Production Stoping Chapter 9

Contents
Stope Design 127
Drilling 127
Measurement 127
Preparation 129
Priming 130
Charging 131
Initiation 133

Slot Excavation 134

Design 134
Drilling 134
Priming 135
Charging 135
Initiation 135

Narrow Vein Stoping 136

Design 137
Drilling 137
Priming 138
Charging 138
Initiation 139

Bench Stoping 139

Design 139
Drilling 141
Priming 141
Charging 141
Initiation 141

Chapter 9 Production Stoping 125

Longhole Open Stoping 142
Design 142
Drilling 142
Priming 144
Charging 144
Deck Charging 145
Initiation 146

VCR Stoping 146

Design 146
Drilling 147
Priming 148
Charging 148
Initiation 148
Perimeter Blasting 149
Common Problems 149

Initiation Procedure for Stoping Applications 149

Stripping and stoping 149
Longhole Stoping 150
Mass Blasting 152

Overbreak Control 154

Production Blasts 154
Line Drilling 154
Presplitting 154
Trim Blasting 155

126 Orica Mining Services Safe and Efficient Blasting in Underground Metal Mines
Production Stoping
Many diverse drilling and blasting techniques
are used for production stope blasting to
suit various underground mining methods,
including those listed below:
• Bench stoping, using vertical downholes.
• Block caving, using blastholes to undercut the ore.
• Cut & fill stoping, using upholes.
• Open stoping, using rings of inclined blastholes.
• Slot stoping, using upholes and downholes.
• Sublevel caving, using upholes.
• VCR (Vertical Crater Retreat) stoping, using large
diameter downholes.
This chapter includes information to assist with
designing, drilling, priming, charging, and initiating
longhole stope blasts. Drilling and blasting techniques
for benching, ring blasting, Narrow Vein Stoping, and
VCR stoping are discussed, as these can be adapted
to suit other less common longhole stoping methods.
The cost-effective use of emulsions and non-electric
detonators is emphasised.
Many unusual words and expressions have evolved
to describe specific aspects of longhole stope drilling
and blasting; some of the terms commonly used
in underground metal mines are summarised in
Figure 9.1.
Stope Design
Stopes are designed to suit specific mining conditions,
including local geology, mine geometry, mining
sequence, production rates, and the skills, equipment
and services available. Stope designs are usually
influenced by drilling and blasting technology,
including equipment, products, techniques and
skills. It is essential to ensure that stope design and
extraction plans are based on proven drilling and
blasting capabilities. This requires people with drilling
and blasting experience to be involved with all stages
of planning, design and scheduling. Technology may
change during the planning and development of large
stopes, but it is unwise to design stopes based on
equipment, products or techniques which are not yet
available or proven.
Chapter 9 Production Stoping
Chapter 9
Drilling
Selection of blasthole diameter, orientation and
length should be based on analysis of many
interrelated factors, including those listed below:
• Mining method, stope geometry and extraction
sequence.
• Intact rock properties and geological structure.
• Location of access development for drilling
and charging.
• Fragmentation required for loading and
transport system.
• Drilling equipment and skills available.
• Explosives, charging equipment and skills available.
• Cost of various alternatives and combinations.
In small stopes where short blastholes are drilled,
the cost of each hole is relatively small. However,
long large diameter blastholes in open stopes are
a significant investment of time and money. In any
situation, the position of each blasthole can have a
large effect on overall mining efficiency and costs.
This highlights the need for careful design, markup,
alignment, collaring, drilling and flushing of each
blasthole. After drilling, blasthole collars should be
marked to ensure that they can be easily relocated
for charging. Blasthole collars may also need to be
protected or sealed, to prevent the entry of drill
cuttings, rocks or cement grout.
Measurement
All blastholes should be measured after drilling, to
check their condition, length, and the presence of
any water or obstructions. This information should be
recorded on the drilling plan, with relevant comments
about geology, penetration rates, broken ground
or breakthroughs encountered. If any obstructions
are encountered inside blastholes, they should be
removed by a charging hose, tamping stick or suitable
tool, before charging commences. If any blastholes
are blocked or drilled short, it may be necessary
to redrill them. This emphasises the need to check
blastholes immediately after drilling, before the
drilling equipment is moved out.
127
 a) Section b) Cross-section

Sub level
drill drive Rings

Drill drive Silled drive

Downholes

Undercut Orebody
Upholes

Extraction drive Undercut drive

c) Plan

Raise

Figure 9.1 Longhole Stope Section

128 Orica Mining Services Safe and Efficient Blasting in Underground Metal Mines
Where blastholes intersect an opening, it is essential
to accurately measure the length at “breakthrough”. a) b)
Several techniques have been developed for doing
this efficiently, including those listed below:
• In short blastholes, it is usually possible to accurately
estimate the length by using a flexible hose with
suitable markings. The hose is attached to a source
of compressed air and the free end pushed into the
blasthole. The sound of the compressed air leaving
the end of the hose will change noticeably when
it passes out of the breakthrough position
(Figure 9.2a).
Figure 9.2 Measuring Breakthrough Blasthole Depth
• In longer blastholes, a short length of flexible pipe (by plastic bag)
or a rolled plastic bag can be pushed or lowered to
the breakthrough position. The blasthole length can
be estimated by pulling the pipe or bag back into
Preparation
contact with the rock, then withdrawing it back After downholes are measured and cleaned out,
through the blasthole (Figure 9.2b). they may need to be sealed to prevent the entry of
drill cuttings, rocks, or cement before charging. This
• In long, large diameter downholes, more accurate
is especially important where mobile equipment is
measurements can often be made by using a short
driven over or near the collars of downholes. In many
rod attached by one of its ends to a strong, flexible
mines, it will be sufficient to place a tapered timber or
tape. The tape is weakly attached to the rod at a
plastic plug in the blasthole collar, to mark its position
second place near its centre, using a short length
and prevent large objects from falling in. However,
of soft wire (Figure 9.3a). The tape is then gently
if downholes will remain uncharged for an extended
pulled up to measure the breakthrough depth,
time and equipment will be driven over them, it may
allowing for the short length of tape laying along
be necessary to seal the collars with special plugs to
the rod (Figures 9.3b and c). The rod is retrieved by
prevent blockages.
jerking the tape to break the soft wire, allowing the
rod to hang vertically in the blasthole. Breakthrough downholes must be blocked off at the
toe, and should be partly backfilled with stemming
Downholes that do not breakthrough will usually
material to confine explosion energy. Several
need to be washed out, to remove drill cuttings and
techniques have been developed for efficiently
sludge. If required, water can be blown out, using
blocking breakthrough holes, including:
compressed air and a flexible hose. When blowing
out blastholes, it is essential to wear eye protection • In small diameter blastholes, an adequate plug may
and stand aside to avoid being struck by drill cuttings be provided by a rolled plastic bag that fits tightly
and muddy water. after being pushed into place by a charging hose.
Blastholes may also be surveyed by in-hole • Small and medium diameter blastholes can be
instruments that accurately plot the position at blocked at the toe by using stiff bottlebrushes,
intervals from the collar. This will identify any collaring tapered plastic cups, or commercial plastic
errors and quantify in-hole deviation, which can be “spider” retainers.
significant in long blastholes.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure 9.3 Measuring Breakthrough Blasthole Depth (by rod)

Chapter 9 Production Stoping 129

• Large diameter downholes may be sealed by
suspending a wooden block on stiff rope, which is
secured at the collar (Figure 9.4). In long blastholes,
the rope may stretch and allow the block to drop,
unless the rope is very stiff.
• Large diameter downholes may also be sealed by
split wedge blocks that are secured in place near
the toe. The split wedge is lowered into position by
a rope, and then locked into place by dropping a
rock onto it (Figure 9.5). Alternatively the bottom
wedge can be lowered into position and then the
top wedge dropped onto it.
Large diameter upholes may require collar plugs to
keep some explosives in place. Where the charge is
almost self-supporting, bottlebrushes, tapered plastic
cups, or plastic “spider” retainers may provide the
required resistance. If necessary, stronger plugs can be
secured near the collar by wedging or grouting them
in place (Figure 9.6). This technique is relatively slow
and costly, and can usually only be justified for special
applications.
The charging area should be cleaned up, and all
unnecessary tools and equipment removed, before
any explosives are brought in. When explosives and
detonators are delivered, they should be stored
separately in approved containers until required
for charging.
Priming
Booster must be long enough to completely enclose
the longest detonators being used, and of sufficient
mass to reliably initiate the main explosives charge.
The Booster diameter should generally be the largest
that will easily fit inside the blasthole; this will ensure
that the maximum amount of energy is available to
quickly accelerate the detonation in the main charge
to its maximum VOD.
(a)
Figure 9.4 Blocking Figure 9.5 Split Wedge Block
130 Orica Mining Services Safe and Efficient Blasting in Underground Metal Mines
The choice of primer will generally depend on the
factors summarised below:
• sensitivity of main explosives charge;
• blasthole diameter and length;
• groundwater conditions and effect on explosives;
• “Sleep time” between charging and firing;
• number and location of Boosters required; and
• spacing and orientation of blastholes.
Packaged emulsion or cast PETN-TNT Boosters
(e.g. Pentex™) are generally used for priming stope
production blastholes. “Multiple-priming” is common
practice in relatively long blastholes, to provide
insurance against misfires from ground movement,
explosives contamination, charge separation, or
downline damage (refer Chapter 4). “Reverse
priming” is generally recommended, with the base of
the detonator pointing towards the blasthole collar.
Detonators and explosives should always be kept
separate until they are assembled into Boosters.
Boosters should be assembled at the face or collar,
and then immediately placed inside blastholes.
Assembled Boosters are a sensitive and powerful
combination, which must never be lying about as
an unnecessary hazard. Boosters should only be
assembled as required, and detonators should be
removed from unwanted Boosters.
Where electric detonators are used for stope blasting
relatively close to the surface, all work with explosives
should stop if a thunderstorm approaches the area.
Everyone should leave the charging area until the
storm has passed, as electrical energy from lightning
strikes may be conducted underground and initiate
electric detonators inside blastholes.
(b)
Primer
Air tube
Explosives
Plug
Charging
hose
Figure 9.6 Collar Plug
Charging
Stope production blasts may be charged with a wide
range of explosives, depending on specific mine
conditions. Packaged or bulk blasting agents and
detonator-sensitive explosives are now available with
diverse characteristics to meet different requirements.
Selecting the most suitable type of explosives and
charging system for blasting in a particular stope will
require analysis of the factors listed below:
• intact rock properties and geological structure;
• presence and type of ground water (i.e. static
or flowing);
• blasthole diameter, length and orientation;
• “Sleep time” between charging and firing;
• rock fragmentation and displacement required;
• size and frequency of blasts;
• explosives, equipment and skills available;
• overbreak or ground vibration constraints;
• ventilation system effectiveness;
• rock temperature and chemical reactivity; and
• relative cost of various alternatives.
Blasting agents are generally safer than detonator-
sensitive explosives, although modern detonator-
sensitive emulsions are insensitive to initiation by
impact, flame or friction. Explosives energy output
and cost usually increase with density, and packaged
explosives always cost more per tonne than bulk
products. Bulk delivery systems can increase charging
rates and productivity, but usually require a significant
investment in equipment and facilities at the mine.
Bulk delivery systems have been widely used at
surface mines for many years, and are growing in
popularity in underground operations particularly with
the availability of customer-operated systems.
In stope blasting, results are often determined more
by rock properties than explosives characteristics.
Where conditions are consistently dry, ANFO and
Impact® can be used to produce reliable results in
a wide range of rock types. These products can
be handled and stored in bulk, then poured into
downholes or blow-loaded into horizontal blastholes
or upholes.
ANFO and the Impact® SF Series are not suitable for
use where blastholes are wet, or if they may become
wet between charging and firing. A small amount of
water can dissolve or desensitise a large amount of
ANFO, causing misfires or poor blast performance.
Thus large stope blasts are often charged with water-
resistant explosives to avoid poor results caused by
gradual water seepage or unexpected inflows.
Chapter 9 Production Stoping
ANFO can be safely and efficiently “blow-loaded”
into small and medium diameter blastholes by
compressed air. Enclosed pressure vessels are
generally used for charging stope production blasts
(refer Chapter ‘5’). Semi-conductive charging hose
should always be used when blow-loading ANFO,
to dissipate electrostatic charges generated by the
stream of moving particles.
The ANFO charger should also be effectively
“earthed”, to drain away electrostatic charges,
and the operator should always wear eye protection
when charging.
Some guidelines for “blow-loading” ANFO with a
pressure vessel are summarised below:
• Check the condition of the pressure vessel,
and ensure that the inside is clear and free
of obstructions.
• Effectively “earth” the charger by placing it in direct
contact with a wet surface, or by means of an earth
strap which is attached to a rockbolt or placed in a
pool of water.
• Set the recommended operating air pressures, and
check that the pressure relief valve is functional.
• Fill the tank with ANFO and pressurise it.
• Gently push the primer to the toe of the hole, and
then retract the hose 100 to 300 mm.
• Stand to one side of the blasthole collar, and then
turn on the ANFO supply and steadily retract the
charging hose.
• As the end of the hose approaches the design
blasthole collar, turn off the ANFO supply.
• When all blastholes are charged, empty the
remaining ANFO from the tank into a suitable
bag, then thoroughly clean out the tank with
compressed air.
In wet conditions, packaged emulsions are used in
small or medium diameter blastholes. Bulk emulsion
explosive delivery systems may be used for charging
stope blasts if facilities and equipment are available
at the mine. Emulsion explosives have excellent water
resistance, and bulk charging produces a relatively
high-energy output per metre of blasthole. The
latter can enable blasthole burden and spacing to be
increased, thus reducing overall costs; alternatively,
the increased energy can be used in smaller patterns,
to produce finer fragmentation and thus improve
loading rates. Bulk emulsions can be charged in
a range of densities to suit the prevailing ground
conditions and desired result.
Packaged explosives should easily fit inside blastholes,
with adequate clearance available for minor
obstructions and detonator tails. In short blastholes,
131
packages should be charged using a suitable tamping
stick which is long enough to reach the bottom of
each blasthole, has square ends, and is approximately
the same diameter as the packaged explosives. In
long blastholes, packages may be dropped into
position, pushed into place by a flexible hose, or
effectively charged to a higher in-hole density by a
cartridge charger (refer Chapter ‘5’).
The primer should be carefully placed by lowering or
gently pushing with the tamping stick or charging
hose, but never tamped. Other packaged explosives
can then be charged individually, or several at a
time. These packages may be tamped into place, to
increase charging density and reduce the probability
of ejection by charges that fire on earlier delays.
Effective tamping is achieved by gently but firmly
pressing the end of the charge. Packaged explosives
should never be tamped roughly, as this rarely
increases the charging density and may cause damage
to detonator tails. The plastic packaging around
emulsion explosives will burst as the contents are
squeezed to fill almost the entire blasthole.
Where maximum explosives energy is required, it is
recommended that packages are inserted and tamped
individually. When several packages are inserted
before tamping, only the last portion of the charge is
deformed to fill the hole, and the energy per metre of
charge will be less than the maximum possible.
a) b)
Gap
Figure 9.7 Charging Packaged Explosives
132 Orica Mining Services Safe and Efficient Blasting in Underground Metal Mines
Rough blastholes usually require more clearance
around packages, and it may be necessary to
charge each package individually to avoid jamming.
Packaged explosives should never be forced past
obstructions. If blastholes are very rough or partly
blocked, it may be necessary to use smaller diameter
packages to enable safe charging.
If a package becomes jammed inside a blasthole, an
attempt should be made to gently move it by using
the charging hose to push it into or blow it out of
the hole. (However, if a primer becomes stuck inside
a blasthole, no attempt should be made to move
it by force.) If a jammed package cannot be easily
removed, the blasthole should be re-primed and the
open portion charged to the design collar. It may be
possible to compensate for the uncharged portion by
increasing the charges in surrounding blast holes.
Where blastholes contain a small amount of water
from drilling, it can either be blown out with
compressed air, or pumped from large diameter
downholes. This will usually leave a small amount of
residual water at the toe, which can desensitise an
ANFO charge. If there is no seepage of water into the
blasthole, packaged explosives may be used to “step
up” above the water level (Figure 9.7a and b). ANFO
or Impact can then be charged into the top portion
of the blasthole. This technique can produce reliable
results when blastholes are fired soon after charging,
and conditions are very dry. Alternatively, blastholes
c) d)
Misfires
may be completely charged with water-resistant
explosives, to ensure that groundwater will not
cause problems.
If packaged explosives are dropped into blastholes
that contain some water, the package may deform
and spread out when it hits the water (Figure 9.7c).
This may cause the package to sink very slowly, or
jam in the blasthole and leave an uncharged section.
To avoid this problem, the package diameter should
be chosen to leave adequate clearance inside the
blasthole, a relatively stiff product should be used
if available, and packages should not be slit before
dropping into water.
During charging it is essential to ensure that
explosives do not become jammed, fall out of
breakthrough holes, or enter cavities. Thus it is
important to regularly measure the position of the
top of the charge, and compare it to plan. Any
inconsistencies should be immediately investigated,
to avoid gaps in the explosives column, wasting
explosives, or overcharging.
If rock or drill cuttings fall into a blasthole during
charging, a gap or barrier may be created in the
explosives column. To avoid misfires from this cause, it
is essential to clear loose material away from blasthole
collars before charging, and take care when handling
charging hoses.
An uncharged collar is usually left on each blasthole
in a stope firing. The uncharged length should
generally be at least 18 blasthole diameters, and
is often made equal to the burden at the collar.
This avoids unnecessary overcharging near the
collar where the rock will be already be damaged
by blasting. An uncharged collar will also reduce
backbreak, which may damage or cut off blasthole
collars in the next ring of blastholes. The “cratering”
effect at the end of the blasthole charge will usually
break the rock in this area, unless the uncharged
collar is longer than the burden.
Inert stemming material can be placed into blasthole
collars, to confine explosion gases and improve
blasting efficiency. Crushed rock stemming is
often used to stem large diameter downholes, but
stemming is rarely used in other stope blastholes
because it is difficult to place and keep in position.
Moist clay plugs can be tamped into small and
medium diameter uphole and horizontal holes. The
best material for stemming downholes is screened
rock aggregated in the 6 mm to 12 mm size range;
explosion gases cause this material to jam against the
blasthole walls, producing more confinement than
fine sand or drill cuttings.
When charging or stemming blastholes, care should
be taken to avoid damaging detonator downlines by
impact or abrasion.
Chapter 9 Production Stoping
Initiation
The result of stope production blasts depends on
complex interactions between adjacent blastholes.
Blasthole charges must be detonated in a controlled
sequence, with suitable intervals between successive
detonations. Initiation sequence and delay timing
affect the resulting fragmentation, throw, ground
vibrations, overbreak and damage to the
surrounding rock.
The best initiation sequence and delay timing for any
blast will depend on many factors, including those
listed below:
• rock properties, including strength, structure,
density,
• blast geometry, including burden, spacing and
free faces,
• blasthole diameter and uncharged collar lengths,
• explosives characteristics and degree of coupling,
• Boosters and initiation system used,
• ground vibration restrictions, and
• rock fragmentation and throw required.
There will always be several different ways to
successfully fire a stope blast, but generally a delay
interval of a few milliseconds per metre of spacing
should be used between adjacent blastholes in a
ring. This enables each charge to detonate whilst the
surrounding rock is pre-stressed but not disrupted
by the effects of charges that have already fired.
Adjacent blastholes thus interact positively, and
explosives energy is applied to rock more effectively.
The best delay interval between adjacent charges in
a production blast is usually slightly less than 5 ms/m
of blasthole spacing. Instantaneous and very short
delay blasts tend to produce more forward throw, but
fragmentation may be coarser and ground vibrations
higher; longer delays make each blasthole work more
independently, and may cause adjacent charges to be
dislocated by ground movement during the blast.
In a multi-ring blast, it is necessary to progressively
develop a sequence of free faces during the blast.
This ensures that blastholes in successive rows or
rings have an effective free face to break towards.
For stope production blasts fired to free face, 8 to 15
ms/m of blasthole burden is usually appropriate. Long
delays between rings will usually increase forward
throw, minimise overbreak and reduce ground
vibrations. Short delays tend to produce the opposite
effects, because blastholes do not have an effective
free face when they detonate.
In stope blasting, it is essential to use in-hole delays
that ensure no charges detonate before the initiation
signal is transmitted to each blasthole. This is required
133
to prevent flyrock, airblast and rock movement from
damaging downlines or parts of the initiation system
outside blasthole collars. An exception to the general
rule is the use of a sequential “bridge” initiation
system, where blastholes detonate before the entire
initiation system has fired.
Stope production blasts are usually fired using
Millisecond (MS) delay detonators, which allow
sufficient time for progressive relief of burden during
the blast. Long Period (LP) delays can be used if it
is essential to minimise forward throw, but the very
long delay intervals can cause blasthole charges to be
dislocated by ground movement during the blast. For
large blasts, it may be necessary to use a combination
of surface and in-hole delays to sequence blastholes.
This enables blasthole firing times to be “split”
between nominal detonator firing times, to control
ground vibrations and maintain short inter-hole delays
for optimal fragmentation.
Detonator lead lengths should be selected to allow
each primer to be placed in the required location
without the need to extend downlines. For large
stope blasts, a range of lead lengths may be required
to suit varying blasthole depths.
Slot Excavation
Slot excavation is required before the commencement
of production blasting in any stoping area. The term
refers to the opening up of a “void” which can then
be used to fire “rings” into.
Design
The sublevel interval for slot excavation will have
been previously determined by mine design factors
including the following:
• orebody dip, regularity and width;
• rock properties of ore and surrounding rock;
• access development available;
• drilling equipment available; and
• stope wall support requirements.
Sublevels may need to be developed at relatively
small intervals (e.g. 10 m), to define the orebody
position and install rock support. In competent rock
with regular ore-waste contacts, it may be possible to
space sublevels further apart; the maximum practical
sublevel interval will often be determined by drilling
equipment capabilities and drilling accuracy. A
sublevel interval of up to 40 m may be possible in a
regular orebody, if blastholes can be accurately drilled
over this distance.
134 Orica Mining Services Safe and Efficient Blasting in Underground Metal Mines
Slot excavation requires a raise to be developed
between sublevels, to provide a free face for initial
blasts to “open up” the slot. This “cutoff raise” may
be developed by conventional hand-held techniques,
longhole drilling and blasting, or raiseboring. A
conventional raise can be used to follow irregular
orebodies, but it must be straight enough to enable
effective longhole drilling around it. Longhole raising
can be used where the orebody is relatively straight
between sublevels, but care should be taken during
blasting to avoid damaging the surrounding rock.
Raiseboring is only practical for regular, planar
orebodies which extend for sufficient height to justify
the time and cost of setting up equipment.
For blasted raises, a minimum size of 2 m x 2 m is
recommended to provide an adequate free face and
breakout angles for initial blasthole firings. Bored
raises should be as large as possible, as small diameter
circular openings are very stable and relatively
difficult to break into. Blastholes around the raise
must be drilled close enough to produce realistic
breakout angles, but avoid intersecting the raise
when deviation occurs. More information on raising is
presented in Chapter 8.
Drilling
Slot excavation requires closely spaced blastholes to
overcome the tight geometry of a narrow free face.
Thus overall drilling efficiency is usually low, and
more explosives energy is required per tonne of rock
broken, i.e. higher “powder factors” are required.
Blasthole diameter is usually determined by the need
to minimise hole deviation, and thus depends on the
sublevel interval. Where sublevels are 10 m to 20 m
apart, 64 mm to 76 mm diameter blastholes may be
used. For cutoff slots for open stopes, 89 mm to 115
mm diameter blastholes are generally used to ensure
sufficient drilling accuracy between sublevels 30 m to
50 m apart.
Drilling patterns for slot excavation must be designed
to suit specific rock types, stope geometry, sublevel
interval, blasthole diameter and deviation. A typical
Slot design is shown in Figure 9.8. Rings should be at
least 3 blastholes wide to maximise break out angles
as previously discussed.
In a 3 m wide slot, 64 mm to 76 mm diameter
blastholes can be drilled on a square 1.5 m x 1.5 m
pattern. The burden for larger diameter blastholes is
restricted by geometry, and should not exceed the
slot width. In larger slots (5 - 6 m wide), 89 mm or
102 mm holes may be drilled on a 2 m x 2 m pattern.

Figure 9.8 Slot Stoping
Blastholes drilled close together in slots must be
carefully marked up, aligned and drilled, to minimise
deviation from design. Incorrect alignment or in-hole
deviation may cause blastholes to intersect each other
or deviate outside stope boundaries. This can result
in poor fragmentation, dilution, misfires, or failure to
break the burden.
Where possible, slot excavation should be designed
to allow blastholes to breakthrough into the sublevel
above or below. This enables blasthole positions to
be determined at the collar and toe, without the
need for in-hole surveys. If blastholes have deviated
excessively, they may be redrilled or fired in a
sequence that allows for their actual positions.
Priming
The close spacing of blastholes in slots can result
in explosives charges being damaged or cutoff by
adjacent blastholes. This can be a major problem
if the ore is wet and weak or fractured. Therefore,
multiple Boosters should generally be used in each
blasthole, to provide insurance against misfires
caused by ground movement or dynamic pressure
desensitisation. Blastholes should usually be primed
near the middle, with additional Boosters above and
below for security. A general rule of thumb is one
primer per 10m of blasthole length, however more
or less may be used depending on specific ground/
Chapter 9 Production Stoping
blasthole conditions. Poor, wet and jointed ground
usually requires more Boosters than competent, dry
ground to ensure complete column initiation.
Charging
Slot blastholes that are dry can be charged with ANFO
or Impact® mixtures, by blow loading into upholes
and pouring or blow loading into downholes. The
perimeter blastholes may be charged with Impact,
to reduce overbreak and damage to the surrounding
rock. Blastholes in the centre of the slot may also be
charged with Impact, if ANFO charges cause damage
to the walls or dislocation of perimeter charges.
If blastholes are wet, it may be necessary to charge
water-resistant bulk emulsion, or packaged explosives.
Packaged explosives with a relatively small diameter
may be required in perimeter blastholes, to reduce
over break and damage to the slot walls. Charging
will be slower and more expensive than ANFO,
Emulsion or Impact®, especially where upholes are
drilled. Packaged explosives must be tamped to
ensure retention in upholes, which is difficult unless
a pneumatic cartridge charger is available. Tamping
will produce a high in-hole charging density, which
may cause damage to the surrounding rock. For these
reasons, it is preferable to drill downholes which
breakthrough into the sublevel below, to maximise
the use of ANFO, Emulsion and Impact® mixtures.
Breakthrough blastholes must be blocked off
and stemmed at the toe, to support and confine
the explosives charge. All downholes should be
stemmed at the collar, to improve blasting efficiency
and prevent backbreak that may damage collars
in the next ring. Upholes are rarely stemmed, but
an uncharged collar should be left to minimise
backbreak. An uncharged collar length equal to the
burden should be adequate in most situations, but in
weak or fractured rock it may be necessary to increase
the collar to reduce overbreak.
Initiation
Slot excavation is commenced by firing blastholes
around the cutoff raise, to form the initial void, and
then proceeding from the void in a logical sequence.
Figure 9.9 illustrates a typical slot excavation and
the sequence in which it should be initiated, once
the raise has been opened to full slot width. Note
numbers shown are sequence numbers and not
delay numbers.
In all firings, the first blasthole to fire should have
the widest break out angle available. Thus the
centre blasthole in the front ring should fire first (1),
135
followed by the perimeter holes (2 & 3). Perimeter
holes in the same ring are usually fired on separate
delays to minimise ground vibrations and ensure that
the broken rock does not become “choked” in the
narrow slot. All blastholes in each ring should be fired
before the first hole in the next ring, to ensure an
effective free face.
General rules for slot initiation:
• 25-100 ms between adjacent holes (depending
on hole length).
• 100-300 ms between rings (depending on width,
or number of rings in slot).
Use of these principles ensures adequate hole
interaction between the 3 holes, and provides enough
relief between rings to allow for confinement. For
long (or wide) slots relief between rings can be
increased as the firing progresses away from the void,
to allow for the increased confinement.
Electronic blasting systems are a very effective
and flexible tool for slot excavation as they allow
consistent and accurate sequencing of blastholes
preventing cutoffs and out of sequence firings. Figure
9.10 illustrates a typical slot, 3 holes wide with 10
rings. In this case a delay of 25 ms has been chosen
between the holes in a ring and 100 ms between the
first 5 rings, increasing to 200 ms in subsequent rings.
In most hard rock conditions underground this will
give good results
Exel™ Millisecond (MS) delay detonators can also be
effective in slot blasts depending on the size of blast
being undertaken. The delay sequence must provide
adequate time for burden relief but ensure that
charges fire before they are disrupted by adjacent
blastholes. In most slot blasts, consecutive millisecond
delays (i.e. #1, #2, #3, etc) can be used in sequence,
because burdens are very small. However, if large
diameter blastholes are used in dense, massive rock, it
may be better to use alternate delays (i.e. #1, #3, #5)
to provide more time for burden movement. Figure
9.11 shows a typical slot initiation sequence using
MS delays.
Figure 9.9 Typical Firing Sequence for a Slot
136 Orica Mining Services Safe and Efficient Blasting in Underground Metal Mines
The issue with MS delays is that as firing of each ring
progresses, it becomes more difficult to maintain
appropriate delays between holes and rings as per
the rules of thumb given above. The more rings that
are fired at any on time, the higher the likelihood that
delays will need to be doubled up increasing the risk
of cut offs due to the increased time between delays.
For this reason, slots fired with MS delays should be
generally limited to less than 10 rings.
Narrow Vein Stoping
Narrow vein stoping involves the extraction of narrow,
steeply dipping orebodies by longhole drilling and
blasting techniques, or alimak methods. The orebody
must have regular boundaries that can be followed
by long blastholes and the surrounding rock must
be competent enough to stand unsupported over
relatively large spans.
Narrow Vein Stoping is most effective in steeply
dipping tabular orebodies that have well-defined
ore-waste contacts. Narrow Vein Stoping can be
successfully used in orebodies as narrow as 1 m,
if the orebody contacts are very regular and the
surrounding rock is competent. In thinner or irregular
orebodies, drilling control is more difficult, blasting is
“tighter”, and overbreak can cause excessive dilution.
The particular challenges faced with narrow vein
stoping are:
• A low ratio of stope tonnage per metre developed.
• High dilution from stope sidewalls.
• The conflicting drilling and blasting requirements of
minimising damage to sidewalls and breaking the
ore adequately and efficiently.
• Low efficiencies in bogging relatively small tonnages
of ore per blast.
• The effects of stress concentration ahead of the
stope faces and in abutment areas.
In general the narrower the veins, the more severe
these problems become.
Figure 9.10 Typical delay sequence with Electronic Detonators
Design
Conventional mining methods are still in use in some
mines. In steeper veins these include hand held
jackhammer mining methods for benching, shrinkage
and various cut and fill configurations. Longwall and
room and pillar are preferred methods in shallower
dipping veins. Maintenance of support of the back
and sidewalls of headings and work areas is a
continual challenge.
Developments in equipment towards straighter
drill holes and remote control LHD operation have
made narrow vein long hole stoping more viable
with benefits in reduced production costs and
increased safety.
The sublevel interval for Narrow Vein Stoping will be
determined by the following factors:
• Orebody dip, regularity and width;
• Rock properties of ore and surrounding rock;
• Access development available;
• Drilling equipment available; and
• Stope wall support requirements.
Sublevels may need to be developed at relatively
small intervals (e.g. 10 m), to define the orebody
position and install rock support. In competent rock
with regular ore-waste contacts, it may be possible to
space sublevels further apart; the maximum practical
sublevel interval will often be determined by drilling
Figure 9.11 Showing typical delay sequence with MS detonators
Chapter 9 Production Stoping
equipment capabilities and drilling accuracy. A
sublevel interval of up to 40 m may be possible in a
regular orebody, if blastholes can be accurately drilled
over this distance.
Drilling
Both development and production drilling equipment
is available in the “narrow” ranges from all of the
major drilling equipment suppliers.
In the narrow vein long hole stoping operations,
dilution is a major concern. Increased drill hole
diameters give straighter holes, improved blasting
efficiency and improved fragmentation but also result
in increased powder factors leading to blast damage
and increased dilution.
The main variants in longhole methods are downhole
benching, uphole retreat and Alimak Vein Mining. In
all methods it is desirable to drill to breakthrough so
that the accuracy of holes can be checked with holes
abandoned and redrilled as required.
Alimak Vein mining has the advantage of permitting
shrinkage drawing of the ore that may be an
advantage where weak hanging wall and footwall are
encountered.
Narrow vein stope blasting requires closely spaced
blastholes to overcome the tight geometry of a
narrow free face. Thus overall drilling efficiency is
137
usually low, and more explosives energy is required
per tonne of rock broken.
Hole diameters are typically limited to the range
57mm to 76mm depending on stope width, to
control damage and dilution.
The maximum length that a hole can be drilled will
depend on a number of factors including ground
conditions, accuracy required, the type of drill string
being used and the stiffness of the system in general.
For stope widths less than 2 m a single row of holes
or two row staggered pattern can be utilised. For
stope widths in excess of 2 m, a dice five pattern may
be more appropriate (Figure 9.12).
Drilling accuracy is vital to the economic success of
narrow vein stoping. Care must be taken with drill
set up as a misaligned hole will prevent all following
holes from firing out or may break the hanging
wall or footwall causing over break and consequent
dilution.
Figure 9.12 Drill Patterns for Narrow Stope Widths
138 Orica Mining Services Safe and Efficient Blasting in Underground Metal Mines
Priming
The close spacing of blastholes in narrow vein stopes
can result in explosives charges being damaged or
cut off by adjacent blastholes. This can be a major
problem if the ore is wet and weak or fractured.
Therefore, multiple Boosters should generally be
used in each blasthole, to provide insurance against
misfires caused by ground movement or dynamic
pressure desensitisation. Blastholes should usually
be primed near the middle, with additional Boosters
above and/or below for security.
Charging
Blastholes that are dry can be charged with ANFO,
emulsion or Impact® mixtures, by blow loading into
upholes and pouring or blow loading into downholes.
Blastholes may be charged with “Impact®” products
or low-density bulk emulsion, to reduce powder
factor and limit overbreak and damage to the
surrounding rock.
If blastholes are wet, it will be necessary to charge
water-resistant emulsion explosives or alternatively
use ANFO with hole liners. Packaged explosives can
be used for downholes. For upholes, hole liners with
ANFO are an option or preferably bulk emulsion.
Charging with packages will be slower and more
expensive than for ANFO or Impact®, especially
where upholes are drilled. Packaged explosive must
be tamped to ensure retention in upholes, which
is difficult unless a pneumatic cartridge charger
is available. Tamping will produce a high in-hole
charging density, which may cause damage to the
surrounding rock. For these reasons, it is preferable to
drill downholes which breakthrough into the sublevel
below, to maximise the use of ANFO and Impact
mixtures or charge with low-density bulk emulsion.
Breakthrough blastholes must be blocked off
and stemmed at the toe, to support and confine
the explosives charge. All downholes should be
stemmed at the collar, to improve blasting efficiency
and prevent backbreak that may damage collars
in the next ring. Upholes are rarely stemmed, but
an uncharged collar should be left to minimise
backbreak. An uncharged collar length equal to the
burden should be adequate in most situations, but in
weak or fractured rock it may be necessary to increase
the collar to reduce overbreak.
Initiation
Blast initiation is a crucial area in narrow vein stoping.
It is essential that each hole goes off in the planned
sequence without fail.
If any part of the hole fails to initiate the result is
inevitably a bridge which has to be redrilled and
fired (if indeed possible) causing delays and
potentially lost ore.
Detonators should be placed inside Boosters, charged
into blastholes, and hooked up according to the
procedures outlined in Chapter ‘2’.
Because of the confined geometry, relatively slow
timing between holes will provide increased relief and
reduced overbreak damage.
Exel™ Goldet™ detonators with surface delays of 100
or 200 ms have successfully been used to provide the
required timing and reduce projection of the broken
dirt to limit remote bogging requirements.
Alternatively, use of the Exel™ MS range is common
practice, skipping numbers in the series as required to
provide the appropriate delay interval.
Chapter 9 Production Stoping
Bench Stoping
Bench stoping utilises rows of long, parallel
downholes to create an open stope in steeply
dipping orebodies (Figure 9.13). The orebody and
surrounding rock must be competent, or capable
of being supported over broad spans. The orebody
boundaries should be planar, as the stope outline will
be defined by long, straight blastholes. Bench stoping
can be used to extract orebodies of varying widths,
and becomes “Narrow Vein Stoping” in very narrow
orebodies. The maximum practical width is usually
determined by the need to sill out the orebody.
Design
The height of a bench stope will be determined by
the following factors:
• orebody dip, regularity and width;
• rock properties of ore and surrounding rock;
• access development available;
• drilling equipment available; and
• stope wall support requirements.
Bench stopes are often restricted to approximately
20 m height, to limit unsupported rock exposures
and ensure that blasthole lengths are not excessive.
Taller stopes may be developed using longer large
diameter blastholes, if the surrounding rock is
competent enough.
Bench stoping requires a cutoff slot to be extracted
across the orebody over the full stope height, to
provide a free face for initial blasts. This cutoff slot is
usually developed from a longhole raise, using slot
excavation techniques.
Where an orebody is mined upwards by a series of
bench stopes, each completed stope is filled before
the next is commenced. Thus the extraction drive
of each stope is completely silled out, and loaders
work on a floor of fill material. To ensure that
loaders operate efficiently, it is essential to produce a
consistently loose, well fragmented muckpile. This is
especially important where remote-controlled loaders
are required to extract ore (Figure 9.13a and b).
139
 Silled drive

Stope

Extraction drive

a) Long section b) Cross section

8 4
Silled drive
6 2

Stope 6 4 2 3 5
5 1
Back-up delays

7 3

5 3 1 2 4
c) Plan
Primary delays

10 7 5 2
9 3
6 4 2 3 5
1
6
Extraction drive
4
8

10 7 5 2 e) Initiation sequence

d) Plan
Figure 9.13 Bench Stoping

140 Orica Mining Services Safe and Efficient Blasting in Underground Metal Mines
Drilling
The drill drive and extraction sublevel in a bench
stope are usually silled out across the full width of
the orebody. This enables rows of parallel downholes
to be drilled to breakthrough, which increases the
tonnes broken per metre drilled, and allows blastholes
to drain clean for charging. In wide orebodies, the
burden and spacing may be relatively large, because
blastholes are not tightly constrained by geometry.
However, conservative drilling patterns are often
used, to provide good fragmentation and minimise
overbreak.
Blasthole diameters for bench stoping are usually
determined by the need to minimise in-hole deviation,
and thus depend on the length required. Where the
distance between the floor of the drill drive and the
back of the extraction drive is 10 m to 20 m, 5 7 mm
to 76 mm diameter blastholes may be used. For taller
stopes, larger diameter blastholes may be required
to ensure drilling accuracy. As blasthole toes break
through, it is possible to accurately locate positions
and redrill if necessary.
Drilling patterns for bench stopes must be designed
to suit specific rock types, sublevel interval, blasthole
diameter, deviation, and the fragmentation required.
Square drilling patterns are often used for simplicity,
especially in narrow orebodies (Figure 9.13c). In very
wide orebodies, it may be practical to drill a more
efficient staggered pattern, with additional “easer”
holes adjacent to perimeter blastholes. Where
the surrounding rock is relatively weak, it may be
necessary to drill closely spaced blastholes along the
walls, and lightly charge them to minimise overbreak
(Figure 9.13d).
Priming
Blastholes in bench stopes should usually be primed
near the middle, to ensure maximum confinement
and prevent Boosters from being damaged or torn
out by ground movement near the toe and collar.
In weak or fractured rock, explosives charges can
be damaged or cut off by adjacent blastholes. Thus
multiple Boosters should generally be used in each
blasthole, to provide insurance against misfires caused
by ground movement.
Packaged explosives or Pentex boosters may be used
to initiate explosives charges in bench stopes. Where
ANFO or Impact® are charged, Pentex™ boosters are
the most efficient. The primer should be large enough
to quickly initiate a stable detonation in the main
charge, and long enough to completely enclose the
longest detonator being used.
Chapter 9 Production Stoping
Charging
Breakthrough blastholes must be blocked off and
stemmed at the toe, to support and confine the
explosives charge. At the toe of each blasthole, an
uncharged length approximately equal to the burden
should generally be used, to avoid backbreak and
damage to the back of the extraction drive.
Blastholes that are dry can be charged with ANFO
or Impact®; these products are generally poured into
downholes, but may be blow-loaded if higher
in-hole densities are required. Perimeter blastholes
may be charged with low-density Impact series
explosives, to reduce overbreak and damage to the
surrounding rock.
In bench stopes that are undercut, all blastholes
should breakthrough. Any blastholes that contain
water can be said therefore, either to be drilled short,
or to have deviated outside the stope boundary; any
necessary redrilling should be done before charging
begins. If blastholes are wet, it may be necessary
to charge water-resistant emulsion explosives. In
perimeter holes, small diameter packages may be
required to reduce overbreak and damage to the
stope walls.
An uncharged collar length equal to the burden
should generally be left on each blasthole, to
minimise backbreak. All blastholes should be
stemmed, to improve blasting efficiency and reduce
damage to blasthole collars in the next row.
Initiation
Bench stope blasts are generally restricted to one or
two rows, to minimise forward throw and reduce the
amount of remote loading required. It is desirable to
produce a muckpile that rests against the free face,
to maximise the amount of ore that can be loaded
from under the brow (Figure 9.13a). This ore is then
extracted to clear the face before the next firing.
Complete rows of blastholes should be fired together,
with short delays between blastholes in each row. The
centre blasthole in the front row should fire first, and
initiation should progress towards the perimeter holes
(Figure 9.13c). The delay between adjacent blastholes
in a row should usually be as short as possible, but
not instantaneous; thus, consecutive Millisecond (MS)
delay numbers are most suitable, with blastholes fired
on separate delays if necessary to reduce ground
vibrations. If several rows are fired in a blast, it is
usually best to completely initiate each row before
starting on the next; this will ensure that blastholes
in successive rows have an effective free face and
acceptable breakout angles when they fire.
141
It is especially important to delay perimeter blastholes
to ensure that they have the maximum possible
breakout angle. However, delays between adjacent
blastholes should be short enough to avoid charges
being cutoff by ground movement. Long Period (LP)
delays are, therefore, rarely used in bench stope
blasts, unless it is essential to minimise forward
throw; these long delay intervals may cause poor
fragmentation or misfires, especially in highly-jointed
rock. Where blastholes are multiple primed the
“insurance” delays should generally be one number
higher than the primary delays (Figure 9.13e).
Longhole Open Stoping
Longhole stoping techniques can be used in
orebodies of varying widths and dips, but is most
effective for bulk mining in broad stopes with vertical
or steeply dipping walls.
Longhole stoping in wide orebodies generally involves
drilling long blastholes at various angles from drill
drives that are not “silled out” across the orebody
(Figures 9.14a and b). These “rings” or “fans” of
blastholes can enable a large volume of rock to be
drilled and blasted from relatively small drill drives.
Ring drilling is also used in block caving and pillar
“mass blasts”. For block caving, rings of blastholes
are drilled and blasted to undercut the ore block.
For pillar recovery, rings may be drilled in vertical or
horizontal planes, from drill drives or raises. In open
stoping techniques, rings are usually drilled in vertical
planes to blast the ore in slices.
This section will emphasise ring drilling techniques for
longhole open stoping, as pillar recovery involves the
same general principles.
Design
Ring drilling has been used to successfully extract
open stopes and pillars that vary from approximately
5 m to 100 m wide, and from 10 m to 250 m high.
In narrow, squat stopes, all drilling may be done
from a single drill drive. If the orebody dips from the
vertical, the drill drive should generally be located
on the hangingwall side to minimise damage to
the overhanging rock (Figure 9.14a). If blastholes
are drilled to the hangingwall from a drive located
elsewhere, damage and overbreak may be caused
by the effect of blasthole toes or over drilling (Figure
9.14b). In wide orebodies, multiple drill drives may
be used to reduce the length of blastholes required,
increase drilling efficiency, and cleanly define the
footwall and hangingwall by perimeter blastholes
(Figure 9.14c). Tall stopes will usually require several
142 Orica Mining Services Safe and Efficient Blasting in Underground Metal Mines
drill drives on different sublevels, to limit blasthole
lengths and enable wall support to be installed.
Rings of blastholes are always fired to a free face,
which requires a cutoff slot to be extracted over the
full stope height. The cutoff slot may be developed
from a blasted or bored raise, using slot excavation
techniques.
In longhole open stopes drilled from several sublevels,
upholes may be drilled from drives on the extraction
level. These ‘undercut’ rings intersect the main
rings, and form a trough to funnel broken rock into
drawpoints (Figures 9.1a and b).
Drilling
Ring drilling can incorporate upholes, downholes,
full 360º rings or partial fans, drilled in vertical or
horizontal planes. As blastholes are divergent, the
overall tonnes broken per metre drilled is lower than
for rows of parallel blastholes. The burden is usually
constant, because rings are drilled in planes parallel
to the cutoff slot. However, the blasthole spacing
reduces from the toe towards the collar, and rings are
usually designed on the basis of maximum acceptable
toe spacing. The design toe spacing is usually 1.5
to 2.0 times the burden, which is a compromise
between excessive spacing at the toe, inefficient
drilling, and the requirement for acceptable blasthole
breakout angles.
Blasthole diameters used in ring drilling typically range
from 57 mm to 115 mm diameter, but downholes
may be as large as 200 mm diameter. Smaller
diameter blastholes may produce more consistent
fragmentation in some rock types, but they are less
productive and prone to in-hole deviation. Large
diameter blastholes usually result in higher drilling and
blasting productivity, and can be drilled straighter over
longer distances. However, large diameter blastholes
are usually drilled on relatively conservative burdens
and spacings, because of geometrical constraints and
the need for relatively fine fragmentation to enable
efficient extraction from drawpoints.
Blasthole burdens and spacing for ring drilling
vary widely, because of rock properties, geological
structure, stope geometry, required fragmentation,
blasthole diameter, and explosives used. Some
examples of blasthole burdens and toe spacings
that have been successfully used are summarised
in Table 9.1.
The results of ring blasting are greatly influenced by
drilling accuracy, especially for long, flat blastholes. In-
hole deviation depends on geology, diameter, length,
orientation, equipment and drilling rates. Thus ring
designs should be based on realistic blasthole lengths,
 a) Hanging wall b) Foot wall c) Twin drill drive
drill drive drill drive

Ring 2, 4, 6
Ring 1, 3, 5
11 10 9

9
11

7
7

5
4
6

1 4

6
2

3 1

d) Staggered pattern and initiation sequence

Figure 9.14 Ring Drilling

Chapter 9 Production Stoping 143

to avoid excessive deviation. Blasthole positions
should be accurately marked up in drill drives, and
detailed ring sections will be required by the driller.
Drilling accuracy depends on correct collaring and
alignment, which cannot be achieved unless the
correct equipment is used.
The toes of breakthrough blastholes may be located
to determine their actual positions. Blastholes that
do not breakthrough can also be surveyed, using in-
hole instruments; these instruments will identify any
alignment errors, and quantify in-hole deviation.
Priming
Long blastholes usually require multiple Boosters, to
provide insurance against downline cutoffs, charge
dislocation or desensitisation of the explosives
column. The position and number of Boosters used
will depend on many factors, but it is common to use
Boosters at 10 m to 15 m spacings in blasthole rings.
Boosters should not be placed too close to blasthole
toes or collars, as they may be damaged or dislocated
by adjacent charges. This is especially important
where the toes of blastholes from different drill drives
“interlock” together (Figure 9.14d). For a double-
primed blasthole, the Boosters should generally be
placed approximately one third of the charge length
from either end.
Packaged explosives or Pentex™ boosters may be used
to initiate ANFO or Impact® in dry blastholes. Full
columns of packaged explosives should be primed by
a package of the same product, or a Pentex™ booster
if charges may be affected by dynamic pressure in
weak, saturated rock. Bulk emulsion explosives should
be initiated by Pentex™ boosters.
Detonating cord “tracer” lines should only be used
in blastholes after giving careful consideration to the
core load and effects on the explosives column.
Charging
Ring-drilled blastholes converge from toe to collar,
which makes it impossible to evenly distribute
explosives energy within the rock. The explosives
energy per tonne of rock will be greater near
the collars than at the toes, unless lower energy
explosives are used towards the collar. However, as
the burden is constant and breakout angles reduce
towards the collars, the use of varying energies is
itself a compromise. Common practice is to charge
blastholes to a collar position where adjacent charges
are separated by a distance equal to the toe spacing
(Figure 9.14d).
Dry blastholes are usually charged with ANFO or
Impact®, by pouring into downholes or blow loading
into upholes and flat holes. For large blasts, or if there
is a risk of water entering blastholes before firing,
water-resistant explosives may be preferred for security.
In hard rock types or if there is a need to expand
drilling patterns, slit cartridges of packaged emulsion
may be used to provide more energy per metre of
blasthole. Perimeter blastholes are often charged with
Impact®, to reduce overbreak and damage to the
surrounding rock. In relatively weak or highly jointed
rock types, Impact® may even provide adequate
fragmentation when used in the entire blast.
If blastholes are wet, or may become wet before
firing, water-resistant explosives should be used. For
large blasts, bulk explosives may be used if equipment
and facilities are available on site. Bulk explosives

Blasthole Diameter Ring Burden Toe Spacing

Explosives
(mm) (m) (m)
57 ANFO Blow Loaded 1.8-2.1 2.7-3.0
64 Impact ®
1.25-1.5 2.0-2.2
64 ANFO Blow Loaded 2.0 3.0
70 Impact ®
2.0-2.4 3.0-3.6
70 ANFO Blow Loaded 2.1-2.5 3.0-3.6
115 Impact ®
2.0 4.0
115 ANFO Poured 3.0-3.2 5.0-6.5
115 Bulk Subtek ™
4.5 7.0
140 Impact® 2.0-3.0 4.0-6.0
140 ANFO Poured 3.0-3.7 5.5-7.5
165 Impact ®
2.0-3.0 4.0-6.0
165 ANFO Poured 2.5-4.1 6.0-8.0
165 Bulk Subtek ™
4.0 6.0
200 ANFO Poured 4.0-5.0 6.0-8.0
Table 9.1 Ring Drilling Burdens and Toe Spacings

144 Orica Mining Services Safe and Efficient Blasting in Underground Metal Mines
usually can be charged faster, are less expensive,
and produce more energy per metre of blasthole
than packaged explosives. The increased energy
output may be utilised by drilling larger blasthole
patterns, or used in standard patterns to produce
finer fragmentation. If bulk water-resistant explosives
are not available on site, it will be necessary to use
packaged explosives. These can be quickly and easily
charged into downholes, but charging rates for flat
and upholes will be slow unless a pneumatic cartridge
charger is used (refer to Chapter ‘5’ for more details).
Breakthrough blastholes must be blocked off and
stemmed at the toe, to support and confine the
explosives charge. An uncharged collar should be left
on all blastholes, and stemming placed in downhole
collars. The minimum stemming length required is
approximately 18 blasthole diameters, and screened
rock aggregate is the best material to confine
explosion gases and increase blasting efficiency.
Deck Charging
The explosives charge in each blasthole may be
separated into several isolated “decks” with inert
stemming material placed between adjacent charges
(Figure 9.15). Deck charging may be used to achieve
one or more of the objectives summarised below:
• reduce the mass of explosives initiated on
each delay;
• reduce the overall amount of explosives used; and/or
Figure 9.15 Deck Charging
Chapter 9 Production Stoping
• avoid placing explosives in soft or cracked rock.
The most effective inter-deck stemming material is
screened rock aggregated in the 6 mm to 12 mm
size range. Explosion gases cause this material to
jam against the blasthole walls, producing more
confinement than sand or drill cuttings.
The length of inter-deck stemming must be sufficient
to prevent explosives being affected by sympathetic
detonation, dynamic pressure desensitisation, or
physical dislocation when adjacent charges are fired
on different delays. In wet blastholes, the inter-deck
stemming length must be increased, because shock
waves may be transmitted through the inert deck.
The effects of one deck charge or another will
depend on many variables, including the following:
• blasthole diameter;
• explosives sensitivity and diameter;
• presence of water;
• rock type;
• location and type of Boosters;
• delay between decks and adjacent charges; and
• length and type of inert material used.
Because of the large number of variables, it is not
possible to precisely define the type and length of
an inert deck that will guarantee an optimum
blasting result. A deck length of approximately
15-20 blasthole diameters is a good starting point.
145
Initiation
Rings of blastholes may be fired one at a time, in
small groups, or as large “mass blasts” of multiple
rings. Rings which contain blastholes with interlocking
toes are usually fired together, to retain a straight
free face (Figure 9.1), However, it may occasionally be
necessary to “undercut” or “overhand” the stope,
or fire the toes off blastholes, to meet grade control,
scheduling or rock mechanics requirements.
Each firing must be individually designed to suit
specific stope requirements, but some general
rules are:
• all in-holes delays are activated before any
charge fires;
• rings fire from the bottom, proceeding upwards;
• the first hole to fire has the widest breakout angle;
• the longest holes in a ring fire as early as possible;
• perimeter or hangingwall holes fire last
(Figure 9.14d);
• interlocking blasthole toes fire together;
• minimum expansion void required is 35%;
• allow 3 ms to 5 ms/m of spacing within rings;
• allow 12 ms to 15 ms/m of burden between rings;
and
• the maximum charge fired per delay may
be restricted.
Exel™ MS delay detonators or Electronic Blasting
Systems should always be used in preference to Exel™
LP detonators for ring blasting, to allow adequate
time for burden relief but ensure that charges fire
before they are disrupted by adjacent blastholes.
For large blasts, a combination of in-hole and collar
delays may be used to control ground vibrations
and maintain short inter-hole delays for optimal
fragmentation (refer Chapter ‘2’).
Detonator lead lengths should be selected to allow
each primer to be placed in the required location
without the need to extend downlines. For ring
blasting, a range of lead lengths is usually required for
varying blasthole depths.
Detonators should be placed in Boosters, charged
into blastholes, and hooked up according to the
procedures outlined in Chapter ‘2’.
VCR Stoping
Vertical Crater Retreat (VCR) Stoping involves the
drilling of large vertical blastholes on a regular
pattern, and charging them with short explosives
charges at carefully determined distances from the
146 Orica Mining Services Safe and Efficient Blasting in Underground Metal Mines
free face at the bottom of each hole. The technique
is often used to recover pillars from between filled
stopes, where it is necessary to minimise the area of
walls exposed at any time (Figure 9.16 a, b).
The VCR method involves firing short explosives
charges in blastholes drilled perpendicular to a
(horizontal) free face. The explosives energy is utilised
to form an inverted crater and to eject fragmented
rock downwards (Figure 9.16c). Testing and analysis
has shown that there is a definite relationship
between:
• the energy of the explosives;
• the shape of the charge;
• the “depth of burial” (location) of the charge;
• the properties of the rock; and
• the volume of rock fragmented and dislodged.
The explosives charge shape would be spherical for
ideal blast results, but experiments in various rock
types have shown that good VCR blasting can be
achieved when explosives charges with a length to
diameter ratio of not more than 6:1 are used.
The thickness of ore removed by a pattern of
VCR charges placed at optimum depth is largely
determined by the rock type and geological structure
present. Generally the effective horizon of breakage
is at or above the level of the top of each explosives
charge, and this is verified when the free face is
measured for the next round. Some rock, especially
when influenced by in-situ stresses, may break or
cave-in to a depth well above the charge location.
However, if geometry varies from the design because
of deviating, blocked or unchargeable blastholes, the
actual thickness of ore removed may be significantly
less than optimum.
Design
The correct depth of burial is critical to the success of
VCR blasting, and is best determined by tests on-site.
The depth of burial is the distance from the effective
free face to the centre of the explosives charge (Figure
9.16c). Ideally the optimum depth of burial should be
determined by drilling a series of short blastholes of
the proposed VCR diameter, with the depth of these
holes increasing in small steps. A standard (spherical)
explosives charge is fired in each, and the volumes
of the resulting craters are measured and compared
to determine the most efficient depth of burial. In
practice however, crater tests are usually conducted
in blastholes of a diameter smaller than that of
production blastholes.
If charges are placed too far from the free face
(excessive depth of burial), then long, bell-shaped
 Drill drive
Stope
a) Long section
Charge
Stope
c) VCR blasting principle
Figure 9.16 Vertical Crater Retreat Stoping
craters or chambers will result, and humps of
unbroken rock will remain. If blasthole deviation is
excessive, the actual depths of burial and location
of charges may not coincide with designed values,
and reduced rock displacement and remnant humps
of rock may result. The effect of unbroken rock
humps is cumulative and if not recognised and dealt
with, major problems can occur including the virtual
freezing up of whole portions of the stope. Once
irregularities predominate the free face, it becomes
difficult to get explosives charges down to their
designed depth of burial, and frequently blastholes
become blocked or cut off. The solution is to carefully
monitor blast progress and deal with irregularities as
soon as they appear. It is desirable to keep the tops
Chapter 9 Production Stoping
Stope
b) Cross section
Stemming
to all explosive charges at the same horizon in most
cases; this may involve small firings of one or two
correcting charges to trim up the face before large
firings proceed.
Drilling
The larger the blasthole diameter, the greater
the mass of explosives that can be used while
still maintaining an efficient degree of charge
compactness. The greater the mass of explosives,
the greater the optimum depth of burial and volume
of rock that can be displaced. In practice blastholes
in the diameter range 150 mm to 165 mm are
most common, however blastholes of diameter
147
114 mm up to 200 mm have been used successfully.
Factors influencing blasthole diameter will include
drilling accuracy, drill rig costs, site accessibility, blast
vibration or wall damage constraints, and the overall
dimensions of the stope.
VCR blastholes should be drilled in such a way that
the craters formed after firing, actually intersect and
remove a horizontal slab of rock. Blastholes drilled too
far apart will leave humps of unbroken material that
cause major problems as mining proceeds upwards.
Blasthole spacings that are much too small can result
in interference of adjacent charges and misfires, cut
offs or blocked holes. Although blasthole pattern
size is best determined from on-site crater test shots,
Table 9.2 gives an indication of the expected range
of blasthole spacings and diameters when a slumped
high energy packaged emulsion or bulk emulsion
is used in rock of medium strength. However, such
estimates are no substitute for detailed crater testing
to optimise VCR geometry!
Priming
Because of the short charges in VCR blasting, the
location of the primer is not critical. It is common
to place the booster near the top of the charge. As
the explosives are generally not detonator sensitive,
Pentex™ or emulsion Boosters are used.
Charging
In VCR blasting, it is desirable to use explosives that
exert maximum pressure in the blasthole. Initially
all VCR work was carried out using high density,
TNT-based Packaged Watergels. More recently,
VCR blasting has been carried out using packaged
emulsions. A greater concentration of explosives
energy (in a “spherical charge”) will permit greater
depths of placement, with resulting increases in
blasthole spacings and achieved advance per round.
Attempts have been made to apply ANFO, but
the need to reduce blasthole spacings make this
uneconomical.
Blasthole diameter Blasthole Spacing
(mm) (m)
100 1.1-1.4
115 1.3-1.7
130 1.6-2.6
165 2.6-3.6
200 3.2-4.0
Table 9.2 VCR Blast Design
148 Orica Mining Services Safe and Efficient Blasting in Underground Metal Mines
Before charging, each blasthole must be checked
to determine whether it breaks through, the
breakthrough depth, and the approximate shape of
the breakthrough position.
Breakthrough blastholes must be blocked, and
stemming placed to the design bottom of each
charge. Packaged explosives should be slit before
dropping into blastholes to maximise the amount
of “slumping” and hence in-hole density. In any
blastholes that are blocked and contain water, care
must be taken to avoid packages deforming and
jamming at the water interface (Figure 9.7c).
Each blasthole should be stemmed to confine
explosion energy. Below the charge, screened rock
aggregate maybe used, but it is best to use 1.5 m to
2.0 m of sand above the charge, to avoid blastholes
becoming blocked.
Initiation
VCR blasthole charges ideally function independently
of adjacent charges, so the initiation sequence may
not require special design. However it is common for
the free face to become irregular rather than flat and
in these circumstances it is important to gain a clear
impression of the shape of the backs and the location
of charges and to fire the lowest charges first.
There is some benefit in firing those charges nearest
the stope walls last, so that they can also break
towards the slightly fractured zone of material on the
fringe of previously displaced craters.
Where VCR excavation is proceeding smoothly, it
may be possible to blast two or more rounds in a
single firing by placing separate decked charges
within each blasthole, and placing them on different
delays. The main benefit of this technique is that the
time-consuming task of measuring and logging all
hole depths and blocking off blastholes has to be
done only once for each blasthole, regardless of the
number of decks. However, the risk of choking up the
round, dislodging charges, sympathetic detonation
and/or desensitisation generally make multiple
rounds unpopular.
Depth of Burial Typical Charge
(m) (m)
1.1-1.4 5 to 6
1.4-1.9 6 to 9
1.6-2.2 10 to 15
2.0-2.8 20 to 30
2.6-3.8 30 to 40
Perimeter Blasting
In VCR blasting, explosives charges are designed to
break outwards and downwards to the free face.
Thus VCR blasting can be expected to produce
rougher stope walls than might be achievable using
blastholes designed to break inwards to a pre-blasted
void. It is seldom appropriate to charge perimeter
holes with lower energy explosives, as high-energy
explosives are essential for cratering.
It is possible that perimeter holes can be allowed to
lag behind the development of the centre of a stope,
then fired as stripping holes using ANFO or decoupled
charges. In doing this there is always the risk of holes
being damaged or cut off, thus some ore would
remain on the walls and be lost.
Common Problems
The following problems have a significant influence
on the effectiveness of VCR mining:
• blasthole deviation;
• inaccurate measurement of hole depth and location
of the free face;
• insufficient explosives energy and density;
• insufficient explosives quantities for each
individual hole;
• inadequate blocking-off of holes;
• the free face becomes very irregular;
• excessive slice thickness attempted;
• rocks fall into the collars of blastholes and
block them;
• stemming above the charge freezes and prevents
charge placement; and
• blastholes shift with ground movement.
Initiation Procedure for
Stoping Applications
Stripping and stoping
Stripping and stope blasts are now usually fired
by an initiation system that includes the products
listed below:
• Exel™ detonators, with MS (Millisecond) delays 1 to
15, are used for all types of stripping and stoping
including benching, uphole stoping and flatback
(Figure 9.17a). Short delay times are used between
blastholes, to ensure that they interact effectively
Chapter 9 Production Stoping
to produce good fragmentation. For large blasts,
the Extended Range of MS Delays 16 to 30 may
be used. Exel™ Long Period (LP) detonators are
rarely used for stripping or stoping, because the
relatively long delay intervals tend to produce
coarser fragmentation. However, LP detonators are
sometimes used to reduce the throw from a blast,
where this is more important than fragmentation.
• A trunkline of detonating cord is used to initiate
the in-hole non-electric detonators (Figure 9.17b).
Cordtex™ 5 and Cordtex™ 3.6 detonating cords
reliably initiate Signal Tube, using standard J-Hook
connections.
• For large blasts, non-electric delay detonators
can also be used outside blastholes, as bridges to
link several detonating cord trunklines together.
This enables many rows of blastholes to be fired
in a single blast, using short delays to produce
good fragmentation. The in-hole detonators are
connected to several separate detonating cord
trunklines, which are initiated in sequence by the
bridge detonators (Figure 9.17c).
• Two instantaneous #8 strength electric detonators
are used to initiate the detonating cord trunkline.
Initiating explosives used in stripping and stope
blasting should be charged and connected together
according to standard procedures that include the
following recommendations.
• Each in-hole detonator is inserted into a packaged
or cast explosives primer that completely encloses
the detonator shell.
• Semi-conductive charging hose is used when
blow-loading ANFO over non-electric detonators
inside blastholes. Packaged explosives are carefully
inserted and gently tamped, to avoid damaging the
Signal Tube.
• A closed-loop detonating cord trunkline is used,
to provide two paths of initiation to each in-hole
detonator. Several separate cord trunklines
may be used, linked together by non-electric
detonator bridges.
• Each in-hole detonator is connected by its J-Hook
to the nearest part of the detonating cord trunkline.
All connections between cord and Signal Tube are
made at right angles, with the Tube pulled taut
but not stretched. Connections are made at least
200 mm away from detonating cord knots or
branch lines.
• The hookup is thoroughly checked, to ensure
that all J-Hooks are connected and that no Signal
Tubes cross over or lie close to any detonating cord
between the J-Hook and the blasthole collar
(Figure 9.17c).
149
• If several detonating cord trunklines are to be fired
in sequence, they are linked together by non-
electric detonator bridges. When using bridging
detonators in this way, it should be understood
that there is a risk that trunklines and signal tubes
in later firing bridged sections could be damaged
by flyrock or airblast from earlier firing sections.
To minimise the risk, the delay times of the bridge
detonators should be selected to provide a suitable
buffer between detonating holes and exposed
trunklines. Trunklines in each separate bridged
section are linked by pairs of identical bridging
detonators taped to short lengths of detonating
cord. This enables the detonators to be placed
at least 2m from any Signal Tube connections
(Figure 9.17c).
• Two detonating cord lead-in lines are used to
initiate the trunkline system. The lead-in lines are
long enough to locate starter detonators at least
2 m away from any Signal Tube.
Two instantaneous #8 strength electric detonators are
attached to the lead-in lines, just before clearing the
area for firing. These two starters are securely taped
to the lead-in lines, approximately 150 mm from the
cut ends.
Longhole Stoping
Longhole stope blasts are now usually fired by an
initiation system that includes products listed below:
• Exel™ detonators, with MS delays 1 to 15 plus the
Extended Range of MS delays 16 to 30, are used
for all types of longhole stope blasting. Heavy
Duty (HD) Signal Tube is used where charged
blastholes are required to sleep for an extended
time before firing. Slider Boosters and detonating
cord downlines may be used where large diameter
blastholes contain multiple decked charges.
However, non-electric detonators with Signal Tube

8 7 6 7 8

5 3 3 5

4 2 1 2 4

Stope Det cord

a) Millisecond delay sequence b) Standard Trunkline system

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 3 4 5 6 7 8 3 4
75 ms
200 ms 225 ms
Det cord
150 ms
6
Det cord #2
6
Starter det Bridge det

c) Trunkline “bridge” system

Figure 9.17 Stope Blast Initiation Systems

150 Orica Mining Services Safe and Efficient Blasting in Underground Metal Mines
 downlines are generally used because they do not
disrupt explosives charges or stemming material,
and are available with a larger range of delays.
• A Trunkline of detonating cord is used to initiate
the in-hole non-electric detonators, Cordtex™ 5,
and Cordtex™ 3.6 detonating cords reliably initiate
Signal Tube, using standard J-Hook connections.
For large blasts, the overwrapped cords are
often preferred because their superior knot-tying
characteristics are an advantage when making
multiple branch line connections.
• Non-electric detonators can also be used outside
blastholes, as additional collar (piggyback) delays
to control sequencing. This enables blasthole firing
times to be split between nominal detonator firing
times, to control ground vibrations and maintain
closely spaced inter-hole delays for optimal
fragmentation. Non-electric Exel™ Connectadet™
detonators are often used as collar delays, to
sequentially initiate downlines in large blasts. The
use of collar delays is discussed in Chapter ‘2’.
• At least two instantaneous #8 strength electric
detonators are used to initiate the detonating cord
trunkline in each drill drive.
• The i-kon electronic blasting system is being
™ recommendations apply:
routinely used for the firing of production blasts in
many mines in Australia.
Initiating explosives used in longhole stoping should
be charged and connected together according to
standard procedures which include the following
recommendations:
• Each in-hole detonator is secured inside a packaged
or cast explosives primer that completely encloses
the detonator shell.
• Semi-conductive charging hose is used when blow-
loading ANFO over non-electric detonators inside
blastholes (refer Chapter ‘5’).
• Large diameter packaged explosives should be
lowered on top of Boosters in downholes, rather
than dropped from the blasthole collar.
• Downlines are held taut during charging and
stemming, to prevent damage and minimise
abrasion.
• A closed-loop detonating cord trunkline is used,
to provide two paths of initiation to each in-hole
or collar detonator. Where a single ring or row of
blastholes is to be fired, one loop of detonating
cord is laid out across or around the drill drive
(Figure 9.18a). For initiating several strings or rows
of blastholes, a network of cord is laid out with
trunklines along each side of the drill drive, and
branch lines across the drive (Figure 9.18b). The
cord network is secured in position by attaching it
to rockbolts, eyebolts or mesh.
Chapter 9 Production Stoping
• Each Signal Tube downline is secured by its J-Hook
to the nearest part of the detonating cord network.
All connections are made at right angles, at least
200 mm from detonating cord knots, with the tube
pulled taut but not stretched.
• The hookup is thoroughly checked to ensure that
all J-Hooks are connected and that no Signal Tubes
cross over or lie close to any detonating cord
between the J-Hook and the blasthole collar.
• Two detonating cord lead-in lines are used to
initiate the trunkline network in each drill drive. The
lead-in lines are long enough to locate the starter
detonators at least 2 m away from any Signal Tube.
• Two instantaneous #8 strength electric detonators
are attached to the lead-in lines, just before clearing
the area for firing. These two starters are securely
taped to the lead-in lines, approximately 150 mm
from the cut ends. Both detonators point towards
the blast, and are covered to protect all Signal Tubes
from shrapnel.
• For procedures used in firing electronic blasting
systems, refer to Chapter 3.
Where collar delays are used, the following additional
• In-hole and collar delays are selected to ensure
that all collar detonators have fired before any
in-hole detonators fire, to prevent the surface
initiation system being disrupted by airblast,
flyrock or rockfalls.
• Each downline or group of downlines is initiated
either directly by the detonating cord trunkline,
or by two Exel™ Connectadet™s that are located
outside the blasthole collar.
• Pairs of Exel™ Connectadet™ detonators are
attached to downlines with the plastic block
ensuring that outgoing downlines do not loop
around in front of or over the block.
• Each Exel™ Connectadet™ is secured by its J-Hook to
the nearest part of the detonating cord network. All
connections made at right angles, at least 200 mm
from detonating cord knots, with the Signal Tube
pulled taut but not stretched.
• Downlines that have collar delays are not connected
directly to the trunkline, as this would by-pass the
piggybacked Connectadet delay time.
• Downlines without collar delays are secured by their
J-Hooks to the nearest part of the detonating cord
network. All connections are made at right angles,
at least 200 mm from detonating cord knots, with
the Signal Tube pulled taut but not stretched.
• The hookup is thoroughly checked, to ensure that
all necessary J-Hook connections have been made,
151
 and that no Signal Tubes cross over or lie close to
the detonating cord between the J-Hook and the
blasthole collar.
• Exel™ Connectadet™ blocks should have all
downlines secured and no tubes crossed over
in the block.
• Exel™ Connectadet™ detonators do not need
to be covered.
Mass Blasting
Large longhole stope and pillar mass blasts are
commonly fired using signal tube systems although
electronic blasting systems are rapidly becoming the
system of choice particularly for complex multilevel
blasts. Mass blasts usually involve several drill drives
Det cord
a) Single ring of upholes
Figure 9.18 Longhole Stope Blast Initiation System
152 Orica Mining Services Safe and Efficient Blasting in Underground Metal Mines
on different sublevels, and many blastholes that
may have to be fired on individual delays. Thus blast
design, charging and supervision are more complex
than routine production blasts, although the basic
principles involved in selecting, charging and
hooking up the initiation systems are similar
to a single ring blast.
Mass blast initiation systems may include different
levels of complexity, as summarised below:
• MS delay detonators are used inside blastholes,
with Exel™ MS delays 1 to 15 plus the Extended
Range of MS delays 16 to 36. A detonating
cord trunkline network is used to initiate the
in-hole detonators by J-Hook connections.
Trunklines in each drill drive are linked together
by detonating cord branch lines (Figure 9.18b).
Stope
Pin
Det cord
b) Multiple ring of downholes
 Delay
Sequence In-hole Delay Collar Delay Total Delay
Interval
Between
Number No. Time (ms) No. Time (ms) Time
Holes (ms)
1 3 75 – – 75 17
2 3 75 Connectadet ™
17 92 8
3 4 100 – – 100 17
4 3 75 Connectadet ™
42 117 8
5 5 125 – – 125 17
6 4 100 Connectadet ™
42 142 8
7 6 150 – – 150 17
8 6 150 Connectadet™ 17 167 8
9 7 175 – – 175
Note:
This is an extract from a more comprehensive list of combinations. It shows only the first nine sequences of more than 100 possible sequences.

Table 9.3 In-hole and Collar Delay Combinations

The entire trunkline network is initiated by several
instantaneous electric detonators on each sublevel.
Where suitable raises or service holes exist,
detonating cord may be used to link together
the trunklines on each sublevel, for additional
insurance.
trunkline is used to initiate the Exel™ Connectadet™
by their J-Hooks (Figure 9.19). The entire trunkline
network is initiated by several instantaneous electric
detonators on each sublevel. Detonating cord links
may also be used between sublevels, for additional
insurance.

• MS delay detonators are used inside blastholes,
with Exel™ MS delays 1 to 15 plus the Extended
Range of MS delays 16 to 36. Non-electric Exel™
Connectadet™ detonators are used as additional
collar (Piggyback) delays outside blastholes
to further extend the delay range. The collar
delays sequentially initiate downlines, enabling
blasthole firing times to be split between nominal
detonator firing times (Table 9.3). Connectadet™s
are connected to downline tails using the Exel™
Connectadet™ block, and a detonating cord
• i-kon™ electronic detonators used inside blastholes
connected to a surface network of harness wire.
One or more loggers used to log detonators on
each sublevel. Loggers on each level connected in
parallel to a firing line.
• MS delay detonators are used to initiate separate
decked charges inside each blasthole. In-hole delays
are provided by Exel™ detonators with Signal Tube
downlines. Downlines are sequentially initiated by
piggybacked Exel™ Connectadet™ collar delays,
which are connected to detonating cord trunklines.

Figure 9.19 Mass Blast Initiation System

Chapter 9 Production Stoping 153

• In-hole delays are provided by Exel™ non-electric
detonators. Downlines are sequentially fired by
Exel™ Connectadet™ collar delays, which are
connected to several separate detonating cord
trunklines. The trunklines are fired in a delayed
sequence by non-electric detonator bridges
(Figure 9.17c).
Overbreak Control
The intense energy from a normal stope production
blast can destroy or, at least, reduce the structural
strength of the wall rock; new fractures and planes of
weakness are created, and joints and bedding planes
which may have been tight before the blast are
opened up. As a result, there is an overall reduction
in the ability of the rock mass to hold together.
Excessive overbreak results in greater ore dilution,
increased material handling, the need for extra rock
support, and a general reduction in safety
and stability.
Special blasting techniques such as presplitting can
give rock walls of great smoothness and soundness.
Before any attempt is made to apply presplitting or
any other smoothwall technique, however, efforts
should be made to find out to what extent modified
production blasts can reduce overbreak; if a high
degree of success is achieved with redesigned
production blasts, then the need for smoothwall
blasting methods can be eliminated. The redesign
of a production blast to reduce overbreak does not
necessarily reduce fragmentation or significantly
increase overall stoping costs.
Smoothwall blasting techniques are important
methods of achieving stope walls that are smoother
and more sound than those that are left by
redesigned production blasts. These techniques are
most successful in tough massive rocks and in tight
horizontally bedded formations which are relatively
undisturbed by faults, etc. In unconsolidated,
weathered or highly fissured ground, problems in
obtaining a consistently smooth wall are usually
encountered. The very technique that produces the
desired effect in a tough massive rock may be entirely
unsuitable in weak, highly fissured ground. Blasthole
patterns and charge loads, therefore, will change
appreciably with the rock properties encountered.
Production Blasts
Overbreak can be reduced by observing the following
guidelines in the design of production blasts:
• If a continuous column of ANFO is too powerful,
deck charge the ANFO and initiate the charge decks
154 Orica Mining Services Safe and Efficient Blasting in Underground Metal Mines
separately. Alternatively, Impact® series of explosives
may be used in dry blastholes.
• In wet blastholes, semi-rigid packaged emulsions
can be used to give charges which build up as a
continuous column but which are a loose fit in the
blasthole. 25 mm diameter cartridges in a 45 mm
blasthole would be a suitably decoupled charge, as
would 55 mm cartridges in 90 mm blastholes.
• Where bulk emulsion explosives are used, the
lowest density option should be used particularly
for hanging wall holes in weak ground providing
burdens are adjusted accordingly.
• The effective burden should not be greater than
about 20 times the blasthole diameter.
• The spacing between perimeter blastholes should
lie between 25 and 40 times the blasthole diameter.
• For all blastholes except those in the last ring to be
fired, the length of the stemming column should be
18 to 25 blasthole diameters. To prevent overbreak
it may be necessary to increase the stemming
length in perimeter holes.
• The initiation sequence should be selected to
ensure that there are minimum numbers of
blastholes firing on the same delay, and perimeter
holes are detonating in a delayed sequence.
• Blastholes should be accurately aligned and collared
to minimise deviation from design.
Line Drilling
Line drilling involves drilling a row of parallel
uncharged holes along the design excavation limit.
Hole diameter is usually 38-75 mm, and the spacing
between holes is commonly 2-4 times the hole
diameter. These holes provide a plane of weakness to
which the production blast can break. The distance
between adjacent blastholes and the line-drilled holes
usually lies between 50% and 75% of the normal
burden distance.
Because line drilling is a very costly and tedious
operation (as a consequence of the close hole
spacing required) it is used only where other blasting
techniques are likely to cause too much overbreak.
Presplitting
Presplitting involves drilling a row of closely spaced,
38-75 mm diameter blastholes along the design
perimeter. These blastholes are very lightly charged
and then detonated simultaneously before the
first production blastholes are fired. Firing of the
decoupled charges splits the rock just along the
design limit, creating an internal surface to which the
 Blasthole Charge er Suggested Presplit Trim Blasting Burden (Trim
Diameter Metre of Cartridge Blasthole Spacing Blasting Only)
(mm) Blasthole (kg) Diameter (mm) Spacing (m) (m) (m)
38* 0.15 25 0.4 0.6 0.9
51* 0.2 25 0.5 0.8 1.1
64 0.25 25 0.6 1 1.3
76 0.45 25 0.7 1.1 1.5
89 0.65 25** 0.9 1.3 1.8
102 0.8 29** 1 1.5 2
114 1 32** 1.1 1.7 2.1
152 1.8 45** 1.5 2.2 2.5
* A single strand of Cordtex™ 70P detonating cord (with an extra toe charge) can often be used successfully in these blasthole diameters.
** Continuous column charges of Senatel™.

Table 9.4 Presplit and Trim Blast Design

production blast can then break. Firing of the presplit
charges will itself create overbreak if the presplit holes
are too close together, or charged too heavily.
The spacing between presplit blastholes normally
increases with the blasthole diameter (Table 9.4).
Because rock properties have an over-riding effect
on blasthole spacing and charge mass these figures
should be considered only as recommended starting
values. The best spacing and charge for a particular
rock should be determined by field trails.
Presplit holes are generally charged to within about 8
blasthole diameters of the collar and left unstemmed.
If stemming is deemed necessary it can be achieved
by pushing down a wad of damp paper, hessian
or plastic film to the top of the charge and then
backfilling with drill cuttings.
If the best possible presplitting action is to
be obtained, presplit charges must be fired
simultaneously. This is achieved most successfully
by joining up all detonating cord downlines with a
detonating cord trunkline. Where ground vibrations
are likely to cause problems, millisecond delay firing of
groups of holes may be used. The number of holes in
each group is made sufficient to obtain a satisfactory
splitting action while not exceeding the maximum
allowable charge mass per delay. To enable the presplit
fracture to develop to its fullest extent, the presplit
holes should be initiated at least 100 ms before any
immediately adjacent production blast holes.
The presplit face will be damaged or even destroyed
if production blastholes are drilled too close to it. If
the distance between the presplit and the adjacent
production blastholes is too great, however, rock will
be left in front of the presplit face. The best distance
between the presplit and the adjacent production
blastholes should be determined by trial; it is
usually 1/3 to 1/2 of the normal burden for
production blastholes.
Disruption of the presplit face can also be minimised
by careful design of the initiation sequence and delay
timing of the production blast. Perimeter blastholes
must have adequate free faces to break towards,
and be delayed to provide adequate relief of burden.
Trim Blasting
Sometimes referred to as slashing, trim blasting
involves drilling a row of closely spaced blastholes
with a suitable burden: spacing ratio along the final
excavation limit. All holes are charged with light,
well-distributed charges and fired simultaneously,
after the final production blast. To avoid loss of
blastholes through caving, trim blastholes should be
drilled AFTER firing the adjacent production blast.
A variation on trim blasting involves the charging
of the trim holes at the same time as the last
production blast and firing them simultaneously on
the last delay.
Trim blastholes are charged and fired in the same
way as those for presplitting, so that the detonation
tends to split the rock web between holes giving a
smooth wall with minimum overbreak. For 51 mm
to 89 mm diameter blastholes, the charge usually
consists of a string of small diameter packaged
explosives suspended at 0.3 m to 0.6 m intervals
on a detonating cord downline.
In trim blasting burdens are always greater than
spacings. Stemming lengths are typically 0.6 m to
1.0 m for 51 mm to 89 mm blastholes.
Trim blasting does not usually give the spectacular
type of result often produced by presplitting, but it
does give a considerable reduction in overbreak. Trim
blasting tends to give better results than presplitting
in weak or highly jointed rocks.

Chapter 9 Production Stoping 155

156 Orica Mining Services Safe and Efficient Blasting in Underground Metal Mines