Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

Nature of Research

Man is confronted with challenges, difficulties, and

anxieties. For instance, food security, insurgency, social
injustices, rapid population rate, slow production rate,
unemployment, corruption and the like, have been the common
problems and issues encountered by man. The ultimate
response of man is to find solutions to make human life
better, progressive and peaceful. Finding effective
solutions to answer pressing problems requires a thorough
analysis of the situation so that causes could be determined
and defined, making investigation relevant towards positive
and effective solutions outside from mere guessing, and
unverified ideas and theories. In this sense, it is
imperative to conduct scientific investigation or research
in order to address human problems.

Doing research can formulate theories, test theories

and guides in solving problems. Through research, we can
extend our vision and experiences; it helps us understand
how and why a situation exists; it enables us to discover
new things and ideas; and it provides information as basis
for decision making.

Research has great contribution to various fields of

discipline like, education, governance, agriculture and much
more in social sciences because it finds new knowledge
related to the improvement of education, governance and
existing practices.

Definition of Research

The word research comes from the French word

rechercher, meaning to search. It can be defined in many
ways depending upon the point of view from various
disciplines like, education, business, agriculture and
medical.

On the basis of structure, the word research means, to

search again. In other words, there is a need to have
another study of the same problem due to erroneous matter

during the conduct of the study, misconceptions of

important variables, confusions of results, and others. To
search again may validate existing theories and or findings
of the study.

Research is defined as the systematic and objective

analysis and recording of controlled observations that may
lead to the development of generalizations, principles or
theories, resulting in prediction and possibly ultimate
control of events (Best and Khan).

Kerlinger defined research as a systematic, controlled,

empirical, and critical investigation of hypothetical
propositions about the presumed relations among natural
phenomena (Sevilla, et.al.).

It is called systematic because it follows steps or

stages beginning from: Problem Identification, Relating the
Problem Identified to Theories, Collecting of Data, Analysis
and Interpretation of Data, Drawing Conclusions and
Recommendations and Integration of these conclusions into
the stream (body) of knowledge.

It is called controlled because the Problem is

logically arranged and well-planned, the Variables are
identified and selected properly, the Instruments are
carefully selected and constructed, Conclusions are drawn
out of the data gathered, and Recommendations are based on
findings and conclusions.

It is called empirical because the data are based on

research or experiment which serves as bases for making
conclusions.

It is called critical investigation because the

results, conclusions and recommendations of the researcher
would undergo critical analysis by the panel or board of
judges or experts.

According to Ardales research is defined as a

systematic, objective and comprehensive investigation of
certain phenomenon which involves accurate gathering and
recording, critical analyses and interpretation of all

facts about the phenomenon for theoretical or practical

ends.

Research therefore is a process of scientific

investigation and inquiry of certain phenomenon, practice,
program and policy to establish correct data or information
relevant to the formulation of theories, making decision in
solving problems and any developmental endeavor in quest for
the well-being of man and his environment.

Functions and Role of Research

Research has various functions as:

1. It corrects mans’ perceptions as well as expands them.

2. It gathers information on subjects or phenomena we lack
or have little knowledge about.
3. It develops and evaluates concepts, practices and
theories.
4. It evaluates and develops methods that test concepts,
practices and theories.
5. It obtains knowledge for practical purposes like
solving problems on population explosion, drug
addiction, juvenile delinquency, environment and the
like.
6. It provides hard facts which serve as bases for
planning, decision-making, project implementation,
monitoring and evaluation.
Role of Research in the development process

Research Planning Implementation

Evaluation Monitoring

Types of Research

1. Pure or Theoretical or Basic Type of Research

This type of research involves in developing and

testing theories and hypotheses that are intellectually
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interesting to the investigator and might have some social

application in the future, but have no application in the
present time (Locsin).

It is conducted for the sake of knowing. Its main

objective is to test or arrive at a theory with the ultimate
goal of establishing general principles. The result does
not intend for practical purposes, like helping solve social
problem.

2. Applied or Practical Type of Research

This type of research is done to obtain knowledge for

useful ends, and to use that knowledge to solve certain
discomfort, or improve the prevailing condition which, in
its present state, may be satisfactory but which has still
room or possibility for improvement.

According to Gay, the purpose of this type is to apply,

test and evaluate the usefulness of a theory or knowledge
arrived at in solving social problems like, drug addiction,
poverty, population growth, and the like.

3. Action Research

This research has a feature of applied research since

it involves discovering and identifying a problem in a local
setting like, the instruction problems in classroom.

According to Barsaga, action research is a research

done by particular people on their work, and their
practices. It is meant to help them improve what they do
including how they work with others.

Basic Components of the Process

1. the research problem
2. the review of related literature and studies
3. the research design
4. the research report

Steps in the Research Process

1. Problem Identification
2. Review of Related Literature
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3. Formulation of Objectives
4. Formulation of Hypotheses
5. Theoretical and Conceptual Framework
6. Research Design Selection
7. Data Collection
8. Data Processing
9. Data Analysis and Interpretation
10. Report Writing

Sources of a Research Problem

To find a good problem for thesis is usually the major

issue among graduate students. Many of them could not
finish their graduate studies mainly because of the
difficulties encountered in research writing particularly on
the formulation of a good research problem. Helping them to
formulate a good research problem, listed below provides the
list of recommended sources of a problem.

1. For Good and Scates

a) Various phases of the instructional program
b) Analysis of an area of knowledge or of existing
felt needs
c) Extension of completed investigations or the
budding out of studies in progress
d) Existing policies and practices
2. For Adanza
a) Problems in work environment
b) Experiences
c) Classroom discussion
d) Technological and scientific advancement
e) Perceived difficulty and or new problem arising
from the old one.

3. Other possible sources

a) Area of specialization
b) Readings
c) Interest
d) Suggestions from authorities/ teachers

Criteria in Selecting a Good Research Problem

1. Novelty and avoidance of unnecessary duplication.

Novelty is concerned with the element of newness. This
element has two dimensions. First, the problem must
not have been investigated before, it may be the
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subject of the previous study but with different

assumptions, different methods, or different ways of
analyzing data. Secondly, the duplication can be
permitted however, it should be a necessary duplication
that requires strong justification.

2. Practical value of the problem. After investigation,

the problem should result in some practical value in
life. The results could be used to improve practices,
concepts, and the like.

3. Investigator’s interest in the problem. The

investigator must be interested in the problem if he is
to conduct his research willingly and dedicatedly.
 Usually, a researcher will select a research problem,
not because someone wants him to investigate it but
because it appeals to his interest.

4. Availability of data on the problem. A subject or

problem under investigation will only yield fruitful
results if data on that problem are available.

5. Special qualification of the researcher to do the

investigation.

6. Time required to investigate the problem under study.

7. Cost of investigating the problem.

Procedures in Selecting a Research Problem

1. Analyze what is known, including the historical record.

2. Look for gaps or deficiencies in explanation, that is
the areas that need to be studied.
3. Watch for some contradictions, controversies and
untested conclusions.
4. Follow suggestions obtained from readings, conferences
and group discussions.

Writing the Title of the Research Problem

In writing the title of the problem, it should be

definite or specific with a maximum of 20 substantive words

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excluding function words (Baker and Schutz, 1972). The main
concept and / or variables being investigated should be
written as part of the title. The title of the problem
serves the following functions or purposes:

1. It summarizes the content of the entire study.

2. It is a frame of reference for the whole study.
3. It enables you to claim the study as your own.
4. It helps other researchers to refer to your work as
they find some theories.

The research problem is not constructed in the usual,

linguistic expression of question. It does not have the
antecedent questions from which specific questions can be
derived or based.

Sample Problems:

An Assessment of the Academic Achievement of Grade VI

Pupils in Mathematics during school year 2003-04.

The Effect of Homeroom Guidance on the Study Habits of

Grade IV Pupils in Two districts of the Division of City
Schools, Bacolod City.

Leadership Styles of Department Heads of the Local

Government Units as Perceived by their Subordinates in the
Municipality of Valladolid, Negros Occidental.

The most important variables in the study must be

included as part of the title.
 Variable and Its Types

Variable refers to a characteristic that has two or more

mutually exclusive values or properties.
e.g. sex (male /female)

Kerlinger calls variable as the construct or property

being investigated.

Types of Variable

1. Dependent or criterion variable. This variable is the

object of the study which is assumed to be the effect of the
independent variable.
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2. Independent variable or variate. This variable is

assumed to be the determinant of the dependent variable.
This variable is either be manipulative or non-manipulative.
The manipulative variable can be manipulated to determine
its effect to the dependent variable. e.g. instructional
methods.

The non-manipulated is called organismic or attribute

variable which could not change the status of the people
concern. e.g. sex, mental ability

3. Intervening variables. These variables cannot be

controlled or measured directly but which may have an
important effect upon the outcome of the study.

4. Extraneous/ Antecedent variables. These variables cannot

be controlled or manipulated by the researcher but which may
have a significant influence on the result of the study.

The Introduction of the Study

The chosen title must be fully justified in accordance

to the enumerated criteria in selecting a research problem.
The justification of the chosen title or problem must be
clearly and specifically formulated in the introduction to
convince the reader on the importance and the need to
conduct such problem or title.

The introduction provides the background of the study.

It discusses the nature and the extent of the prevailing
problem leading to the clear statement of the research
problems. It may present logical theories relating to the
problem identified. Also, it may present previous efforts,
actions and solutions done in the past including
shortcomings and or deficiencies.

Objectives of the Study / Statement of the Problems

This is the most important part of the research

activity. The objectives of the study serve as guides as to
what are the things to achieve at the end of the study.

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 Objective defined as an effect that is desired or
expected to be achieved by an activity, project /program
(Blumenfeld)

Research Objectives refer to the statements of purpose

for which the investigation is to be conducted. They
describe the aims or goals which are expected to be attained
at the end of the research process. They are anchored to
the title or problem stated.

Classification of Objectives

1. General objective refers to a broad statement of

purpose which uses abstract or non-measurable concepts.
2. Specific objective refers to a statement of purpose
which uses well-defined and measurable concepts which
is based from the general objective.

For example:

General objective: This study concerns on the

effect of the dispersal program of the Local Government
Units on the socio-economic status of people in the 4 th
congressional district of Neg. Occ.

Specific objectives:
1. to determine the level of income derived
from the dispersal program of the LGU in
Neg. Occ.
2. to identify the problems met by the
recipients of the dispersal program of the
LGU’s in Neg. Occ.

Characteristics of behavioral objectives

1. S – simple
2. M – measurable
3. A – attainable
4. R – result oriented
5. T – time-bound

Usually, the writing of a master’s thesis and

dissertation uses the statement of the specific problems
rather than the formulation of objectives. After the
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research title is constructed, the formulation of specific

questions or statement of the specific problems follows.

For example: (Salaver’s thesis)

This study aimed to assess the academic performance of

Grade VI pupils in Mathematics in the Division of La Carlota
City, S. Y. 2003-04.

Specifically, this study sought to answer the following

questions:

1. What is the level of Grade VI pupils in terms of

a. study habit?
b. comprehension?
 2. What are the common methods of teaching used by
Grade VI mathematics teacher?

3. How adequate are the materials of instructions used

by the Grade VI mathematics teacher?

4. What is the level of academic achievement of Grade

VI pupils in mathematics?

5. Is there a significant relationship between study

habit and academic achievement?

6. Is there a significant relationship between

comprehension and academic achievement?

7. Is there a significant relationship between

teachers’ methods of teaching and academic
achievement?

8. Is there a significant relationship between adequacy

of materials of instruction and academic
achievement?

Hypothesis of the Study

A hypothesis is a tentative explanation for certain

behaviors, phenomena, or events which have occurred or will
occur (Gay). It states the expectations concerning the
relationship between two or more variables. This is a part
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of the study that went into presenting the calculated

guesses which are based from the specific problems or
objectives of the study.

Kinds of Hypotheses

1. Research hypothesis – refers to the directional

hypothesis predicting the positive relationship of
variables under investigation or the positive effect of
the treatment.
2. Null hypothesis - refers to the non-directional or
alternative hypothesis predicting the negative
relationship between variables or negative effect of
the treatments.

Generally, the null hypothesis is recommended because

errors in accepting and rejecting the hypothesis can be
easily avoided.

For example:

Specific objective: to find out the relationship

between the leadership skills and level of job
satisfaction among middle managers in higher education
institutions in Region VI.

Hypotheses:
Research (Ha): There is a relationship between
the leadership skills and level of job satisfaction
among middle managers in higher education institutions
in Region VI.
 Null (Ho): There is no relationship between the
leadership skills and level of job satisfaction among
middle managers in higher education institutions in
Region VI.

Example from Salaver’s thesis

1. There is no significant relationship between study

habit and academic achievement.
2. There is no significant relationship between
comprehension and academic achievement.

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3. There is no significant relationship between the

teacher’s methods of teaching and academic
achievement.
4. There is no significant relationship between
adequacy of materials of instruction used and
academic performance.

Significance of the Study

The significance of the study indicates as to whom the

study will be most useful, why the study would be useful to
them, and how the study will help them in their particular
disciplines.

The researcher should enumerate individuals/ groups/

sectors/ agencies that can benefit from the study.

Scope and Limitation of the Study

The scope of the study would tell the place and time of
the study. Also, it includes the subject and respondents of
the study.

Limitation refers to an aspect of the investigation

which may affect the result adversely but over which the
researcher has no control. Limitation of the study presents
the statements which alert the reader of the research report
to certain conditions which are beyond the control of the
researcher (Ardales).

Definition of Terms

The terms used in the study will be defined to provide

a wider knowledge of the topic which eventually becomes the
theory on which hypothesis is based.

Kinds of Definition of Terms

1. Conceptual definition refers to a constitutive

definition which is given by the dictionary. It is
called as the academic or universal meaning attributed
to a word.

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 2. Operational definition refers to a functional
definition. It is done by stating the way the concept
or term is used or measured in the investigation.

Evaluation

1. Define the terms listed below:

a) Research e. Significance
b) Pure Research f. Scope
c) Applied Research g. Limitation
d) Action Research h. Variable

2. Formulate a Research Problem and prepare the following

elements of the research process:

a) Theoretical and Conceptual Framework

b) Statement of the Problem
c) Statement of Hypotheses
d) Significance of the Study
e) Scope and Limitation of the Study
f) Definition of Terms

Chapter 2

LITERATURE AND STUDIES

The second chapter of the research paper covers the

review of related Literature and Studies which are relevant
to the investigation.

Definition of Literature and Studies

The term Literature pertains to articles or books

written by authorities giving their opinions, experiences,
theories or ideas of what is good and bad, desirable and
undesirable within the problem area. Likewise, Studies
refer to the published or unpublished reports of actual
research studies done previously.
 The chapter involves the systematic identification,
location, and analysis of documents containing information
related to the research problem. This is the major part of
the research process that leads to past theories.

Importance of the Review of Literature and Studies

1. It provides the conceptual or theoretical framework of

the planned research. It explains and clarifies the
basis for the theoretical framework.
2. It provides the researcher knowledge and background on
the subject under study.
3. It enables the researcher to avoid duplicating or
doing the same study that was already done before.
4. It provides insight on the weaknesses and problems of
previous studies.
5. It provides the researcher ideas on how to proceed
with his investigation.
6. It provides findings and conclusions of past studies
which the researcher may relate to his own findings
and conclusions.

The focus of the review of a study is the ideas which

have relations to the research topic. It may be supportive
or against one’s assumptions and hypotheses. It includes
the study objectives, methodology used, the subjects or
population covered, the instruments used, the findings,
conclusions and recommendations reached.

15

Listed below are considerations when preparing the

review.

1. The interrelationships between the studies reviewed

should be made clear by pointing out their specific
weaknesses and strengths.
2. The similarities and / or differences between the
studies review and the study being undertaken should be
pointed out.
3. The major studies are described in more details, while
less important work can be referred to in just a line
or two.
4. The student should avoid treating each study isolated
from the other studies.

Approaches Used in Presenting the Review

of Related Literature and Studies

Listed below are the different approaches used in

presenting the review of related Literature and Studies.

1. Chronological organization or approach. In this

approach, the literature and studies are presented
according to the time they were written.
2. Topical or thematic organization or approach. The
literature and studies of similar themes or topics are
grouped together.
3. Country or site organization or approach. The
literature and studies are classified by country or as
local or foreign source.
 A school may adopt any of the above approaches.

Evaluation

1. Define the terms listed below:

a) Literature
b) Studies
c) Chronological Approach
d) Topical or Thematic Approach
e) Country or Site Approach

2. Based on a chosen Research Problem (chapter 1),

formulate a Review of Related Literature and Studies
using the thematic approach.
Chapter 3

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The 3rd chapter of the research report presents and

discusses the research methods which serve as guide in
conducting the research. It includes the research design,
subjects and respondents of the study, the population and
the number of samples, the data gathering instrument, data
gathering procedures and the analysis or treatment of data
gathered.

Methods of Research

A. Historical Research

This method of research involves any appeal to past

experience to help in knowing what to do in the present and
future (Fox). It is concerned with describing past events
or facts in a spirit of inquiring critically for the whole
truth.

Historical research is the systematic and objective

location, evaluation and synthesis of evidence in order to
establish facts and draw conclusions about past events
(Ardales). Kerlinger defines historical research as the
critical investigation of events, developments, and
experience of the past, the careful weighing of evidence of
the validity of the source of information on the past, and
the interpretation of the (weighed) evidence.

Historical studies cover a broad field of the human

past. It includes culture, medicine, institution, ideas,
law, literature, travel, engineering, technology, industry,
science, philosophy, sociology, economics, anthropology and
education.

Value of Historical Research

1. It helps broaden our experiences and make us more

understanding and appreciative of our human nature
and uniqueness.
2. It familiarizes us with what attempts were done in
the past.
3. It assists us to determine possibly better ways of
deciding and doing things.
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Characteristics of Historical Research

1. It aims a critical search for truth. As a researcher,

you will be required to be responsible in recreating
past experiences. It means that in making historical
studies, the actual events and the conditions of the
time are not violated, exaggerated, or distorted.

2. Eclectic and pluralistic in approach. This approach

reflects the view that there is no single cause which
can adequately explain a particular period or
development.

The individual in history is judged in the light of his

own setting and sometimes by other standards.

3. Modern historical studies are aided by the use of a

greater number of auxiliary sciences which expedite the
work of making external criticisms of the sources.

Methods of Historical Research

1. Formulation of problem

The formulation of a good problem for historical

research can be motivated by the following conditions:
doubts of some events, development or experience in the
past, questions regarding an old interpretation of an
existing data.

The focus of the study may be the individuals,

institutions, curricula, textbooks, facilities, projects
or programs, procedures, structures and processes,
events, concepts, ideas, and phenomena which occurred in
the past.

2. Gathering of source of materials

The materials for historical studies must be collected

and taken from several sources to attain a thorough and
valid analysis of the situation under investigation.

Classification of historical materials according to

source.

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a. Primary source – the materials or information of

the event come from the person who witnessed the
event or incident. This is the best source of
information for historical studies.
b. Secondary source – the materials or information
are supplied by a person who was not a direct
observer or participant of the event under
investigation. The information can be taken
from the previously recorded or filed documents.

Classification of historical materials according to the

intention of the source as,
 a. Deliberate source – the source of materials or
information recorded the events with the
conscious efforts to preserve the information.
b. Inadvertent source – the materials provide
historical information even though that was not
the intention of the source. E.g. metal
bracelet, coins, etc..

Other sources of historical information according to

Good and Scates are:

1. documents
2. remains or relics

Places/ avenues to find the historical materials or

information

1. Philippines Historical Institute

2. National Library
3. Schools
4. Museums
5. Visits and talks with individuals / people

3. Criticize the historical materials or information

gathered

The objective of criticizing the historical materials

is to determine the authenticity of the sources. This can
be achieved by applying the types of criticism, as follows:

a. External criticism – this type of criticism

involves in finding out if the source material
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is genuine and if it possesses textual

integrity.
b. Internal criticism – this type concerns in
checking the meaning and value or significance
of the data within the document.

4. Presentation of results

After the series of analysis, the results should be

presented to the panel of experts for further verification
of the results relative to the event under study.

Descriptive Method of Research

The descriptive method of research is used to describe

the nature of a situation as it exists at the time of the
study, and to explore the causes of a particular phenomenon
(Travers).

The distinction between historical research and

descriptive research is that, this method of research deals
on the current issues, situations, or phenomena (what is?)
whereas, the historical research deals on past issues,
events, or phenomena (what was?)

According to Gay, this method of research involves in

the collection of data in order to test the hypotheses or
answer questions concerning the current status of the
subject under study.
Ways of Obtaining Descriptive Information

1. Personal interviews
2. Observations
3. Survey Questionnaires

Types of Descriptive Research

1. Case studies – this type is useful when the aim of the

study is to have a deeper, more thorough and more
comprehensive understanding of an individual or group
such as, family, class, organization and community.
e. g. The Urban Poor: A Case Study
The Role of Rural Women in the Countryside
Development.
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2. Surveys – this type involves gathering of relatively

limited data from a relatively large number of cases.
It aims to gather information about variables not
individuals. Survey studies are employed to measure
the existing phenomenon without inquiring into why it
exists.

Types of Survey
a. Census survey – it is a survey that covers the
entire population of interest.
b. Sample survey – this type deals only with a
portion of the population.

3. Developmental studies – this type is used to find out

how, and to what extent individuals grow or develop in
terms of physical, intellectual, emotional, and social
dimensions.

Two Techniques/ Methods used in this type

a. The longitudinal method – this method uses the
same participants over an extended period of time.
b. The cross-sectional method – this study focuses on
several participants of various age levels and
other characteristics at the same time.

4. Follow up Studies – this type is employed when one

intends to investigate the subsequent development of
participants after a specified treatment or condition.
Moreover, this type is used to evaluate the success of
the programs like, the guidance or instructional
program.

5. Documentary analysis – this type is used to find out

the type and the quality of message found in the
document.

The type of message refers to the subject matter

one is interested in. while quality of message refers
to the consistency of the position the writers have on
the issue and the degree of assertion or emphasis
accorded to the said issue (Ardales).

6. Trend Analysis – this is for a study that seeks for

future analysis. It is employed in studies which aim
21
 to project the demands or needs of the people in the
future.

7. Correlation studies – this type of study is designed to

help determine the extent to which different variables
are related to each other in the population of
interest. It aims to ascertain how much variation is
caused by one variable in relation with the variation
caused by another variable.

Experimental Method

According to Travers, the experimental method of

research is the most prestigious method of advancing
scientific knowledge.

Experimental method of research is known as the method

of difference. This means that the effect of a single
variable applied to one situation can be assessed, and
the difference is determined.

The difference of this method compared to other methods

is the manipulation of the variable. In this method, the
independent variable is also called as the experimental
variable, which is the cause or the treatment or the
activity or characteristic believed to make a difference.
The dependent variable however, is called the criterion
variable, known to be the effect or the outcome of the
study or the change or difference in groups which occurs
as a result of the manipulation of the independent
variable.

Characteristics of the Experimental Method

1. The independent variable is manipulated.

2. All other variables except the dependent variables are
held constant.
3. The effect of manipulation of the independent variable
on the dependent variable is observed or measured.

The Process of Experimental Research

The process of experimental research follows the same

process as to the other research methods. It starts with
the identification, selection and definition of a problem;
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setting up of hypotheses; selection of subjects and

measuring instruments,; selection of design; execution of
procedures; analysis of data; and formulation of
conclusions.

This method involves two groups: the experimental

group and the control group. The experimental group
receives the treatment under investigation while the control
group receives a different treatment or the usual method.
This method involves careful planning especially, in
administering the treatment. After the duration of the
experiment, the dependent variable is measured using the
correct instrument. The objective of this method is to
determine the difference between groups.
 At the start of the experiment, the groups are equal in
all other variables. The treatments are allowed to work
through:

1. Manipulation. This refers to the manipulation of

independent variables which can be accomplished by
determining the treatments /variables under study.

2. Control. This refers to an effort on the part of

the researcher to remove the influence of any variable
which may affect performance on the dependent variable,
like the effect of extraneous variables.

Validity in the Experimental Method

Validity refers to the extent to which the measurement

does what it is supposed to do, which is to measure what it
tends to measure.

Types of Validity

1. Internal Validity – it refers to the condition that

observed differences on the dependent variable are a direct
result of manipulation of the independent variable, not some
variables (Gay, 1976).

2. External Validity – it refers to the condition wherein

results are generalizable, or applicable to groups and
environments outside of the experimental setting.

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Threats to Internal Validity

1. History – refers to the occurrence of any event which is

not part of the experimental treatment which may affect the
performance on the dependent variables.

2. Maturation of the subjects – refers to the physical and

mental changes which may occur to the subjects over a period
of time.

3. Testing – refers to the improvement of the subjects’

performance in the post-test as a function of the pre-test
and not of the experimental treatment. This condition may
prevail in tests that are easy to recall. To control this
threat, it is advisable not to give pre-test, or use of an
alternate test.

4. Instrumentation – This threat may occur in the following

conditions:

a. When pre-test and post-test are not of equal

difficulty.
b. When essay type of test are used for measurement,
and grading of the two test may fluctuate.

c. When the interview is used for measuring gains, and

the familiarity with interview schedule affect the second
interview.

5. Statistical regression. This threat occurs when the

subjects chosen are the lowest and the highest scorers in
the pre-test. The tendency of these subjects is for their
scores in the post-test to regress toward the mean without
the benefit of the treatment.

6. Selection of subjects. This threat occurs when the

subjects are selected by groups not by individuals.

7. Mortality of subjects. This threat occurs when the

subject may drop out from the experiment with valid reason.

External Threats to Validity

1. Pre-test treatment interaction. This threat occurs when

the subjects respond or react differently to a treatment
because they have been pre-tested.
24

2. Selection treatment interaction. This threat occurs when

groups selected do not represent the population so desired
in the experiment.

3. Specificity of variables. This occurs when variables are

specifically defined and selected. Specific variables may
deter generalization of results.

4. Reactive arrangement. This refers to the artificiality

of the experimental setting and the subjects’ knowledge that
they are participating in an experiment.

5. Multiple treatment interference. This threat occurs when

the same subjects receive more than one treatment so that
there is a carry over from one treatment to the next.

Methods of Controlling Threats to Validity

1. Randomization of subjects. The subjects should be

randomly selected.
2. Matching of subjects. The subjects can be matched by:

a. person to person
b. matching groups
c. ranking method

3. Having a homogenous group. If possible two groups

should have homogenous characteristics.

4. The use of similar subjects in both groups (experimental

and control)

5. The use of Covariance in analyzing the difference

between the dependent variables.

Experimental Designs

Classes of Experimental Designs (Campbell and Stanley)

1. Single variable experiment - This experimental design

involves of single variable under investigation.

e.g. “The effect of a new teaching method on the

learning performance of pupils”
25
 2. Factorial experiment – This method involves two or
more independent variables or treatments investigated at
one time.

Types of Experimental Design

1. Pre-experimental designs. These designs do not do a

very good job of controlling threats to validity. The
pre-experimental designs are as follows:

a. The one spot case study design. In this design,

the treatment is introduced and observation
follows.

X O
where:
X represents the treatment
O represents the evaluation (test)

b. One group pre-test post-test design. This design

involves a single group with pre-test and post-
test.

O1 X O2
where: Analysis:
O1 represents pre-test O1 versus O2
X represents the treatment
O2 represents post-test

c. Static group design. This design involves two

groups; the control group and the experimental
group. The experimental does not have pre-test,
only the post test after treatment whereas, the
control group receives only the pre-test.

X O1
O2

where: Analysis:
X represents the treatment O1 versus O2
O1 represents the post test
of the first group
O2 represents the test for
the second group

26

2. True experimental designs. These designs do a very

good job in controlling threats to validity.

a. Pre-test Post-test control group designs. This

design involves two groups with the randomization
of subjects. The experimental group receives the
treatment after pre-test and before post-test.

Group 1 R O1 X O2
Group 2 R O3 O4

where:

R represents the Randomization of subjects

O1 represents the pre-test in Group 1 (Experimental)
O2 represents the post-test in Group 1 (Experimental)
 O3 represents the pre-test in Group 2 (Control)
O4 represents the post-test in Group 2 (Control)
X represents the treatment

Analysis:

O1 versus O2
O2 versus O4

b. Solomon four group design. This design has four

groups. Two groups receive the treatment whereas,
the other two groups are the control groups
without treatment.

Group 1 R O1 X O2
Group 2 R O3 O4
Group 3 R X O5
Group 4 R O6

Analysis:
O1 vs O2
O2 vs O4
O4 vs O5
O5 vs O6

3. Quasi Experimental designs. The quasi designs can also

do a very good job in controlling threats to validity.
These designs do randomize the subjects.

27

a. The non-equivalent control group design

Group 1 O1 X O2
------------
Group 2 O3 O4

Dotted line indicates that subjects are not

randomly distributed to either experimental or
control groups. Likewise, the subjects may be
taken from the same population or another with
more or less similar characteristics.

b. Time series design. This design is an improvement

of the pre-experimental group, pre-test post-test
design with repeated observations.

O1 O2 O3 O4 X O5 O6 O7 O8

The average mean is determined before and after

the treatment for comparison.

4. Factorial Research Designs. These designs are used when

more than one independent variable is utilized in the study.
The researcher does not only measure the individual effects
of independent variable on the dependent variable but also,
the interaction effects of independent variables. According
to Ardales, this design is based on what is true in the real
world, which most phenomena are results of not just one
factor but by a number of factors interacting with each
other to produce them.
 e.g. 2 X 2 factorial designs. It involves two
independent variables, each of which has 2 categories
or levels.

Location Treatment
of Residence Experimental Control

Rural Cell 1 Cell 2

Urban Cell 3 Cell 4

In this design, the investigator wants to find out

whether the experimental treatment interacts significantly
with residence.

28
Ex Post Facto Research or Causal Comparative Method

Ex post facto means from after the fact. In this

method, the researcher investigates a problem by studying
the variables in retrospect. The dependent variable is
immediately observable and the main concern of the
researcher is to find out the antecedents that give rise to
the consequences.

Kerlinger defines it as a systematic empirical inquiry

in which the scientist does not have direct control of
independent variable because their manifestations have
already occurred or because they are inherently not
manipulable. Likewise, Gay says that ex post facto research
is done to determine the cause, or reason, for existing
differences in the behavior or status of groups of
individuals.

Sampling Designs/ Techniques

Definition of Terms:

Sampling refers to the process of selecting a sample of

individuals from the total population to be studied.

Population refers to all members of any well-defined

set or group of people or objects which is the focus of the
study, and from which a sample is drawn.

Sample refers to a sub-group or portion of the

population selected to represent the population.

Sampling design refers to a scheme, strategy or

procedure of arriving at the sample.

Sampling design / technique is needed when the

population is large, and the researcher wants to take
samples as representatives of the entire population. It is
practical and convenient for the researcher because it can
save time, money and effort. The sampling designs /
techniques could help determine the correct and exact number
of samples (sample size), and selection of samples to
represent the population.

29
 In the study, the researcher is allowed to take samples
or representatives from the entire members of the
population.

The sample size can be determined using the Slovin

formula:

N where:
n = ----------- n = sample size
1 + N (e)2 N = population
e = margin of error

1. Probability Sampling Designs/Techniques

In these designs/techniques, the member or any subject

of the population can be probably included in the samples.
Each member has an equal chance of being included from a
universe (population).

a. Simple Random Sampling (SRS)

Methods of SRS
* lottery or fish bowl technique (drawing pieces
of paper / drawing cards/ throwing dice).
* table of random numbers, usually for big or
large population

b. Systematic Sampling – this is a modified version

of SRS.

In this technique, the sampling interval is

computed before selecting the right samples with
the formula:

N where:
k = ------- k = sampling interval
n N = population
n = sample size

c. Stratified Sampling

The sample is drawn in such a way as to ensure

adequate representations for each of the
population sub-groups or strata in the sample.
30

After sample is determined, sample size for each

group is computed using the formula:

N1 (nt)
n1 = ------- where:
Nt n1 = sample size for first group
N1 = population of first group
Nt = total population
nt = total sample size
e.g.
Group Population(N) Sample(n)
A 250 ____
B 340 ____
C 256 ____
D 312 ____
E 342 ____
 Total 1,500 316

d. Cluster sampling

Cluster refers to any entire group of individuals

or objects which share similar characteristics
important in the study. The samples are drawn in
clusters rather than in using separate
individuals. It is the groups not the individuals
that are randomly selected. Grouping of
individuals is based on the different categories /
characteristics like, the geographical setting
where individuals belong, commodity raised, tribal
affiliation, etc.

e. Multi-stage sampling

This sampling involves several phases in drawing

the samples from the population. The population
units are grouped and arranged into hierarchical
order or level, and sampling is done successively.

For instance, a nation-wide study, the provinces

for each region are randomly selected then, the
LGU’s are randomly chosen then, the villages are
randomly selected and finally, the individuals in
the village are randomly determined. For each
stage, stratified and simple random sampling
31

techniques will be used to have proper

representation, and selection of samples.

2. Non-probability sampling techniques

In these techniques, the samples are not randomly

selected. Also, not all participants are given a chance
to be included in the samples.

a. Purposive or deliberate sampling.

In this sampling technique, the researcher uses
his judgment and an appropriate strategy in
selecting the subjects who will comprise the
samples, and who will meet the purposes of the
study.

b. Convenience sampling
The researcher selects the samples of the study
based on his convenience. He may take any person
whom he meets at anytime and anywhere. He may use
telephone or other possible means to reach out
sample-individuals efficiently.

c. Quota sampling
The samples to be gathered depend on the needed
participants. It is assumed that the samples will
match the population with regard to the chosen set
of characteristics (Vockell, 1983).

d. Snowball sampling
This sampling technique is good when there is no
available list of population units to work. Any
 person can be taken as sample provided, he can
give the needed information relative to the study.

Data Collection

The most important consideration in the research

process is to have correct and complete information relative
to the investigation. Thus, it is imperative for the
researcher to know the sources and methods of data
collection.
32
Classification of data according to sources

1. primary data – refers to data which are gathered

directly from the informant of the study.
2. secondary data – refers to data which have been
previously gathered and compiled.

Classification of data according to form

1. qualitative data – refers to data with textual

descriptions of the characteristics of the objects of
investigations.

e.g. descriptions of people as to color, height, etc.

2. quantitative data – refers to data with numerical and

measurable values.

e.g. statistics on income, scores, grades, etc.

Both sources and forms of data can be used by the

researcher.

Methods of Data Collections

1. The observation Method.

This is the oldest method of data gathering. In this

method, the researcher watches or observes the situation
using his senses like, seeing, hearing, feeling, tasting
and smelling. This method is appropriate in researches
involving observations about behavioral patterns like,
the teaching-learning conditions in classrooms, play
behavior of children, behavior of mentally incapacitated
individuals.

Classifications of Observation Method

Classification according to researcher’s participation

a. Participant Observation (PO)

Observations are done while participating in the

activity. The observed individuals do not know that
their actions are being observed and watched by the
33

researcher-observer. This method is recommended to

get highly confidential and sensitive information
from concerned individuals.
 e.g. street demonstrations

b. Non-Participant Observation (NPO)

Observation is done without the researcher’s

participation in the activity, and without the
knowledge of individuals being observed.

Classification according to form or structure

a. Structured Observations

In this method, the researcher uses mental

observation guides. The observation guide would help
the researcher on what aspects of the group activity,
and what information are relevant to be observed and
recorded. Also, the observation guide helps on how
data are systematically arranged.

Observation guide should be prepared prior to the

actual observation, and in accordance with the
objectives of the study.

b. Unstructured Observations

This observation method is flexible and open. The

researcher is not restricted by an observation
guide. He observes and records behavior, events and
situations guided by the problem and objectives of
his investigation.

The focus of observation includes the following:

1. the participants. Determine the personality of the

participants, their number and their relationships.

2. the setting. Determine the location, appearance and

behavior of the participants

3. the purpose.

4. the social behavior.

34
5. frequency and duration of meeting.

Suggestions in Data Collection when Observation is used

1. record the data immediately

2. increase the number of observers to avoid biases
3. have a recording devices, if possible

2. The Interview Method

The interview method of data gathering is frequently

used for obtaining information. It is a face to face
interaction between the interviewer and interviewee or
respondent of the study.

There are two types of interview

a. The structured or standardized. In this type, the

questions are well arranged and properly organized. The
schedule for interview is carefully set/ prepared.
 b. The unstructured or un-standardized. It is flexible
and open. Questions may not be asked in proper order
however, the researcher should ask questions that will
answer the objectives of the study. The use of interview
guide would be very useful to help the interviewer cover the
needed information.

Advantages of Interview Method

a. It can be used to almost all segments of population.

b. It obtains much better sample of the general
population.
c. It has greater sensitivity to misunderstanding by
respondents.
d. It is more appropriate for very personal
information.
e. It avoids missing data needed in the study.

The interview method can be done either individually or

by group. The group interview can save much time than
individual interview however, the group interview should
have five to ten members in one time. Likewise, telephone
interview can be used to gather information.

35

To gather quality data, the following measures are

needed:

a. Ask two or more questions that give the same

answers. For example, the researcher will ask these
questions.

1) How many children do you have?

2) How many boys? How many girls?

b. Ask probe questions. The probe questions can be

constructed in different form but the same answer will
get. For example, you want to prove the date of the
respondent’s birthday. You will ask the exact date when
he was born to validate his answer.

c. In a bigger study, assign team leader to supervise

and monitor the interviewers in conducting interview
with the identified respondents.

d. If it is possible conduct another interview using

similar instrument to some identified respondents.
Aside, the researcher would take part of the previous
questions during the second interview. The answers of
the first and the second interviews can be compared to
validate data previously gathered.

3. The Use of Survey Questionnaire

This is the most effective and common method in

conducting survey approach. This method can be more
reliable if the questions are properly prepared to answer
the research problems.
 In this method, the survey questionnaire is used in
data gathering. This method is faster and applicable when
more samples are involved. It is less time and effort, and
not expensive compared to other methods of data gathering.
The survey questionnaire as an instrument in data gathering
must be well-planned and prepared to avoid error, and to
attain the objectives of the study.

36

This method is easy to administer especially in a large

number of respondents. On the other hand, the respondent
would be comfortable with a greater confidence in their
anonymity, and may express personal opinion or ideas
relative to the information.

Of the advantages of this method, there are problems

that may occur in data gathering as follows:

a) It is not applicable to illiterates.

b) Questions may not be understood by the respondents.
c) Respondents may skip to answer some questions.
d) Questionnaire may get lost.
d) Problem on the retrieval of questionnaire.

To maximize the return rate of the questionnaire,

research experts recommend the following guidelines in the
construction of the questionnaire:

a) limit the length of the questionnaire

b) write or include possible answer(s) after each
question
c) prepare an introductory statement presenting the
importance of the study
d) assure the anonymity of the respondents

Guide for questionnaire construction

Since the use of survey questionnaire takes the place

of the interviewer, the following guide questions must be
considered to the different elements in questionnaire
construction, as cited by Ardales:

1. On the Content

a) Is this question necessary?

b) Are several questions needed on the subject matter
of the question?
c) Do respondents have the information necessary to
answer the question?
d) Does the question need to be more concrete, specific
and closely related to the respondents’ personal experience?
e) Is the question content sufficiently general and
free from spurious concreteness and specificity?
37

f) Do the replies express general attitudes and only

seem to be specific as they sound?
g) Is the question content biased or loaded in one
direction, without accompanying questions to balance the
emphasis?
 h) Will the respondents give the information that is
asked for?

2. On the Wording

a) Can the question be understood? Does it contain

difficult or unclear phraseology?
b) Does the question adequately express the
alternatives with respect to the points?
c) Is the question misleading because of unstated
assumptions or unseen implications?
d) Is the question wording biased? Is it emotionally
loaded or slanted toward a particular kind of answer?
e) Is the question wording likely to be objectionable
to the respondent in any way?
f) Would a more personalized or less personalized
wording of the question produce better results?
g) Can the question be better asked in a more direct or
a more indirect form?

3. On the Form of Response

a) Can the question be best asked in a form calling for

check answer, free answer or check answer with follow up?
b) If a check answer is used, which is the best type?
c) If a checklist is used, does it cover adequately all
the significant alternatives without overlapping and in
defensible order? Is it of reasonable length?
d) Is the form of response easy, definite, uniform and
adequate for the purpose?

4. On the Sequence of the Questions

a) Is the answer to the question likely to be

influenced by the content of preceding question?
b) Is the question led up to in a natural way? Is it
correct psychological order?

38

c) Does the question come too early or too late from

the point of view of arousing interest and receiving
sufficient attention, avoiding resistance, and so on?

Criteria of a Good Instrument as cited by Sevilla, et. al.

1. Reliability of the instrument. Reliability refers to the

degree of consistency and precision or accuracy that a
measuring instrument demonstrates. A consistent
questionnaire elicits similar results from two testing sites
or occasions of similar circumstances. On the other hand,
an accurate instrument can be determined through an
inspection of the amount of variability produced by the test
in comparison with the total amount of variability among the
objects or variables measured. The wider the variability,
the less reliable is the instrument. The reliability can
be determined by using an appropriate statistical tool.

2. Validity. Validity refers to the degree to which a test

measures what is supposed to measure. It deals with the
relationship of the data obtained to the nature of the
variables being studied.
Criteria of an Effective Question (Fox)

1. Clarity in the language. The vocabulary, language and

conceptual level of the question should be understood
by the respondents. To ensure this, the researcher-
made questionnaire should be tried or tested to some
of the actual respondents or to those of similar in
nature.
2. Specificity of content. Avoid ambiguous and confusing
questions.
e.g. What has been your most interesting experience in
psychotherapy since you put up your clinic.
3. Singleness of purpose. Avoid formulating question
with two or more possible answers or with double
purpose.
e.g. Do you think that psychoanalytic therapy is
effective and you used this technique frequently?
4. Freedom from assumption. The question “Will you give a
reason why you failed in the subject? This question
has an attached unasked question which must be asked
before the above-question.
39

5. Freedom from suggestion. Question like “Don’t you

agree that…
6. Linguistic completeness and grammatical consistency.
The responses must be consistent with the question.
For instance, the options are more effective,
effective and less effective, the incomplete question
might be “What do you think of the experiential
therapy technique?

Test Construction

The basic criterion in test construction is the

validity of the instrument to be used to the intended
population. To achieve this purpose, the instrument has to
undergo the different techniques of validation as follows:

1. Content validation. This is the most important point

in test construction because it sets the pace for the
succeeding validity and reliability measures. Content
validity refers to the degree to which the test represents
the essence, the topics, and the areas that the test is
designed to measure. The items inclusive to the test are
needed to attain the objectives of the study.

Content validity can be achieved by the following

procedures and techniques:

Documentary analysis or pre-survey. This technique is

employed by reviewing the related studies previously
gathered particularly on the types of test used by the
previous researchers like the areas covered, the format and
other pertinent information relative to the investigation.
Aside, reading several textbooks, researches and other
materials will be helpful to construct a test. On the other
hand, the researcher should ask concerned individuals or
groups who may be able to give a good idea in the
construction of a test.
 Development of a table of specifications. The table of
specification determines the areas or concepts that will
represent the nature of the variable being measured and the
relative emphasis of each area. It includes areas or
concepts, objectives, number of items, and percentage or
proportion of items in each area.

40

Consultation with the experts. It is good if the

thesis adviser or authorities would be consulted in making
judgment about the relevance of the questions constructed in
the test.

Item writing. After a series of consultation and

validation of the test construction, it is now ready for
finalization.

2. Face validation. Face validation can be determined on

how the test looks valid by the experts. The test items are
inspected whether it can measure what you intend to measure.

There are two ways of face validation.

a. Item inspection. Item inspection can be done by the

adviser or group of experts or evaluators whose
fields are related to the study. The evaluators
will be given with a set of criteria on which to
base their judgment as stated below.

____________________________________________________
Item No. Suitable Not Needs
Suitable Improvement
____________________________________________________
1 _______ _______ _______
2 _______ _______ _______

____________________________________________________

b. Inter-judge consistency. This technique can be

accomplished by submitting the instrument to at
least three (3) evaluators then, look at the
agreement or consistency of their judgment they
made. Change the item if the two out of three
judges made an inconsistent evaluation/ judgment per
item.

3. First trial run. Once the instrument is completed then,

first try out should be made. First try out assures
language suitability of the items and ease in following
directions by the respondents. The length of time to finish
is determined and the problems met are recorded for
improvement. This process determines internal consistency,
41

or item homogeneity and the discriminability and difficulty

indices of the items.

4. Item analysis. This process checks whether each item is

differentiating. Item analysis is used to determine whether
the respondents react differently to the rating scales in a
continuum listed. Thus, it reveals the acceptability of any
statement as far as its inclusion in a given scale is
concerned.

Test Administration

The most popular method of test constructed is the

objective type. In this method, the objectivity of tests is
not concerned with the type of items but with the
reliability of scoring. Listed below are the types of
objective tests.

a. Multiple choice type. It is used when the goal is to

find out individual’s knowledge, understanding and judgment
on certain issues, to solve problems and to make
predictions.
It is effective to determine the academic performance
of students.

b. Scale type. This type is used when the individuals rate

themselves either numerically or with the use of symbol to
determine their position. A scale is a set of symbols or
numerals assigned by rule to the individuals to whom the
scale is applied.

b.1. Rating scales. In this scale type, the rater

assigns a person or object to a scale point in a
continuum or to one of an ordered series of categories
______________________________________________________
ITEMS S C A L E
______________________________________________________
Poor Fair Average Good V.Good Excellent
______________________________________________________
1. 1 2 3 4 5 6
______________________________________________________
2. 1 2 3 4 5 6
______________________________________________________
3. 1 2 3 4 5 6
______________________________________________________
42

b.2. Rank-order scale. This type is useful when the

investigator is more concerned with the order of items
rather than the quality of scale.

For instance, the investigator wants the

respondents to rank the list of causes of tardiness
based on his observation/ opinion / knowledge. Then,
they are asked to rank according to the most observed
cause as rank 1 and followed by the next cause until
items listed are ranked.

b.3. Q-sort. This type is developed by William

Stevenson in which the respondents are instructed to
sort the items into a specified group based on the
given criteria.

b.4. Semantic differential scale. This is developed

by Osgood. It is used to rate a concept on bipolar
scales using a certain criterion such as the quality of
positiveness and negativeness as basis. This type is
based on the principle that semantic dimensions vary
across individuals and concepts.
 b.5. Attitude scale. It is used when the aim is to
find out the inclinations and feelings, prejudices or
biases, ideas, fears threats about something.

Under this attitude scale, we have the Thurstone

scale, the Likert scale and Guttman scale.

Treatment of Data

This section presents and enumerates the statistical

measures and tests that were used on the gathered data for
the study.

In the choice of the needed statistical tests, care

must be exercised to insure that only the most appropriate
ones are utilized. The selection of the appropriate tools
is guided by the following questions:

1. How many variables are being measured?

2. How many dimensions or points or views are there
on the variable being measured?
3. How many levels do the dimensions have?
43

4. What kind of data or scale will be used in

calculating or measuring the variable?
5. How the data shall be distributed in a diagram?

Scales of Measurement

1. Nominal scale – it names and classifies persons or

objects into two or more categories having a common set
of characteristics, such as tall versus short persons,
male versus female, etc.
2. Ordinal scale – it classifies subjects or objects by
ranking them from the highest to the lowest or from the
most to the least
3. Interval scale – it is based upon some predetermined
equal intervals, like test scores obtained in
achievement tests, aptitude tests, intelligence tests,
etc.
4. Ratio scale – it has a zero point, like height, weight,
time and other physical features.

Statistical Tools and their Uses

A. Measures of Central Tendency

1. Mean (Average) – is a set of data taken from the

average of the population or of the sample.
2. Median – is the value found at the middle of the
chronologically arranged data.
3. Mode – is defined as the value in a set of scores
that occurs most frequently.

B. Measures of Variation / Dispersion

1. Range – it is the simplest and easiest way in

measuring variability by determining the difference
between the highest and the lowest scores. It is the most
unreliable measure of variation (Highest Score – Lowest
Score).
 2. Average Deviation – it is defined as the sum of the
absolute deviations of the arithmetic Mean divided by the
number of cases.
3. Variance – it is the square of the standard deviation
and is also known as the mean square.

44

4. Standard Deviation – it is the most commonly used

indicator of the degree of variation, and the most
dependable measure to estimate the variability in a total
population from which the sample came. The Standard
Deviation is also square root of Variance.

C. Measures of Correlation or Relationship

Correlation is a measure to determine the degree of

relationship of two variables, X and Y which is called
bi-variate data.

1. Phi Coefficient – is a measure of the degree of

association between two binary variables or two nominal
dichotomous variables.

Example: What is the extent of relationship between the

students’ responses and P-Noy’s Presidency when grouped
according to gender.

2. Spearman Rank Order Correlation of Coefficient – it is

used to measure the relationship of paired ranks assigned to
individual scores on two variables.

It is used to determine whether there is a correlation

between two variables of the ordinal type or when the data
are in form of ranks and the number of cases is small (30
and below).

Example: Is employee rank correlated with efficiency

rating?

3. Goodman-Kruskal’s Gamma (G) or Gamma Coefficient – it

is used to determine whether or not there is a correlation
between two ordinal variables.

Example: Is there a relationship between socio-

economic status and job performance?

4. Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient – it is

used to determine if there is a correlation between two
variables of the interval or ratio type (quantitative).

Example: Is there a correlation between the scores of

students in Math and English?
45

5. Point Bi-serial Coefficient of Correlation – it is

used to find out whether there is a correlation between the
interval (quantitative) and the nominal (dichotomous) data
or when the variable is a 2-category split and this
dichotomy is considered real and not arbitrary.

Example: Is gender correlated with performance?

D. Statistics for Hypothesis Testing / Measures for
Significant Difference

1. Z-test of one Population Mean (one tailed Z-test) – it

is used to determine whether or not an obtained sample mean
or average of scores is a random sample from a population
with known parameters, it is used when there is a pre-
postulated (assumed) hypothesis going in one direction.

Example: Is the product effective as claimed?

2. Z-test of Independent Proportions (two-tailed Z-test).

It is used to test the difference of proportions in two
independent groups. It is used for data expressed in terms
of frequencies. Also, it is used to determine whether or
not there is a significant difference between two
independent/ different groups on situations that call for
two types of responses (dichotomous).

Example: Is there a significant difference between

students and teachers in terms of opinion toward
charter change?

3. Z-test of Dependent or Correlated Proportions (two

tailed) – it is used to test the significance of the
difference between pairs of observations from a single
group, or to determine if the responses of the members of
the group on two situations are correlated.

Example: Did the symposium influence significantly the

students’ preference?

5. Z-test of Independent Means or the Critical Ratio (two

tailed) – it is used to test the significance of the

46

difference between the means of two independent groups; and

for data of the interval scale; and for number of cases
greater than 30.

Example: Is there a significant difference in the word

building ability of men and women?

5. T-test of Independent /Uncorrelated Means – it is used

to determine whether or not an observed difference between
the averages of two different/ independent groups is
statistically significant. The data are of the interval
scale or in the form of scores; and the number of cases is
less than 30.

Example: Is there a difference between the two groups

of children in terms of achievement in Science?

6. T-test of Dependent / Correlated Means – it is used to

determine the significance between two means obtained by one
group from two testing conditions.

Example: Is there a significant difference in the pre

and post test scores of children after undergoing a
remedial class?
 7. One-Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) or F-test – it is
used to determine whether or not there are differences among
means of three or more groups.

Example: Do the four groups of students significantly

differ in terms of academic performance?

8. Two-Way Analysis of Variance / Factorial F-test – it is

used to determine the main and interaction effects of two
independent variables of the interval type.

8. Chi-square Distribution – it is a versatile statistical

tool which is not limited to the evaluation of one
statistic or one difference at one time. It is used
when:

a) the data are in the form of frequencies or for data

that can be readily transmitted into frequencies;
b) to test for significance, hypotheses involving more
than one set of data; and
47

c) the data are in nominal type or nominal dichotomous

and ordinal.

Types:

a) Chi-square Test of Goodness of Fit – it is used to

test the significance of difference among responses
in group, or it is used to determine whether or not
a significant difference exists between the observed
number of cases, based on the null hypothesis.

Example: Is there a significant difference between

the observed and the expected distributions of
students’ response?

b) Chi-square Test of Association / Independence – it

is used to determine whether or not there is a
correlation/ relationship, association between two
variables of the nominal type.

Example: Is gender related to academic performance?

10. H-test or Kruskal Wallis – it is used for rank-sum

test which serves to test the null hypothesis that
independent random samples come from identical populations
against the alternative hypothesis that the means of these
populations are not all equal.

It is alternative tool for the F-test in parametric

tests, comparing three or more independent groups.

Example: Are there significant differences in the

average grades of students using the four methods of
teaching?

11. Mann Whitney U-test or Wilcoxon Rank Sum test – it is

a non-parametric alternative to the small-sample t-test
concerning the difference between two means. Also, it is
used to test the null hypothesis that two samples come from
identical populations without having to assume that the
populations samples are continuous to avoid ties.

Example: Is there a significant difference between the

grades of students in an English class?
48
12. Posteriori T-test/Tuque/Honestly Significant
Test/Duncan Multiple Range Test – it is used to determine
which pairs of comparison is significantly related or
associated from among group means when the data are in
interval-ratio scale.
Example: Is there a significant difference between the
means of groups A and B.

Tips in determining the appropriate statistical tools

1. The distribution. For single variable, Mean is
recommended when the data are normally distributed. For bi-
variate data with a normal distribution, Pearson Product
Moment Correlation is needed for correlation test and the
Parametric tests are required to interpret the significant
difference of two variables. If the data showed Skewness,
either negatively or positively skewed, the Non-parametric
tests are recommended.
2. The type of measuring scale. When the data are
categorized as interval and ratio types, the Parametric
tests shall be used. For nominal and ordinal data, the Non-
parametric tests are recommended.
3. The number of variables. For single variable, the
Frequency distribution, the Measures of Central Tendency,
and the Measures of Variations are recommended. Inferential
statistics are generally used to analyze data with two to
three variables.
4. The total number of observations/cases. For 30 and below
observations, the Non-Parametric and Correlation tests are
generally recommended.

Evaluation
1. Define the terms below:
a) Historical Research d) Causal-Comparative Research
b) Descriptive Research e) Sampling
c) Experimental Research f) Sampling Designs
2. Compute for the correct sample size of each research
unit using the stratified random sampling technique
with the following data:
Research Unit Population
A 60
B 55
C 37
D 47
E 62
Chapter 4

PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS, AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA

This chapter presents the data gathered, processed and

organized prior to the analysis and interpretation of
results.

Presentation of Data
 The gathered data should be sequentially arranged,
presented and discussed. To present the data, start with a
brief introductory paragraph by giving the purpose of the
data in the table.

The data collected should be presented in textual,

tabular and graphical forms to facilitate analysis and
interpretation of results.

Data Analysis and Interpretation

Data Analysis is the examination of gathered and

organized data in terms of characteristics, similarities,
differences, trends, and relationships so as to answer the
statement of the problems.

To insure depth analysis and objective interpretation

of data per table, the researcher should consider the
following questions:

1. What do the data or findings mean?

2. How significant are they in terms of the
researcher’s own theory and that of cited theories
by experts.
3. Are there inconsistencies in the findings?
4. What are some of the limitations of the findings?
5. What are the circumstances that may have influenced
the unexpected outcomes of the study?

The theories, ideas, principles and information

presented in chapter 2 which is the review of related
literature and studies can help in the analysis of data.

Moreover, the researcher must be knowledgeable on the

use of statistics in the interpretation of results.

Chapter 5

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND

RECOMMENDATIONS

In this chapter, the researcher has to summarize the

research report beginning from the statement of the
problems, research methodology, summary of findings,
conclusions and recommendations.

Findings

The summary of findings are sequentially arranged to

give a concise and accurate reports of results on the
various data gathered and analyzed. It can be presented in
numerical or in paragraph form.

Conclusions

The conclusions of the study are formulated to make a

final statement to answer the statement of problems which
were made before the study was conducted. If possible,
conclusions are presented in numerical form.
Recommendations

At this point, the researcher has the opportunity to

make his/her recommendations on certain phenomenon/ or issue
as a result of investigation conducted. It must be based on
the conclusions made.

Chapter 6

Research Format (LCCC)

TITLE PAGE
APPROVAL SHEET
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF APPENDICES
ABSTRACT
Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION
Background of the Study
Theoretical and Conceptual Framework
Statement of the Problem
Hypotheses of the Study
Significance of the Study
Scope and Limitation of the Study
Definition of Terms

Chapter 2 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

(to be presented in thematic approach)

Chapter 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Research Design
Subject and Respondents of the Study
Population and Sample Size
Sampling Techniques
Data Gathering Instrument
Data Gathering Procedures
Methods on Data Analysis

Chapter 4 PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

OF DATA
(all data are chronologically presented)

Chapter 5 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND

RECOMMNENDATIONS
Summary
Findings
Conclusions
 Recommendations
Bibliography
Appendices
Curriculum Vitae

52
References

Adanza, Estela. Research Methods: Principles and

Applications. Copyright 1995.

Aquino, Gaudencio. Fundamentals of Research.

Copyright 1992.

Ardales, Venancio. Basic Concepts and Methods of

Research. Published by Great Books Trading.
Quezon City. Copyright 1992.

Best, John. Research in Education. Published by

Prentice Hall, Inc. Copyright 1981.

Best, John and James Kahn. Research in Education.

Published by Simon and Schester (Asia).
Copyright 1998.

Padua, Roberto. Elements of Research and Statistical

Model. Copyright 2000.

Sevilla, C., J. Ochave, T. Punsalan, B. Regala, and G.

Uriarte. Research Methods. Rex Book Store.
Copyright 1992
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

FOREWORD ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS iii

Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION 1

Nature of Research 1
Definition of Research 1
Functions and Role of Research 3
Types of Research 3
Basic Components of the Process 4
Steps in the Research Process 4
Sources of a Research Problem 5
Criteria and Procedures in Selecting a
Good Research Problem 5

Writing the Title of the Research

Problem 6
Variable and Its Types 7
The Introduction 8
Objectives of the Study/
Statement of the Problems 8
Hypothesis, Significance, and
Scope and Limitation of the Study 10

Definition of Terms 12

Chapter 2 LITERATURE AND STUDIES 14

Definition and Importance of

Literature and Studies 14
Approaches Used in Presenting
the Review of Literature
and Studies 15

Chapter 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 16

Methods of Research 16
Historical Research 16
Descriptive Research 19
Experimental Research 21
Ex post Facto Research / Causal 28
Comparative Research

iii
Sampling Techniques 28
Probability Sampling Techniques 29
Simple Random Sampling 29
Systematic Random Sampling 29
Stratified Random Sampling 29
Cluster Random Sampling 30
Multi-Stage Random Sampling 30
Non-Probability Sampling
 Techniques 31
Purposive Sampling 31
Convenience Sampling 31
Quota Sampling 31
Snowball Sampling 31
Data Collections 32
The Observation Method 32
The Interview Method 34
The Use of Survey Questionnaire 35
Methods of Data Analysis / Treatment
of Data
42
Scales of Measurement 43
Statistical Tools and their Uses 43
Tips in determining the
appropriate statistical tools 48

Chapter 4 PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND

INTERPRETATION OF DATA 49

Presentation of Data 49
Data Analysis and
Interpretation 49

Chapter 5 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS

AND RECOMMENDATIONS 50

Findings 50
Conclusions 50
Recommendations 50

RESEARCH FORMAT 51
REFERENCES 52

iv
FOREWORD

This manual is prepared to help graduate students

of LCCC understand the research process better, and
guide them in preparing a research proposal and thesis
manuscript.

Particularly, this research manual is my modest

attempt to present and provide the graduate students
the way I understand it based on my readings and
experiences in teaching research, and advising
researchers both in undergraduate and graduate levels
for the last 30 years.

I hope the students in research will find this

manual useful as they grow professionally in their
chosen career. I wish that this manual will clear up
the wrong notions among graduate students and
professionals as to the difficulty of research as a
discipline.
ii