofair;
-Lavoisier(1743–1794) ,AFrenchChemi stshowedthatiti
sthecomponentofairusedi
n
respir
ationandal soinburni
ngfuels;
-Iti
st hemostabundantofal lelements;occurr
ingbot
hfreel
yaswellasincombinati
onwith
otherelement s;
-Freelyitconst i
tutesabout21%byv ol
umeofat mospheri
cair;

Laboratorypr
eparat
ionofoxygengas.
Apparatus.
-Zinc;r
ound-bot
tomed/ /fl
askbot
tomedflask;t
histl
e//dr
oppi
ngfunnel
;rubberstopper
,del
i
ver
tubes,r
ubbertubi
ngs,beehiv
eshelf
,tr
ough,gasjars,
woodenspl
int
,hydr
ogenper oxi
de(20%by
volume),manganese(IV)oxi
de.

Di
agr
am;

Procedure.
-Somemanganese( I
V)oxi
deisplacedintoaflat
-bott
omedfl
ask;
-Theappar atusissetupasshowni nthediagr
am abov e;
-Addhy drogenperoxidef
rom athi
stlefunneli
ntothefl
askdr
opwise;
-Thegasi scollect
edasshown;

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 77
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com

Observ
ations:
-Bubbl
esofacol our
lessgasarerel
easedf
rom t
hef
laskt
hrought
hewat
ert
heni
ntot
hegasj
ar;
-Thecolourl
essgascoll
ectsontopofthewat
er;

Expl
anat
ions:
-Hydr
ogenperoxidedecomposesslowlytooxygenandwaterundernormalcondi
ti
ons;
-Thi
sprocessishoweversl
owt ocoll
ectenoughvol
umesofoxy gen;
-Onaddit
ionofmanganese(IV)oxi
dethedecompositi
onisspeededup;
-Thusmanganese( I
V)oxi
despeedsupt hedecomposit
ionofhydrogenper
oxideandthusact
sa
sacatal
yst;

Equation:
 Wi t
houtacat alyst:
Hydrogenper oxide→ Wat er+oxygen;
2H2O2(l)→ 2H2O(l)+O2(g)(
slowprocess)

 Wi
thmanganese(
IV)oxi
decat
aly
st:
Manganese(
IV)oxi
de
Hydrogenper oxide Water+oxy
gen;
2H2O2(l)→ 2H2O(l)+O2(g)( f
ast erprocess)

Note:
Thefir
stfewbubblesofoxy
gengasarenotcol
l
ected.
Reason:Thegasismixedwithai
rwhi
chwasorigi
nall
yinai
randhencei
mpur
e.

Methodofcollect
ion;
-Overwatercoll
ecti
on.
Reason:
-I
tisinsol
ubleinwaterandl
essdenset
hanwat
er

Physi
calpr
opertiesofoxygengas.
-I
tiscol
ourl
ess;
-I
tisodour
less;
-Hasalowboi l
ingpointofabout-183oC;
-Al
mostinsolubleinwater(hencecoll
ect
edov
erwat
er)
;

Chemicalt
estf
oroxy
gengas.
-Oninser
ti
ngaglowi
ngspl
intonagasj
arf
ull
ofoxy
gengas;
itr
eli
ght
sagl
owi
ngspl
i
nt;

Dryi
ngofoxy gengas.
-Theresult
antoxygenisusual
l
ymoi stduetothef
actthati
tiscol
lect
edov
erwat
er;
-I
frequir
eddr yt
hegascabedi edusingei
theroft
hetwomet hods:
(i
).Usi
ngsulphuri
c(VI)aci
d.
-Bubbl
ingthegasthroughawashbot tl
econtai
ningconcent
rat
edsul
phur
ic(VI
)aci
d;
-Theconcentrat
edsulphur
ic(VI
)acidabsor
bsmoi st
urefrom t
hegasl
eavi
ngitdr
y;
-Thedrygasisthendrawintocoll
ecti
onsyr
inge;

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 78
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com
Di
agr
am;

(i
i)
.Usinganhydrouscal
cium chl
ori
de.
-From thefl
askthegasispassedthroughaU-t
ubecont ai
ninganhy
drouscal
cium chl
ori
de;
-Theanhy dr
ouscalci
um chl
orideal
soabsorbsmoi st
urefr
om thegasleav
ingi
tdry;
-Thedrygasi st
hendrawnintoacollecti
onsy
ringe;

Di
agr
am:

Alter
nat
ivemet hodsofoxy genpreparat
ion.
1.Addit
ionofwat ertosodium peroxi
de.
Apparat
us:
-Sodium per
oxide;round-bott
omed/ /fl
askbott
omedf l
ask;t
hist
le//droppi
ngfunnel;
rubber
stopper
,deli
vertubes,rubbertubi
ngs,beehi
veshel
f,t
rough,
gasjars,woodenspli
nt,water
;

Di
agr
am ofappar
atus.

Procedur
e.
-Somesodium per
oxideisplacedi
ntoaf l
at-bott
omedf lask;
-Theapparat
usissetupasshowni nt hediagram above;
-Addwaterfr
om athist
lefunneli
ntotheflaskdropwise;
-Thegasiscoll
ect
edasshown;

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 79
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com
Observ
ations:
-Bubbl
esofacol our
lessgasarerel
easedf
rom t
hef
laskt
hrought
hewat
ert
heni
ntot
hegasj
ar;
-Thecolourl
essgascoll
ectsontopofthewat
er;

Expl
anati
ons:
-Sodi
um peroxi
der eact
swi t
hwat
ertoli
berateoxygen;
-Asolut
ionofsodium hydroxi
der
emainsintheflask;
-Thi
ssoluti
onwill
tur nl
it
muspaperbl
ueshowi ngitisal
kal
i
ne.

Equati
on:
Sodi
um per oxide+wat er→ Sodium hy dr
oxi
de+oxy
gen;
2Na2O2(l)+2H2O(l)→ 4NaOH(aq)+O2(g)

Note:
Thefir
stfewbubblesofoxy
gengasarenotcol
l
ected.
Reason:Thegasismixedwithai
rwhi
chwasorigi
nall
yinai
randhencei
mpur
e.

Methodofcollect
ion;
-Overwatercoll
ecti
on;
Reason:
-I
tisinsol
ubleinwaterandl
essdenset
hanwat
er;

Chemicalt
estf
oroxy
gengas.
-Oninser
ti
ngaglowi
ngspl
intonagasj
arf
ull
ofoxy
gengas;
itr
eli
ght
sagl
owi
ngspl
i
nt;

2.Heati
ngpot assium manganate(VII
)sol
id.
Apparatus:
-I
gniti
ont ube//boil
ingtube;meansofheati
ng;
soli
dpot
assium manganat
e(VI
I)
;rubberst
opper
,
del
ivertubes,beehiv
eshelf,t
rough,gasj
ars,
woodenspl
i
nt,water
;

Di
agr
am ofappar
atus.

Procedur
e:
-Theapparatusi
ssetupasshownabov e.
-Somesolidpotassi
um manganate(
VII
)isputi
nahar
dignit
ion/
/combust
iont
ubeandst
rongl
y
heatedasshownabov e.
-Theresul
tantgasiscol
lect
edoverwat
erasshownabove.

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 80
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com
Observ
ations;
-Thepurplesol
idfor
msabl acksol
id(
pot
assi
um manganat
e(II
)sol
i
d);
-Bubbl
esofacol our
lessgasareev
olv
edandcol
lectov
erwater
;

Expl
anat
ions:
-Uponheati
ngpot
assi
um manganat
e(VI
I)decomposet
omanganese(
VI)oxi
de;
pot
assi
um

Equati
on:
Potassi
um manganat e(
VI I)→ Pot
assi
um manganat
e(I
I)+Oxy
gengas
KMnO4(s)→ KMnO2(s)+O2(g);

Usesofoxygen.
1.Usedinhospi
tal
sforbreathi
ngbypatient
swit
hbreathi
ngdiff
icul
ti
es;
2.I
tisusedbymount ai
ncli
mber sanddeepseadiv
ersforbreat
hing;
3.I
tisusedtoburnfuel
se.g.burni
ngfuelsf
orpr
opell
ingrocket
s;
4.Usedinweldi
ngandcuttingmetals
Examples:
-Itcombineswit
hhydr
ogentofor
m aver
yhotoxy -
hydr
ogenfl
amethati
susedi
nweldi
ngand
cutti
ngmet al
s;
-Itcombineswit
hacet
ylenet
ofor
m oxy-
acet
ylenefl
amewhichisal
sousedi
nweldi
ngand
cutti
ngmet al
s;

5.Duri
ngsteelmaking,oxygenisusedt oremovei
ronimpurit
ies.
-Duri
ngthi
sprocessoxy genisblownov erhoti
mpureiron.
-Theoxygenreactwithcarbonimpurit
iesformi
ngcarbon(IV)oxi
dewhi
chescapesl
avi
ngpur
e
i
ronwhichissteelduetoitshigherpur
ity;

Burni
ngsubstancesinai
r.
-Whensubstancesburninairtheymainl
yreactmai
nlywi
thoxy
gen(
theact
ivepar
tofai
r)
;
-Somemet al
showev eral
sor eactwit
hnit
rogen;
-Duri
ngburni
ngt her
eisusuallychangei
nmass;

Exper
iment
:Toinvest
igat
eburni
ngsubstancesinair
.
Requi
rement
s:
-Metal(
magnesi
um ri
bbon);
cruci
ble;
tri
podstand;pi
pecl
ayt
ri
angl
e;meansofheat
ing;

Appar
atus.

Pr
ocedur
e:
Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 81
 i
sabokemicah@gma i
l.
com
-About1gofmagnesi um isputi
nt hecruci
ble;
-Thecrucible(wit
hthemagnesi um isthenweighed)
-Theappar atusi
ssetupasabov e;
-Thecrucibleisheatedwiththeli
dlif
tedoccasionall
y;soastoall
owinair;
-Nocontentoft hecruci
bleisall
owedt oescape; t
oensureallpr
oductsofthebur
ningar
e
ret
ained;
-Aft
erallt
hemagnesi um hasburnedthecrucibl
eisallowedtocool;
-Thecrucibleanditscontentsareweighedagain;

Observ
ati
ons
Massofcruci
ble+magnesium befor
eburni
ng=xg
Massofcruci
ble+content
safterbur
ning=yg
Changeinmass=( x–y)g;
Massofproductbefor
eburni
ngislower//l
esst
hant
hemassoft
hepr
oductaf
terbur
ning;

Expl
anations:
-Whent hemagnesium i
sburnedinacl osedcruci
blei
nacl osedcontai
ner
,mostoftheai
ris
consumed;
-I
tistherefor
enecessar
ytoall
owi nairsothattheburni
ngcancont i
nue;
-Duri
ngbur ni
ngthemagnesium combineswithairtoform anewproduct;
-Magnesium combineswit
hbothoxy genandni t
rogeninairtof
orm magnesi
um ni
tr
ideand
magnesium oxide;

Equati
ons
Withoxygen:
Magnesium +oxy gen→ Magnesi
um oxi
de;
Mg(s)+O2(g)→ MgO(s);

Wit
hni t
rogen:
Magnesium +Ni t
rogen→Magnesi
um ni
tr
ide;
3Mg(s)+N2(g)→ Mg3N2(s);

Concl
usion:
-Gener
allywhenmet al
sburninair,
ther
eisincr
easei
nmass;
-Al
lmetalsreactwit
hox y
gent ofor
m metaloxi
des;
-Onl
ymor ereacti
vemetalsreactwit
hnitr
ogeninai
r;

Note:
-Duri
ngbur
ningi
fthepr
oduct
(s)oft
hebur
ningi
sgaseous,
thent
her
ewoul
dbedecr
easei
nmass.

Examples:
Phosphorus→ Phosphorus(V)oxide;
Lead(II
)nit
rate→ Phosphorus(V)oxi
de+Nitr
ogen(I
V)oxi
de+Oxy
gengas;
Calci
um carbonat
e→ Calcium oxi
de+carbon(I
V)oxi
de;

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 82
 i
sabokemic
ah@gma
il.
com
Burni
ngmetalsinai
randi
noxygen.
Requi
rements:
-Metal
s;def
lagr
ati
ngspoon;
gasjar
;sourceofheat
;

Di
agr
am ofappar
atus;

Procedure:
-Apieceofsodi um iswarmedonadef l
agrati
ngspoonunt i
li
tbeginstoburn;
-I
tisthenlower edintoagasj arofai
rasshownabov e;
-Theflamecol ourisnoted;
-Thegasj arisall
owedt ocool;somewat eraddedtot heproduct
(s)inthegasjarandshookwel
l
;
-Anygasespr oducedar etestedbysmellandalsowit hli
tmuspapers;
-Theexper i
mentist henrepeatedwit
hpur eoxygen;
-Thewhol eprocedur ei
srepeatedwithothermetals;

Observ ati
ons;
-Whensubst ancesbur ninoxy gent heyf orm onlyoxides;asopposedt oburni
ngsubstancesinai
r
wheresomer eactwi thbot hairandni tr
ogen;
-Dif
ferentsubst ancespr oducedi f
ferentf l
amecol ours;
-Manymet alsbur ninairandi noxy genatdi ff
erentspeeds; wi
thmor ereacti
vemetalsburni
ng
morev igorousl ythanthel essr eactivemet al
s;
-Burningi sfast eri
noxy gent hani nai r;
Reason:
-Oxygeni spur ebutinairt herear eot herconstit
uent ssuchasnitrogen,car
bon(IV)oxi
deand
nobl
egaseswhi chslowdownt hebur ning;
-I
nai rproduct sar egener all
yoxi desandi nsomef ewcases( magnesium andsodium)nitr
idesas
well
;
-Metalst hatt endt obemor ereact i
v ear etheonest hatreactwit
hbot hoxygenandnitr
ogen;
-I
noxy genpr oduct sarest ri
ctl
yoxi des;
-Someoft henpr oductsar esol ubleinwat erwhi l
eot hersarenot.

Sampleequat i
ons:
Magnesium:
Wit
hoxy gen:
Magnesium +oxy gen→ Magnesi
um oxi
de;
Mg(s)+O2(g)→ MgO(s);

Wi
thnitr
ogen:
Magnesi
um +Nit
rogen→Magnesi
um ni
tr
ide;

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 83
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com
3Mg(s)+N2(g)→ Mg3N2(s);
Sodium:
Withoxygen:
Sodium +oxy gen→ Sodi um oxi
de;
4Na(s)+O2(g)→ 2Na2O(s);

Withnitr
ogen:
Sodium +Ni tr
ogen→Magnesium ni
tr
ide;
6Na(s)+N2(g)→ 2Na3N(s);

Summar
y:bur
ningmet
alsi
nai
r.
Met
al Howi
tbur
ns Appear
anceof Nameof Sol ubil
it
yof Effectof
pr
oduct pr
oduct
s producti nwater soluti
onon
l
itmuspaper
Magnesi
um Burnswi
tha Whi
tepowder Magnesium Slightlysol
uble; Turnsbl ue;
bri
ghtwhi
te oxi
deand alkalinegas
fl
ame; magnesium (ammoni a)i
s
ni
tr
ide; produceddur i
ng
thepr ocess;
Copper Burnswi tha Bl
acksol
i
d; Copper(I
I)oxi
de; Insoluble; Noef fect;
bluef l
ame;
surfacetur ns
black;
I
ron. Glowst or edhot; Brownblack I
ron(
II
)oxi
de I
nsol
ubl
e; Noef
fect
;
produces (dar
kbrown)
sparks; soli
d;
Sodi
um Bunsv ery Whitesol
id; Sodium oxi
de Sol uble;alkali
ne Tur
nsli
tmus
vigorouslywi t
ha andsodium gas( ammoni a) bl
ue;
goldeny ell
ow ni
tri
de i
spr oducedi n
fl
ame; thepr ocess;
Cal
cium Vigorouswi t
ha Whi
tesol
i
d; Cal
cium oxi
de Slight l
ysol uble; Tur
nsbl
ue;
redflame; andcal
cium alkalinegas
ni
tr
ide; evol vedi nthe
process;
Zi
nc Yel
lowsolid Zi
ncoxi
de Insolubl e; Noef
fect
whichcoolsto
white;
Lead Redsolidwhich Lead(
II
)oxi
de I
nsol
ubl
e; Noef
fect
;
coolstoyel
low;
Pot
assi
um Veryv
igorousl
y Whitesoli
d; Potassi
um oxi
de Solubl
e;alkal
i
ne Tur
nsbl
ue;
wit
halil
ac andpotassi
um gasev ol
vedin
fl
ame; ni
tr
ide; theprocess;

Note:
-Whenmet alscombi newithoxy gen,i
tformsmet aloxi
des.Inthesereact
ionsoxygenisaddedt
o
themet als;hencet hereacti
oniscal l
edoxidat
ion.
-Oxidationr eferstotheaddit
ionofoxy gentoasubst ance;
-Ther eactivit
yofv ari
ousmet alswithoxygendiff
ers.
-Thear rangementoft hemetalsi norderoft
heiracti
vit
yformst hereact
ivi
tyser
ies;
-Met al
li
coxi desgener all
ytur
nl i
tmuspaperbl ueandar ethussaidtobebasicoxides;
-Somemet all
icoxideshowev erhav ebothaci
dicandbasi cpropert
iesandarethuster
med
amphot ericoxi dese.g.al
uminium oxides;

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 84
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com

TheReact iv
ityseri
esofmet als;
Potassium; Mostr eact
ive;
Sodium;
Calcium;
Alumi ni
um;
Zinc; incr
easingreacti
vi
ty;
Ir
on;
Lead;
Copper ;
Mer cury;
Sil
ver;
Gold; Leastreacti
ve

Burni
ngnon-metalsi
noxygen
Requi
rements:
-Non-met
als;def
lagr
ati
ngspoon;
gasj
ar;
sour
ceofheat
;

Di
agr
am ofappar
atus;

Procedure:
-Apieceofsul phurisheatedonadef lagr
ati
ngspoonunt i
li
tbegi
nstoburn;
-I
tisthenlower edintoagasj arofoxygenasshownabov e;
-Theflamecol ourisnoted;
-Thegasj arisall
owedt ocool ;
somewat eraddedtotheproduct
(s)i
nthegasj
arandshookwel
l
;
-Anyresultantsolut
ionistestedwithli
tmuspapers;
-Anygasespr oducedar etestedbysmel l
andalsowithli
tmuspapers;
-Theexper i
menti sthenrepeatedwithpureoxygen;
-Thewhol eprocedur ei
srepeatedwi t
hothernon-metal
ssuchascarbonandphosphor
us;

Explanati
ons:
1.Sulphur.
-Burnsinoxygenwi t
habl uefl
ametogi
veacol
our
lessgaswi
thachoki
ngi
rr
it
ati
ngsmel
l
;
-Thegasi ssul
phur(IV)oxide;
Equation:
Sulphur+Oxygen→ Sul phur(I
V)oxi
de;
S+O2(g)→ SO2(g);

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 85
 i
sabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com
-Thesulphur( I
V)oxidedi ssol
vesi
nwat ert
ofor
m sul
phur
ousaci
d,whi
cht
urnsl
i
tmusr
d;
SO2(g)+H2O(l)→ H2SO3(l);

2.Carbon
-Glowsredt
ogiveacol
our
lessgast
hatf
ormsawhi
tepr
eci
pit
atei
nli
mewat
er;
-ThegasisCar
bon(I
V)oxi
de;
Equati
on:
Carbon+Oxygen→ Car
bon(
IV)oxi
de;
C+O2(g)→ CO2(g);
-TheCar bon( I
V)oxidedi ssol
vesi
nwat
ert
ofor
m weakcar
boni
caci
d,whi
cht
urnsl
i
tmusr
d;
CO2(g)+H2O(l)→ H2CO3(l);

Not e:
-I
nl imit
edoxy genthecar
bonunder
goespar
ti
aloxi
dat
ionf
ormi
ngcar
bon(
II
)oxi
de;
Equat i
on:
2C(s)+O2(g)→ 2CO(g)

3.Phosphorus.
-Burnsi
noxy genwi
thawhitefl
amet ogivedensewhitef
umes;
-Thewhitefumesareei
therphosphorus(V)oxi
deorphosphor
us(I
II
)oxi
de;
-Bothsoli
ds//fumesdi
ssolveinwatertofor
m phosphor
icaci
d;

Equat i
ons:
Wi thli
mitedsupplyofoxy gen:
Phosphor us+Oxy gen→ Phosphor
us(
II
I)oxi
de;
P4(s)+3O2(g)→2P2O3(g);

Wi thexcessoxygen.
Phosphor us+Oxy gen→ Phosphor
us(
V)oxi
de;
P4(s)+5O2(g)→P2O10(g);

Summar
y:ef
fect
sofbur
ningnon-
met
alsi
nai
r.
Non-
met
al Howi tburnsi
n Nameofproduct
s Appear
anceoft
he Eff
ectofsol
uti
onon
oxygen for
med pr
oduct l
it
muspaper
Sul
phur Burnswithablue Sul
phur(
IV)oxi
de Whit
efumes; Turnsed
fl
ame;
Carbon Glowsred Carbon(I
V)oxi
de Col
our
lessgas; Tur
nsr
ed;
Phosphor
us Burnswithawhite Phosphor
us(V) Whi
tefumes Tur
nsr
ed;
fl
ame oxi
deand
phosphor
us(II
I)
oxi
de

Precaut
ions:
Theexperimentshoul
dbedoneinafumecupboard.
Reason:
Product
sofbur ni
ngsul
phurandphosphor
usi
nairarepoi
sonous.

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 86
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com
Note:
-Mostnon-metall
icoxi
desareacidi
cinnat
ureandtheref
oretur
nlit
musredandarethusrefer
red
toasacidi
coxi
des;
-Somenon-met all
i
coxidesf
orm oxi
deswhichareneit
heraci
dicnorbasi
candar
et huster
med
neutr
aloxi
des;
e. g.car
bon(I
I)oxi
deandwater(hydr
ogenoxide);

Competit
ionforcombi
nedoxygenamongel
ement
s.
Apparat
us:
-Metaloxi
des,sour
ceofheat
,metal
s.

Procedur
e:
-Aspatul
aendf ul
lofcopper(
II
)oxi
deinabott
let
op.
-Magnesium powderandmixedwell
;
-Recordtheobser
vati
ons;
-Theexperi
mentisrepeat
edusingot
hermetal
oxi
deswi
thv
ari
ousot
hermet
alsl
i
kezi
nc,
ironet
c.

Obser
vat
ions:
Metal Magnesi
um Zi
nc I
ron Lead Copper
Met al
oxide
Magnesi um Nor
eact
ion Nor
eact
ion Nor
eact
ion Nor
eact
ion Nor
eact
ion
oxide(white)
Zincoxide Whit
e Nor
eact
ion Nor
eact
ion Nor
eact
ion Nor
eact
ion
(white) magnesi
um
oxi
deandgrey
zi
ncmetal
I
ron(
II
I)oxi
de Whit
e Whit
ezincoxi
de Nor
eact
ion Nor
eact
ion Nor
eact
ion
magnesi
um andi
ron;
oxi
deandgrey
i
ronmetal
;

Lead(I
I)oxi
de Whi t
e Whit
ezincoxi
de Ir
on(
II
I)oxi
de Nor
eact
ion Nor
eact
ion
(yel
l
owwhen magnesium andl
ead; andl
ead;
oxideand
Copper(
II
) Whi t
e Whitezi
ncoxi
de Browni r
on(
II
I) Yellowlead(
II
) Nor
eact
ion
oxi
de(Bl
ack magnesium andbrown oxideand oxideand
oxideand coppermet
al; browncopper browncopper
browncopper met al met al
met al
;

Explanat ions:
-Amor er eact i
vemet altakesawayoxy genf rom alessr eacti
vemet al;
-Thisi sbecauseamor ereactivemet alr
eact smor ereadilywit
hal essr eact
ivemetal;
-Theser eactionsar ecal l
eddi splacementr eacti
ons;
-Somemet alscandi splaceot hermet alsfrom theiroxidesuponheat i
ng;
-Met alswhi char ehi gheri nther eact
ivi
tyseriescandi splacemet alswhichareloweri nt
he
reactivi
tyser iesfrom t heiroxides;
-From t het ablenoneoft hemet alscandi spl
acemagnesi um from itsoxide,
whi l
ecoppercanbe
displacedf r
om itsoxi desbyal lthemetals.
-Thusf rom thel i
stmagnesi um i sthemostr eactiv
ewhi l
ecopperi stheleastreacti
ve.
-Suchr esultsofdi splacementr eacti
onscanal sobeusedt odevelopar eact
ivi
tyseriesoft
he
met als( elements)concer ned.

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 87
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com
Select
edequat i
ons:
1.Copper(I
I)oxide+Magnesium → Magnesi
um oxi
de+Copper
CuO(s)+Mg(s)→ MgO(s)+Cu(s);
Bl
ack Gr
ey Whi
te Br
own.

2.Zi
nc(
II
)oxi
de+Magnesi
um → Magnesi
um ox
ide+Zi
nc
Whit
ewhencol
d Gr
ey Whi
te Gr
ey.
Yel
l
owwhenhot
ZnO(s)+Mg(s)→ MgO(s)+Cu(s);

3.Copper(
II
)oxi
de+Zi
nc→ Zi
ncoxi
de+Copper
Bl
ack Gr
ey Whit
ewhencol
d Br
own.
Yel
l
owwhenhot
CuO(s)+Mg(s)→ MgO(s)+Cu(s);

4.Lead(
II
)oxi
de+Magnesi
um → Magnesi
um oxi
de+Lead
Yel
lowwhencol
d Gr
ey Whi
te Gr
ey.
Redwhenhot
CuO(s)+Mg(s)→ MgO(s)+Cu(s);

5.Copper(II
)oxide+Zinc→ Magnesium oxi
de+Copper
CuO(s)+Zn(s)→ MgO(s)+Zn(s);
Bl
ack Gr
ey Whi
te Br
own.

Ty
picalr
eacti
vi
tyseri
esfr
om theresul
tsabov
e:
Magnesium ↑Mostreact
ive
Zinc
Ir
on
Lead
Copper ↓Leastr eacti
ve

Note:
-Remov alofoxygeni scal
ledreducti
on;
-Addi
tionofoxy geniscall
edoxi dat
ion;
-Asubst ancethatlosesoxygenduringareact
ionissaidt
ober educedwhi
l
easubstancet
hat
removesoxy genfrom anotheriscall
edreduci
ngagent;
-Asubst ancethatgainsoxygenduringareacti
onissaidt
obeoxi di
zedwhi
leasubst
ancet
hat
l
oses/donat esoxy gentoanotheriscall
edanoxidizi
ngagent
;

Exampl es:
1.Copper( I
I)oxi
de+Magnesium → Magnesi
um oxi
de+Copper
CuO(s)+Mg(s)→ MgO(s)+Cu(s);
Bl
ack Gr
ey Whi
te Br
own.

Reducingagent:magnesi
um
Oxidi
zi
ngagent :Copper(
II
)oxide
Oxidi
zedspecies:Magnesium
Reducedspecies:Copper

2.Copper(
II
)oxi
de+Zi
nc→ Magnesi
um oxi
de+Copper

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 88
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com
CuO(s)+Zn(s)→ MgO(s)+Zn(s);
Bl
ack Gr
ey Whi
te Br
own.
Reducingagent:Zi
nc
Oxidi
zi
ngagent :Copper(
II
)oxi
de
Oxidi
zedspecies:Zi
nc
Reducedspecies:Copper

-Intheabovereacti
onsbothreduct
ionandoxidati
ontakepl
aceatt
hesameti
me;
-Ar eact
ioninwhichbothr
educti
onandoxidationoccuratt
hesameti
meiscal
ledar
edox
reacti
on;“r
ed”fr
om reduct
ionand“ox”fr
om oxidat
ion;

Applicati
onofRedoxr eacti
ons:
1.Extracti
onofmet al
s;
-Oresofmet al
ssuchaszi nc,ir
on’l
eadetcareroastedi
nairtof
orm cor
respondi
ngmetaloxides;
-Themet aloxi
desarethenr educedtocor
respondingmetal
susi
ngcommonr educi
ngagentsli
ke
carbonandcar bon(II
)oxide.

Examples:
Zinc(
II
)oxide+Car
bon(
II
)oxi
de→ Zi
nc+car
bon(
IV)oxi
de;

Atmospheri
cpoll
uti
onandper centagecomposi
ti
onofair.
-Humanact i
vi
ti
eshav echangesthenormalcomposit
ionofai
rinsomeplaces;
-Thishasnotonl
yalteredthepercent
agecomposit
ionofthemaincomponentsbutal
soadded
othercomponent
sintot heai
r.

Exampl es:
-Mi ni
ngincreasest heamountofdustparti
clesint heai
r;
-Geothermal powerdr il
li
ngmayresulti
ntoemi ssionofgasesli
kehydrogensul
phi
de,sul
phur(
IV)
oxideintotheai r
;
-Industri
alprocessesl i
kemanufact
ureofnit
r i
c( V)aci
d,cont
actprocessetcmayaddgasesil
ke
sulphur(IV)oxide,nit
rogenoxi
desint
ot heai
r;

Thesegasesandemi ssionscauseatmosphericpoll
uti
on:
-Gasesli
kesul phur(
IV)oxideandnitr
ogen( I
V)oxidedissolv
eIr
ainwatertofor
m aci
dicrai
nthat
causescorrosionofbuil
dings,i
ronsheetroofi
ng,bl
eachingofpl
ants;
irr
it
ati
oninbodi
esand
respi
rat
orysurfacesinanimalsetc;
-Dustparti
clesmaybl ockstomatainplants;
causesmogf or
mat
ionhencereduci
ngvisi
bil
it
y
(l
eadingtomor ecasesofr oadacci
dents).

Usesofoxy gen:
1.Usedforbreathinginhospi t
alsfropati
entswithbreathingdi ff
icul
ti
es.
2.Usedforbreathingbymount aincli
mbersanddeepseadi v ers.
3.Usedtobur nfuelse.g.burningfuelst
opropel r
ockets.
4.Manufactureoft heoxy-acetyl
eneflamethatisusedi nwel dingandcuttingofmet
als;
5.Remov alofir
oni mpurit
iesduringsteelmakingi.
e.oxy geni sblownthroughimpur
eiron;t
he
oxygenthenreactswi t
hcar bonimpur i
ti
esformingcarbon( IV)oxi dewhi
chescapesleavi
ng
behindpureiron(steel
).

UNIT5:WATERANDHYDROGEN.
Checkl
i
st:
Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 89
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com
1.I
ntroduction
2.Burni
ngcandl ewaxi nair
.
3.Reacti
onofwat erwit
hmet al
s
 Sodi um
 Pot assium
 Calcium
4.Reacti
onofmet alswit
hsteam.
 Calcium
 Magnesi um
 Zinc
 Iron
 Alumi nium
5.Hydrogen
 Hy drogen;
 Reduct i
onpr opert
yofhy dr
ogen
 Bur ninghy drogeninair
;
6.Usesofhy drogen

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 90
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com
Intr
oduction:
-Wat eri
st hemostabundantsubstancesonear t
h;
-Itcoversabout71%oftheearth’
ssur face;
-Mai nsourcesofwateri
ncludeseas,lakes,r
iver
s,oceans.

Burni
ngcandl
ewaxi
nai
r.
Apparat
us:

Procedur
e.
-Thecandlei
slitunderthefunnelandthesuct
ionpumpt
urnedon.
-Thesetupisleftundi
sturbedforabout15minutes.

Observations;
-Thecandl econtinuest oburn.
-Dropletsofacol ourl
essl i
quidi
nt hetubeA;
-Thecol ourl
essliqui
dt urnswhiteanhydrouscopper(II
)sulphat
etobl
ueandbl
ueanhy
drous
cobalt(I
I)chlori
deintopi nk;
-Awhi teprecipi
tateformsi nthecalci
um hy dr
oxidei
nt ubeB;
-Depositsofabl acksol i
dont heinnersidesofthefunnel;

Expl
anations;
-Thesuct i
onpumpensur esconti
nuoussupplyofai
rhencet hecandl
econt
inuest obur
n;
-Candlewaxbunsi noxy gentoform car
bon(IV)oxi
deandst eam;
-Thecarbon( I
V)oxideissuckedoutt hr
oughtheapparatusbythesucti
onpump;
-Carbon(IV)oxidef
ormsawhi tepreci
pit
ateofcal
cium car
bonatewhenbubbledt hr
oughli
me
water(calci
um hydr
oxide)
-I
ncompl etecombustionofthecarboninthecandlewaxpr oducescar
bonparti
cleswhichcool
s
anddeposi t
sasblacksol i
ds;

Equat i
ons:
Ast hecandlebur ns:
Car bon+Oxy gen→ Carbon(
IV)oxi
de;
C(s)+O2(g)→ CO2(g);

Hydr ogen+Oxy gen→ Car bon(

IV)oxi
de;
2H2(s)+O2(g)→ 2H2O(g);

Fort hef
or mati
onoft hebl ackdeposit
s(soot
)
Carbon+Oxy gen→ Car bon+Car bon(I
V)oxi
de;
2C(s)+O2(g)→ C(s)+CO2(g);

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 91
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com
I
nthecal
cium hy
droxi
de:
Car
bon(I
V)oxide+calci
um hy
droxi
de→ Cal
cium car
bonat
e+Wat
er
Col
our
less Col
our
less Whi
tepr
eci
pit
ate Col
our
less
CO2(g)+Ca(
OH)aq)→ C
2( aCO3(s)+H2O(l);

-Thesteam condensesi
ntowaterintheboil
i
ngtube;
-Watertur
nswhi t
eanhydrouscopper(I
I)sul
phat
etoblueandbl
ueanhy
drouscobal
tchl
ori
de
paperi
ntopink;

Generalequat
ion:
Hydrocarbon+Oxygen→ Wat
er+Car
bon(
IV)ox
ide;

Conclusi
on:
-Candlewaxisacompoundofcarbonandhydr ogenonl
y;andsuchcompoundsaredefi
nedas
hydrocar
bons;
-Whenbur nedinai
r(oxy
gen)hy
drocar
bonsproducecarbon(IV)oxi
deadst
eam (water
);
-Otherexamplesofhydr
ocar
bonsincl
ude:
pet
r ol;di
esel
;ker
oseneetc;

Note:
Effect
sofr
epeat
ingt
hesameexper
imentwi
thoutasuct
ionpump.
Apparat
us:

Observat
ions:
-Thecandlewentof f;
-Deposit
ionofblacksoli
donthei
nnersi
desoft
hef
unnel
;
-Nocolourlessl
iquidi
ntubeA;
-Nowhi t
epr eci
pit
ateint
ubeB;

Explanat
ions:
-Thecarbon( I
V)oxi
deandsteam pr
oducedwouldaccumulat
einthefi
lt
erfunnelhencemaking
theflametogooff;
-Incompletecombust
ionoft
hecandlewouldproducecar
bonpart
icl
eswhichcool assoot;
-Onlynegli
gibl
eamountofwaterandcarbon(
IV)oxidewoul
dpassthroughtheapparatus;

React
ionsofwat
erwi
thmet
als:
Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 92
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com
1.Potassium.
Procedure:
-Asmal lpieceofpotassium met
ali
scutanddroppedi
ntoat
roughcont
aini
ngwat
er;
-Theresultantsol
uti
oni stest
edwit
hli
tmuspaper;

Di
agr
am ofappar
atus:

Obser vati
onsandexpl anations:
-Themet al f
loatsont hewat ersur face;
becausei tisl essdenset hanwat er
;
-Ahi ssingsoundi spr oduced; duet oproductionofhy drogengas;
-Itexpl osivelymel tsi ntoasi l
verybal lthendi sappear sbecauser eacti
onbet weenwaterand
sodium i sexot her mi c( pr
oducesheat )
.Ther esult
antheatmel t
st hepot assi
um duetoitslow
meltingpoi nt.
-Itdartsont hesur face; duet opr opulsi
onbyhy drogen;
-Themet alburstsi ntoal il
acf l
ame;becausehy dr ogenexpl odesintoaf lamewhi cht
henburns
thesmal l
quant i
tiespot assium v apourpr oduceddur i
ngt hereacti
on;
-Ther esultantsol utiont urnsblue; becausepot assium hy droxidesol
ut i
onformedi sast
rongbase;

(b)
.Reactionequat i
ons.
EquationI
2K(s)+2H2O(l)→ 2KOH(aq)+H2(g);

EquationII
4K(s)+O2(g)→ 2K2O(s);

Equat i
onII
I:
K2O(s)+H2O(l)→ 2KOH(aq)

Eff
ectofr
esult
antsol
utiononli
tmuspaper
;
-Li
tmuspaperturnsblue;sodi
um hy
droxi
deformedishi
ghl
ysolubl
einwat
er;r
eleasi
ngal
arge
numberofhydr
oxyli
onswhi chr
esul
tint
oalkal
i
necondi
ti
ons/
/highpH;

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 93
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com
2.Sodium.
Procedure:
-Asmal lpi
eceofsodi
um met
ali
scutanddr
oppedint
oat
roughcont
aini
ngwat
er;
-Theresult
antsol
uti
onist
est
edwit
hli
tmuspaper
;

Di
agr
am ofappar
atus:

Obser vationsandexplanat ions:

-Themet al f
loat
sont hewat ersur f
ace; becausei tisl
essdensethanwat er;
-Ahi ssingsoundi sproduced; duet oproduct i
onofhy drogengas;
-Itv igorouslymel t
si nt
oasi lverybal lthendi sappearsbecauser eacti
onbetweenwat erand
sodium i sexothermic(producesheat ).Ther esultantheatmelt
sthesodi um duet
oitslowmel t
ing
poi
nt .
-I
tdar t
sont hesur f
ace;duet opropulsionbyhy drogen;
-Themet almaybur stintoagol deny ell
ow flame;becausehy drogenmayexpl odeintoaf l
ame
whicht henbur nsthesodi um;
-Ther esul t
antsolut
iontur nsblue; becausesodi um hy dr
oxidesol
uti
onf ormedisastrongbase;

(b)
.Reacti
onequat i
ons.
EquationI
2Na(s)+2H2O(l)→ 2NaOH(aq)+H2(g);

EquationI
I
4Na(s)+O2(g)→ 2Na2O(s);

EquationI
II
:
Na2O(s)+H2O(l)→ 2NaOH(aq)

Eff
ectofr
esult
antsol
utiononli
tmuspaper
;
-Li
tmuspaperturnsblue;sodi
um hy
droxi
deformedishi
ghl
ysolubl
einwat
er;r
eleasi
ngal
arge
numberofhydr
oxyli
onswhi chr
esul
tint
oalkal
i
necondi
ti
ons/
/highpH;

3.Calcium.
Procedur e:
-Asmal lpieceofcalci
um met al iscutanddr oppedi ntoatroughcont
aini
ngwat
er;
-Afil
terf unnelisi
nvertedov erit;
-Atestt ubef i
ll
edwithwat erist heninvertedoverthef unnel
;
-Thegasgi venoutiscollectedasshowni ntheappar atusbelow.
-Ther esultantgasisthent estedwi t
habur ni
ngsplint;
-Ther esultantsol
uti
oni nthet roughist estedwit
hl i
tmuspaper .

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 94
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com

Di
agr
am ofappar
atus:

Observat
ionsandexpl anati
ons:
-Calci
um sinkstot hebott
om ofthebeaker
;becauseitisdenserthanwat er
;
-Sl
owef f
erv escenceofacolourl
essgas;duetoslowev olut
ionofhydrogengas;
-Soapysolutionformed;duetoformati
onofalkal
inecalcium hy
droxide;
-Awhitesuspensi onisfor
med;becausecalci
um hydroxideissl
ightl
ysolubl
einwat
er;

Reactionequati
on:
Ca(s)+H2O(l)→ Ca(
OH)2(aq)+H2(g);

Eff
ectofresul
tantsoluti
ononlit
muspaper ;
-Li
tmuspapersl owlytur
nsblue;cal
cium hydr
oxi
deformedissli
ght
lysol
ubl
einwat
er;
rel
easi
nga
smallnumberofhy droxy
lionswhichresul
tint
oalkal
i
necondit
ions/
/highpH;

4.Magnesi um andot hermetals.

-Magnesi um r eactswithatmosphericoxygentofor
m magnesi
um oxi
dethatcoastthemetal
surface;
-Thusbef or ereacti
ngi twit
hwat erthi
soxidelay
erhastoberemovede.
g.bypolishi
ngmetal
surfaceusingsandpaper ;
-React i
onbet weenmagnesi um andcoldwateri
sgeneral
l
yver
yslow;wi
thver
yslowev ol
uti
onof
hydrogengas;
-Zincandi ronmet al
sdonotr eactwit
hcoldwater;

Reacti
onofmet alswithsteam.
Note:
-Met al
st hatreactwi t
hcol dwat erwouldreactv eryexplosiv
elywit
hsteam andt hust
heir
react
ionswithsteam shouldnotbeattemptedinthelaborator
y;
-Howev ersomemet alswhichreactonlyspar
ingl
ywi thcoldwaterordonotreactwi
thcol
dwater
atall
reactwithsteam toproducerespect
ivemetaloxideandhy dr
ogengas;

1.Magnesium
Procedur
e:
-Asmal l
amountofwetsandi sputatthebott
om ofaboili
ngtube;
-Asmal l
pieceofmagnesium r
ibboniscl
eanedandputinthemi ddl
eofthecombusti
ontube;
-Themagnesi um r
ibboni
sheatedstr
onglyt
henthewetsandi swarmedgently
;
-Thedel i
verytubeisremovedbeforeheati
ngst ops;andthegaspr oducedistest
edusinga
burni
ngsplint
;

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 95
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com

Di
agr
am ofappar
atus:

Observati
onsandexplanat
ions.
-Magnesium bur
nswi t
habr i
ghtbli
ndi
ngfl
ame;
-Greysoli
d(magnesium)formsawhi t
esol
id;duet
oformat
ionofmagnesium oxi
de;
-Evol
utionofacolourl
essgasthatbur
nswithapopsound;
confi
rmi
ngitishydrogen;

Reacti
onequat i
on.
Magnesium +St eam → Magnesi um oxi
de+Hy
drogengas;
Mg(s)+H2O(g)→ MgO(s)+H2(g);

2.Zinc
Procedure:
-Asmal l
amountofwetsandi sputatthebottom ofaboili
ngt ube;
-Asmal l
pieceofzincputi
nthemi ddl
eofthecombust iontube;
-Thezi ncisheatedstr
ongl
ythenthewetsandi swar medgent l
y;
-Thedel i
verytubeisremovedbef or
eheatingst ops;andt hegaspr
oducedi
stest
edusi
nga
burningsplint
;

Di
agr
am ofappar
atus:

Observati
onsandexplanat
ions.
-Zincmetaldoesnotburnbutrathergl
ows;
-Greysoli
d(zi
nc)formsay el
lowsolidwhichcool
stoawhi
tesol
i
d(zi
ncoxi
de)
;
-Ev ol
uti
onofacol ourl
essgast hatproducesapopsoundwhenexposedtoabur
ningspl
i
nt;
confir
mingiti
shydrogen;

React
ionequati
on.
Zi
nc+St eam → Zi
ncoxi
de+Hy
drogengas;
Gr
ey Col
our
less Yel
lowwhenhot Col
our
less
Whi
teoncool
i
ng
Zn(s)+H2O(g)→ ZnO(s)+H2(g);

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 96
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com

3.Ir
on
Procedure:
-Asmal lamountofwetsandi sputatthebottom ofaboi l
i
ngt ube;
-Asmal lpi
eceofironputint
hemi ddl
eofthecombust iontube;
-Theironisheatedstr
onglyt
hent hewetsandi swarmedgent l
y;
-Thedel iv
erytubeisr emovedbef or
eheatingst ops;andt hegaspr
oducedi
stest
edusi
nga
burni
ngspl i
nt;

Di
agr
am ofappar
atus:

Observati
onsandexplanat
ions.
-I
ronmet aldoesnotburnbutrathergl
ows;
-Greysoli
d(zinc)f
ormsabl acksoli
d;duet
ofor
mati
onoftr
i-
ir
ontet
ra-
oxi
de;
-Evol
utionofacolourl
essgast hatbur
nswit
hapopsound;
confi
rmi
ngiti
shydr
ogen;

React
ionequat
ion.
I
ron+Steam → Tri
-i
ront
etr
a-oxi
de+Hy
drogengas;
Gr
ey Col
our
less Bl
ack Col
our
less

3Fe(s)+4H2O(g)→ Fe3O4(s)+4H2(g);

4.Alumi nium
Procedur e:
-Asmal lamountofwetsandi sputatthebottom ofaboili
ngtube;
-Asmal lpieceofalumi
nium puti
nthemi ddl
eofthecombust iontube;
-Theal umi nium i
sheat
edstrongl
ythenthewetsandi swar medgently
;
-Thedel iverytubeisremovedbeforeheatingst ops;andthegaspr oducedi
stest
edusi
nga
burningspl int;

Di
agr
am ofappar
atus:

Obser
vat
ionsandexpl
anat
ions.
-Al
umini
um burnsi
nsteam butther
eact
ionqui
ckl
yst
ops;becauset
her
eact
ionf
ormsal
ayerof

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 97
 i
sabokemic
ah@g mail
.
com
al
umi ni
um oxidethatcoatsthemet alsurf
acepreventingfurt
herreaction;
-Greysolid(al
uminium)formsawhi t
esolidofaluminium oxi
de;
-Sli
ghtevoluti
onofacol our
lessgast hatbur
nswi t
hapopsound; confir
mingitishy
drogen;
-Thepr oducti
onoft hegashowev erstopssoonaf terthereact
ionst artsbecausetheoxi
delay
er
stopsfurtherr
eacti
on;

React
ionequat
ion.
Alumi
nium +St
eam → Zi
ncoxi
de+Hy
drogengas;
Gr
ey Col
our
less Whi
te Col
our
less

2Al
s)+3
( H2O(g)→ Al
2O3(
s)+3H2(g);

5.Othermet
als.
-Leadandcopperdonotr
eactwi
thst
eam;

Summar
yoft
her
eact
ionbet
weenmet
alswi
thcol
dwat
erandst
eam
Met al Act
ionofmetal
onwat
er Acti
onofmetal
onst
eam
Potassium Vi
olent Expl
osiv
e
Sodium Vi
olent Expl
osiv
e
Calcium Moderat
e Viol
ent
Magnesi um Ver
yslow Rapid
Alumi ni
um Noreacti
on Slow
Zinc Noreacti
on Slow
I
ron Noreacti
on Slow
Lead Noreacti
on Noreacti
on
Copper Noreacti
on Noreacti
on

Note:
-Metalscanthusbearrangedinorderoft
heirr
eact
ivi
ti
eswit
hwater;r
esul
ti
ngt
oar
eact
ivi
ty
ser
iessimi
lart
othatobt
ainedf
ormreacti
onbet
weenmetalswi
thoxy
gen;

React
ivi
tyser
iesofmet
als:
Potassi
um; Mostr
eact
ive;
Sodium;
Calci
um;
Magnesium
Alumini
um;
Zinc; i
ncr
easi
ngr
eact
ivi
ty;
Ir
on;
Lead;
Copper; Leastr
eact
ive;

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 98
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com

Hydrogen
-Anelementt
hatdoesnotexi
stf
reel
yinnat
ure;
-General
l
yexi
stsi
ncompoundssuchaswat er
,sugar
s,f
uel
set
c;

Labor
ator
yprepar
ationofhydrogengas.
Note:
-Hydr
ogengasisgeneral
lypreparedbyt hereact
ionbet
weendil
uteacidsandmet
als;
-Mostsui
tabl
eacidsaredil
utehy drochl
ori
cacidanddil
utesul
phur
ic(VI)aci
d;
-Mostsui
tabl
emet ali
szincmet al;

Appar
atus:

Procedur e:
-Zincgr anulesareaddedt odilut
esulphuric(
VI)acid;
-Smal lamount sofcopper( II
)sulphateareaddedtothezinc–aci
dmixt
ure;
Reason: Toactasacat alysthencespeedupt hereacti
on;
-Ther esultantcolourl
essgasi scoll
ectedoverwater;
Reason: Thegasi sinsolubleinwater;
-Ifthegasi srequir
eddr y ,t
hegasi spassedthroughconcent
rat
edsul
phuri
c(VI
)aci
doraU-
tube
contai
ni ngcalcium chloride;

Di
agr
amsf
ordr
yingt
hegas:

Zi
ncgr
anul
es
-Thedrygasiscol
l
ectedbyupwarddel
iver
y(downwar
ddispl
acementofair)
;
Reason:I
tisl
essdensethanai
r(not
ethathydr
ogeni
stheli
ghtestgasknown);

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 99
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com
Not e:
-Nit ri
c(V)acidi snotusedi npr eparationofhy drogengas;exceptv er ydil
utenit
ri
c(V)acidand
magnesi um
Reason:Ni tr
icacidi sast rong oxidizing agenthencet hehy drogen formed isimmedi atel
y
oxidizedtowat er
-Pot assi
um, sodium, l
it
hium andcal ci
um ar enotusedi nlaborator
ypr eparati
onofhydrogengas;
Reason: Theyr eactexplosivelywi thacids;
-Magnesi um isnotusual l
yusedf orl
abor atorypr epar
ati
onofhy dr
ogen;
Reason: Itisexpensive;
-Pr iortousingi tforprepar ati
onofhy drogen;al umini
um shoul dbewashedwi t
hconcent rat
ed
hydr ochl
oricacid;
Reason:Tor emov ethepr otectiveoxidel ayert hatusuallyformsont heal umini
um surfaceoni t
s
exposur etoair;
-Hy drogengaspr oducedf rom i r
onmet al t
endst ohav eaf oulsmell;
Reason:I rongivesami xtureofgasesduet oimpur i
ti
esint heir
on;thef oulsmelli
susuallydueto
product i
onofhy drogensul phidet hatresultsfrom sulphidei mpuri
ti
esi ntheir
onmet al
;

React i
onequat ions:
I
.Iron+Sul phur i
c( VI
)aci
d→ I ron( II
)sul
phat
e+Hy
drogengas;
Fe(s)+H2SO4(aq)→ FeSO4(aq)+H2(g)

I
I.I
ron( I
I)sul
phi de+Sulphur ic(
VI)aci d→ I
ron(
II
)sul
phat
e+Hy
drogensul
phi
degas;
FeS(s)+H2SO4(aq)→ FeSO4(aq)+H2S(g);

Othersourcesofhydr
ogen.
-Cracki
ngofalkanes;
-Fract
ionaldi
sti
l
lat
ionofpet
rol
eum;

Properti
esofHy dr
ogengas;
Phy si
calpr
operti
es.
1.Colourl
essandodour l
ess;
2.Itisi
nsolubl
einwat er
;
3.Itisl
essdenset hanair(
iti
sthel
i
ght
estgasknown)
;

Chemical pr
operti
es.
1.I
thasnoef f
ectonl i
tmuspaperi
mpl y
ingt
hatiti
sneut r
al;
2.I
tburnswi thapopsoundwhenmi xedwit
hair;
3.Purehy dr
ogenbur nsqui
etl
ywithabluefl
amepr oduci
ngwater
;
4.Hydrogendoesnotsuppor tcombusti
onbutitburnsinair
;
5.I
tisar educingagent;

Chemicalt
estf orhy
drogen;
-Whenabur ningspli
ntisint
roducedi
ntoagasjarf
ullofhydr
ogengas;thegasbunswi
tha“
pop
sound”
Note:
-Theint
ensit
yoft he“popsound”dimi
nishesast
hepuri
tyofhydr
ogenincreases;

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 100
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com
Reacti
onsofhy drogen:
1.Passinghy drogenov erheat
edcopper(
II
)oxi
de;
Requir
ement s:
Copper( I
I)oxide;porcel
ainboat;
meanofheati
ng;
combust
iont
ube;
dryhy
drogengas;

Di
agr
am ofappar
atus.

Procedure:
-Apparatusar ear rangedasshownabov e;
-Dr yhydrogengasi spassedt hrought hecombust i
ont ubef orsomet imepr i
ortoheat i
ngt he
oxide;
Reason:
 Todr i
v eoutal lt heai rfr
om t heappar atuswhi chmayot herwisere-oxi
dizethemet alafter
reduct ion.
 Ami xtur eofhy drogenandai rwillexplodewhent hecombust i
ontubei sheat
ed;
-Thegasi scont inuousl ycol l
ectedatt hej etandt ested;unti
lthegasbur nssmoot hl
ywi thouta
“pop”sound;
-Thegasi st henlitatt hej etandt hecopperoxi deheat ed;
-Thisisdoneunt ilnof urtherchange;
-Theappar at usi sallowedt ocool ashydr ogeni ssti
llconti
nuouslyallowedt opassthrough;
Reason:
 Topr ev entre-ent ryofat mospher i
coxy genwhi chwillr
e-oxidi
zet hehotmet albackt othe
met al oxide;
-Excesshy dr ogenmustbebur ntatthejetsot hatexcessgasi snotal l
owedt oescapeintot heair
;
Reason:
 Themi xtur
eofhy drogenandox y
geni sexplosivewheni gnit
ed;

Observationsandexplanations
-Thebl acksoli
dturnsintoabr ownsolid;
-Dropletsofacolourl
essl i
quidont hecoolerpartsofthecombusti
ontube;
Reason:
Thehotbl ackcopper( I
I)oxidei sreducedbyhy drogengasintobrowncoppermet
alwhi
l
e
hydrogengasi soxidi
zedt owat er;
-Thecol ourl
essli
quidisconf i
rmedt obewat erby:
 Addi ngdropsofi ttoanhy dr
ouscopper( I
I)sulphatewhi
chfor
msabl uesol
i
d;
 Addi ngdropsofi tontoblueanhy dr
ouscobal t(I
I)chl
ori
dewhi
chturnspi
nk;

React
ionequati
ons:
I
nthecombust i
ontube:
Copper(I
I)oxi
de+Hy dr
ogen→ Copper+Wat
er;
Bl
acksol
i
d Col
our
lessgas Br
ownsol
i
d Col
our
lessl
i
qui
d
CuO(s)+H2(g)→ Cu(s)+H2O(l);

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 101
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com
Atthej et
:
-Hydr ogenburnswithabl uef
lamepr
oduci
ngwat
er;
Equat i
on:
2H2(g)+O2(g)→ 2H2O(l);

Concl
usion:
-Hydrogenisar educingagentandt husreducesthecopper(
II
)oxi
det
ocoppermet
alswhi
l
e
hydr
ogenitsel
funder goesoxidat
iontoform water
;
-Hydrogenisthereducingagent;
-Copper(I
I)oxideistheoxidi
zingagent;

2.Passinghydrogenov erheat
edLead(
II
)oxide;
Requir
ement s:
Lead(II
)oxide;porcel
ainboat;
meanofheat
ing;combust
iont
ube;
dryhy
drogengas;

Di
agr
am ofappar
atus.

Procedure:
-Apparatusar ear rangedasshownabov e;
-Dr yhydrogengasi spassedt hrought hecombust i
ont ubef orsomet imepr i
ortoheat i
ngt he
oxide;
Reason:
 Todr i
v eoutal lt heai rfr
om t heappar atuswhi chmayot herwisere-oxi
dizethemet alafter
reduct ion.
 Ami xtur eofhy drogenandai rwillexplodewhent hecombust i
ontubei sheat
ed;
-Thegasi scont inuousl ycol l
ectedatt hej etandt ested;unti
lthegasbur nssmoot hl
ywi thouta
“pop”sound;
-Thegasi st henlitatt hej etandt hecopperoxi deheat ed;
-Thisisdoneunt ilnof urtherchange;
-Theappar at usi sallowedt ocool ashydr ogeni ssti
llconti
nuouslyallowedt opassthrough;
Reason:
 Topr ev entre-ent ryofat mospher i
coxy genwhi chwillr
e-oxidi
zet hehotmet albackt othe
met al oxide;
-Excesshy dr ogenmustbebur ntatthejetsot hatexcessgasi snotal l
owedt oescapeintot heair
;
Reason:
 Themi xtur
eofhy drogenandox y
geni sexplosivewheni gnit
ed;

Observ
ationsandexplanati
ons
-Theyell
owsolidtur
nsr edonheat
ingthenfinal
l
yint
oagr eysol
i
d;
-Dropl
etsofacolourl
essliqui
donthecoolerpart
softhecombusti
ont
ube;

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 102
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com

Reason:
Thehotredlead(II
)oxi
deisreducedbyhydrogengasi nt
ogreyleadmetalwhil
ehydrogengasi
s
oxi
dizedtowater;
-Thecolour
lessl
iqui
disconf
irmedtobewat erby:
 Addingdropsofi
ttoanhydrouscopper(I
I)sulphatewhichfor
msabl uesol
id;
 Addingdropsofi
tontoblueanhydr
ouscobal t(I
I)chlor
idewhi
chturnspi
nk;

Reacti
onequat
ions:
Inthecombust
iontube:
Lead(II
)oxi
de+Hy drogen→ Lead+Wat
er;
Yel
l
ow-
col
d;r
ed-hot Col
our
lessgas Gr
eysol
i
d Col
our
lessl
i
qui
d
PbO(s)+H2(g)→ Pb(s)+H2O(l);

Atthej et
:
-Hydr ogenburnswithabl uef
lamepr
oduci
ngwat
er;
Equat i
on:
2H2(g)+O2(g)→ 2H2O(l);

Concl
usion:
-Hydrogenisareduci ngagentandthusreducest
hel
ead(
II
)oxi
det
oleadmet
alswhi
l
ehy
drogen
i
tsel
fundergoesoxi dati
ontoform wat
er;
-Hydrogenisthereducingagent;
-Lead(II
)oxidei
st heoxidi
zingagent;

3.Passinghydr
ogenoverheat
edI
ron(I
II
)oxide;
Requir
ements:
I
ron(II
I)oxi
de;por
cel
ainboat;
meanofheat
ing;combust
iont
ube;
dryhy
drogengas;

Di
agr
am ofappar
atus.

Procedure:
-Apparatusarearrangedasshownabov e;
-Dr yhydrogengasi spassedt hrought hecombust i
ont ubeforsometi
mepr i
ortoheat
ingthe
oxide;
Reason:
 Todr i
veoutallt heairfr
om t heapparatuswhichmayot her
wisere-
oxi
dizet
hemetalafter
reduct
ion.
 Ami xt
ureofhy drogenandai rwil
lexplodewhent hecombusti
ontubeisheat
ed;
-Thegasi scont
inuousl ycoll
ectedatthej etandtested;unt
ilt
hegasburnssmoothl
ywithouta
“pop”sound;
-Thegasi sthenli
tatt hejetandt hecopperoxideheated;
-Thisisdoneuntilnof urt
herchange;
Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 103
 isaboke mi
c ah@gma i
l.
com
-Theapparatusisall
owedtocoolashydr ogenissti
llconti
nuousl
yall
owedtopassthrough;
Reason:
 Topr eventre-
ent
ryofatmospher i
coxy genwhi chwil
lre-
oxidi
zethehotmetalbacktot
he
met
al oxi
de;
-Excesshydrogenmustbeburntatthejetsot hatexcessgasisnotall
owedtoescapeintot
heai
r;
Reason:
 Themi xtur
eofhydrogenandoxy genisexplosivewhenigni
ted;

Observ
ationsandexplanati
ons
-TheBrownsolidtur
nsi nt
oagr eysoli
d;
-Dropl
etsofacolour
lessliqui
dont hecool
erpar
tsoft
hecombust
iont
ube;

Reason:
Thehotbr owni r
on(III
)oxidei
sr educedbyhydrogengasi ntogreyi
ronmetalwhi
l
ehydr
ogengas
i
soxidizedt owater;
-Thecolourlessli
quidisconfi
rmedt obewaterby:
 Addi ngdropsofittoanhydrouscopper(I
I)sulphatewhichfor
msabluesoli
d;
 Addi ngdropsofitontoblueanhydrouscobalt(I
I)chlor
idewhi
chtur
nspink;

React
ionequat
ions:
I
nthecombustiontube:
I
ron(I
II)oxi
de+Hy dr
ogen→ I
ron+Wat
er;
Br
ownsol
i
d Col
our
lessgas Gr
eysol
i
d Col
our
lessl
i
qui
d
Fe2O3(s)+3H2(g)→ 2Fe(s)+3H2O(l);

Atthej et
:
-Hydr ogenburnswithabl uef
lamepr
oduci
ngwat
er;
Equat i
on:
2H2(g)+O2(g)→ 2H2O(l);

Concl
usion:
-Hydrogenisar educi
ngagentandthusreducest
hei
ron(
II
I)oxi
det
oir
onmet
alwhi
l
ehy
drogen
i
tsel
fundergoesoxidati
ontofor
m water
;
-Hydr
ogeni sthereduci
ngagent;
-I
ron(II
I)oxi
deistheoxidi
zi
ngagent
;

Note:
-Hy dr
ogendoesnotr
educe(
remov
eoxy
gen)f
rom oxi
desofmet
alsabov
eiti
nther
eact
ivi
ty
ser
ies;

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 104
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com

Product
sofburni
nghydrogengasi
nai
r.
Apparat
usandrequi
rements:
-Theappar
atusisar
rangedasshownbel
ow.

Procedur e:
-Appar atusisarrangedasshownbel ow.
-Ast r
eam ofhy dr ogenispassedt hroughanhy drouscalci
um chlori
de;
-Thegasi stestedforpuri
tybycol lectingsamplesoverthejetandt est
ingwithaburni
ngspli
nt.
Not e:
pur ehydrogengasshoul dbur nsmoot hl
ywi t
houtthetypical
“popsound” ;
-Thegasi sthenlitandthepumpt unedon;
-Thepr oductsofbur ni
nghy drogeni sdr owninthroughtheappar atususingthepumpf orabout
15mi nut es;
-Thepr oductcondensi ngint hetestt ubeincoldwat eri
stestedwi thwhit
eanhy dr
ouscopper(I
I)
sulphateandbl uecobaltchloridepaper ;

Observat
ions:
-Purehydrogenbur nswit
habl uef
lame;
-Acolourl
essliquidcondensesint
het estt
ubeimmersedincoldwat
er;
-Theli
quidturnswhi t
eanhydrouscopper(I
I)sul
phat
eblue;
-Thecolourl
essliquidtur
nsblueanhydrouscobal
tchl
ori
depink;

Expl
anat
ions:
-Thecal
cium chl
orideint
heU- t
ubeisusedtodryt
hegas;
-Thepuredryhydrogengasbur nswithabluefl
ametoform st
eam whichcondensesint
oliqui
d
water
;
-Watert
urnsanhy drouscopper(I
I)chl
ori
defr
om whi
tetoblue;andt
urnsblueanhydrouscobal
t
chl
ori
depaperint
opi nk;

React i
onequations:
Atthej et
:
2H2(g)+O2(g)→ 2H2O(g);

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 105
 i
saboke
mic
ah@g
mai
l.
com

UsesofHy drogen
1.Largescal emanuf actureofammoni ai ntheHaberpr ocess;
2.Hy drogenat ionf ort hemanuf act ureofmar gari
ne.
-Thisrefer stohar deni ngofoi lsi ntofat s.
-I
nt hisreact ionHy drogengasi sbubbl edi ntoli
quidoili
npr esenceo0fni ckel cat
alyst;
-Theoi ltakesuphy drogenandi sconv er tedintofat;
3.Hy drogeni susedi nweat herbal loonsbecausei tisli
ghtert hanai r
;
-Usual l
yar adiot r
ansmi tterisconnect edt oaweat herballoonf il
ledwi t
hai r
; asthebal loonfloats
i
nai rthet ransmi ttercol l
ect sinfor mationwhi chisconv eyedt oweat herst at
ionsf orinterpr
etati
on
bymet eor ologi st
s;
4.Ami xtureofhy drogenandoxy genf or mst heveryhotoxy -hy
dr ogenflame( withtemper atures
o
upt o2000Ct hatisusedi nwel dingandcut ti
ngmet al
s;
5.Itisusedi nr ocketf uelsforpr opulsionofr ocket
s;
6.Manuf act ureofhy drochlori
caci d;dur ingwhi chhydrogeni sburnti nchlori
ne;

Nove
ls,
Upda
tedI
CT,
KAS
NEB,
Col
leg
e,Hi
ghS
chool
,
Pri
mar
ySof
tcopynot
es 0714497530 106