HND II CIVIL ENGINEERING

TRAFFIC ENGINEERING (CEC 411)

Traffic engineering is the branch of civil engineering that deals with the safe and efficient movement of people and goods on
roadways. Traffic engineers work to ensure that roads are designed and operated in a way that minimizes congestion and
accidents, while also providing adequate capacity for the level of traffic.

PEOPLE MOVEMENT AND TRANSPORTATION TECHNOLOGY

Transportation technology encompasses the tools, improvements and methods that move people, animals and goods across the
globe. Transportation technology uses vehicles and infrastructure like railways and highways to support travel and covers
movement via land, water, air and even space.
Innovations in transportation technology are essentially born out of three necessities: efficiency, ease and safety. Scientists
and transportation industry professionals work side-by-side to ensure that these new technologies get more people (or things)
to their destination faster, safer and with the fewest amounts of resources possible. For example, this is why we’ve seen a shift
away from coal-powered trains toward ultra-fast bullet trains, luxurious aircrafts to budget-friendly, cost-saving models and a
switch from gas-guzzling vehicles to 100 percent electric cars.
As technologies like artificial intelligence, data science, manufacturing and deep learning become more advanced, so too will
vehicles themselves. These fields act as the backbone for everything from autonomous vehicles to aerospace travel, and even
function as the basis for ride-hailing platforms like Uber and Lyft. Because of the enormous potential these technologies hold,
transportation technology has become one of the fastest-growing and highly-contested fields in the world. Thousands of
startups are racing to create the “next big thing” in the world of transportation.

BENEFITS OF TRANSPORTATION TECHNOLOGIES

 As transportation technology continues to advance, the way we get from one place to another will improve
 The transportation sector has the ability to help humans create more sustainable modes of travel — as demonstrated
by electric cars and biofuel-powered airplanes.
 Improved speed for trains or delivery systems can save companies and consumers alike valuable time and money.

Types of Traffic Flow

Traffic flow can be divided into two primary types. Understanding what type of flow is occurring in a given situation will help
you decide which analysis methods and descriptions are the most relevant.
 The first type is called uninterrupted flow, and is flow regulated by vehicle-vehicle interactions and interactions
between vehicles and the roadway. For example, vehicles traveling on an interstate highway are participating in
uninterrupted flow.
 The second type of traffic flow is called interrupted flow. Interrupted flow is flow regulated by an external means,
such as a traffic signal. Under interrupted flow conditions, vehicle-vehicle interactions and vehicle-roadway
interactions play a secondary role in defining the traffic flow.

Traffic stream parameters

The traffic stream includes a combination of driver and vehicle behavior. The driver or human behavior being non-uniform,
traffic stream is also non-uniform in nature. It is influenced not only by the individual characteristics of both vehicle and
human but also by the way a group of such units interacts with each other. Thus a flow of traffic through a street of defined

characteristics will vary both by location and time corresponding to the changes in the human behavior.
There are three main variables to visualize a tra ffic stream: speed (v), density (indicated k; the number of vehicles per unit of
space), and flow (indicated q; the number of vehicles per unit of time).

Speed
Speed is the distance covered per unit of time. One cannot track the speed of every vehicle; so, in practice, average speed is
measured by sampling vehicles in a given area over a period of time. Two definitions of average speed are identified:
 Time mean speed
 Space mean speed
Time mean speed: is measured at a reference point on the roadway over a period of time. In practice, it is measured by the
use of loop detectors. Loop detectors, when spread over a reference area, can identify each vehicle and can track its speed.
However, average speed measurements obtained from this method are not accurate because instantaneous speeds averaged

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over several vehicles do not account for the difference in travel time for the vehicles that are traveling at different speeds over
the same distance.

Space mean speed: is measured over the whole roadway segment. Consecutive pictures or video of a roadway segment track
the speed of individual vehicles, and then the average speed is calculated. It is considered more accurate than the time mean
speed. The data for space calculating space mean speed may be taken from satellite pictures, a camera, or speed is calculated.
It is considered more accurate than the time mean speed. The data for space calculating space mean speed may be taken from
satellite pictures, a camera or both.

Density
Density (k) is defined as the number of vehicles per unit length of the roadway. In tra ffic flow, the two most important
densities are the critical density (kc) and jam density (kj). The maximum density achievable under free flow is kc, while kj is
the maximum density achieved under congestion. In general, jam density is five times the critical density. Inverse of density is
spacing (s), which is the center- to-center distance between two vehicles.

TERMINAL
A terminal is an area or location which serves as a pathway for handling transport process (loading and/or unloading cargo)
or it can also act as a transfer point for passengers. Any of the places where goods are loaded or unloaded onboard a
vessel/vehicle for transport is referred to as a terminal.
FUNCTIONS OF TERMINAL

 Connectivity. Transport terminals provide connectivity within a modal transport network as they are the only
locations from which a network can be entered or exited. For instance, subway stations are the connecting nodes of
a transit network, while ports and airports are the connecting nodes within maritime and air networks.
 Interface. Transport terminals provide an interface between transport modes, enabling passengers and cargo to
transit. Ports and airports are interface points between maritime or air and land transport systems.

Buffer. Transport terminals provide a buffer between the different capacities and frequencies of the transport modes they
connect, such as a port for maritime and land transportation systems. A containership carrying thousands of containers may
call a port once every two days, while trucks carrying single containers may come in and out of the terminal every few
minutes. A similar analogy applies to airports that act as buffers between the various levels of service of land transport
systems and the scheduling of air services.

Bus stop
A bus stop is a place where buses stop for passengers to get on and off the bus. The construction of bus stops tends to reflect
the level of usage, where stops at busy locations may have shelters, seating, and possibly electronic passenger information
systems; less busy stops may use a simple pole and flag to mark the location. Bus stops are, in some locations, clustered
together into transport hubs allowing interchange between routes from nearby stops and with other public transpor t modes to
maximize convenience.

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For operational purposes, there are three main kinds of stops:
 Scheduled stops, at which the bus should stop irrespective of demand.
 Request stops (or flag stop), at which the vehicle will stop only on request.
 Hail and ride stops, at which a vehicle will stop anywhere along the designated section of road on request.

Facilities in the airport terminal

• Passenger Check-in/Ticketing
• Outbound Baggage Make-Up and Screening
• Passenger Security Screening Checkpoint
• Secure Hold rooms
• Inbound Baggage Handling and Baggage Claim
• Concessions
• Other Terminal Support Facilities
Facilities in Seaport or Maritime
Sea Ports are maritime facilities located close to water bodies, primarily seas, oceans, and rivers, where ships load and unload
passengers and goods. For carrying out port activities, they have
 Wharves,
 Docks,
 Piers
 Cranes,
 Tugboats
Bus Terminal Facilities
 Passenger Information center.
 E-Ticketing area.
 PRO (Public Relation Officer) Office.
 Ladies Waiting Area.
 Well-designed foyer.
 Well-designed general waiting Area.
 Retail outlets.
 Hygienic and clean toilet Area.
Lay by
This is the widening of the carriageway for the stopping of vehicles, leaving vehicles to freely travel along the main carriageway
without blocking its circulation. It can be used for the provisional parking of vehicles, turistic or scenic areas of interest, public
transport and for weighing vehicles.

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 PARKING FACILITIES
There are several types of parking facilities that cater to different needs and contexts. Parking facilities can be indoor and outdoor,
public or private. It can be a parking garage or a parking space that belongs to the property of a person’s house.
Here are some common types of parking facilities:
1. Parking Lots: Parking lots are open areas designated for parking vehicles. They are often found adjacent to buildings,
shopping centers, recreational facilities, or public spaces. Parking lots can vary in size, ranging from small lots with a few
parking spaces to large lots that can accommodate hundreds or even thousands of vehicles. They can be paved or
unpaved and may offer different types of parking arrangements, such as perpendicular, angle, or diagonal park.

Parking Lot Parking Garage Automated & Underground Parking

2. Parking Garages: Parking garages, also known as multi-level parking structures or parking decks, are multi-story
buildings specifically designed for parking vehicles. They provide vertical parking space utilization, allowing for a higher
density of parked vehicles. Parking garages are commonly found in urban areas or locations with high parking demand,
such as commercial districts, airports, or hospitals. They often feature ramps or elevators for accessing different levels
and can offer both covered and uncovered parking spaces.

There are several types of parking garages:

 Single-level parking garage: A single-level parking garage is a parking garage that only has only one floor.
 Multilevel or multi-storey parking garage: Multilevel or multi-storey parking garages are parking garages that have
multiple floors to park at. The design of a multilevel parking garage can be very different. The most common design is a
garage with ramps to move from one level to another. Less common are parking garages that use lifts to go from level to
level. Then there are also parking garages with robotic systems that move cars from one level to another. The floors of
the parking garage can either go up, down, or both.
 Underground parking garage
Underground parking facilities are located beneath buildings or public spaces. They are designed to maximize land use and
maintain aesthetic appeal by keeping parking areas out of sight. Underground parking is commonly found in densely populated
areas or in buildings where surface space is limited. These facilities provide protection from the elements and often offer secure
parking options.
 Automated parking garage
The car park operates as followed: You drive your car onto a platform in the garage. Then the automated parking system will
move your car to the available parking space somewhere in the tower. The cars can be moved vertically and horizontally with the
use of hydraulic or mechanical lifts. There are several benefits to a multilevel parking facility with an automated parking system.
For example, you can stack more cars in a compact space because the cars are parked by robots. Also, parking spaces can be
smaller because no one needs to get in or out of the vehicle and people don’t park it themselves; the robotic system doesn’t need
as much space to park a car than a human does. You do need to clean the equipment every once in a while, plus at least one to four
times a year someone needs to check the equipment to see if it all still works properly. The number of times for a service check
depends on the equipment that is used.
3. Park-and-Ride Facilities: Park-and-ride facilities are parking areas typically located near public transportation hubs,
such as train stations, bus terminals, or subway stations. They enable commuters to park their vehicles and then transfer
to public transportation for their onward journeys. Park-and-ride facilities help reduce traffic congestion and provide
convenient options for individuals who prefer a combination of driving and public transit for their daily commute.

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 account for the difference in travel time for the vehicles that are traveling at different speeds over the same distance.

4. Valet Parking: Valet parking facilities provide a higher level of convenience by offering professional parking services. In
valet parking, drivers hand over their vehicles to valet attendants who park the vehicles in designated areas. This service
is commonly found in hotels, restaurants, or event venues, where parking may be limited, and it allows customers to
avoid the hassle of finding a parking space themselves.

5. Smart Parking Systems: Smart parking systems incorporate technology to optimize parking efficiency and improve user
experience. These systems use sensors or cameras to monitor parking space availability and guide drivers to vacant spots.
They may include mobile applications or digital signage to provide real-time information about parking availability,
payment options, and directions. Smart parking systems help reduce traffic congestion and enhance the overall parking
experience.

TRAFFIC SIGNALS
Traffic signals are designed to keep traffic flowing in an orderly and efficient manner while helping to ensure both driver and
pedestrian safety as they navigate through intersections. The number of crashes that occur as well as the severity of the crashes can
be reduced when traffic signals are used effectively.

 Traditional Traffic Signals (Fixed-Time Traffic Signals)

A fixed-time traffic signal is a signal that uses a timer to change at predetermined intervals, instead of changing according to
traffic movements. They create an organized, predictable traffic pattern in the area they’re installed by using an electro-mechanical
signal controller that can be adjusted and uses a dial timer to ensure the signal changes at whatever interval a traffic designer
decides what is necessary for that intersection.
The main advantage of fixed-time traffic signals is their initial costs and maintenance needs are much lower than other traffic
signal systems. The downside to them is that they can often end up causing unnecessary delays, leaving vehicles to sit at
intersections for long periods of time when no traffic is around. This is why fixed-time signals are mostly used in urban areas
where traffic is more constant and heavier.

 Actuated Traffic Signals

An actuated traffic signal changes according to traffic movements instead of at fixed intervals of time, using sensors to detect
traffic. Their purpose is to make adjustments that will allow traffic to flow quickly and efficiently, instead of stopping the flow of
traffic unnecessarily. There are many types of detectors that can be used to communicate with an actuated signal’s control system.
There are detectors that can be embedded in the road to detect when vehicles drive over them, like pressure plates and inductive
loops. There are also detectors that rely on overhead devices that watch traffic from above, like non-video and video sensors.

There are many benefits to this type of traffic signal as they can best keep up with traffic flow and help alleviate traffic jams.
These work best in suburban or rural areas where traffic patterns change drastically over the course of the day. The downside to
this type of signal is the upfront and maintenance costs for both the detectors and the control systems.

 Pre-Timed Traffic Signals

Pre-timed traffic signals are somewhat like fixed-time traffic signals as they have their signal changes set ahead of time. However,
pre-timed traffic signals can be set to run in phases so that their changes depend on the time of day. For example, a fixed-time
traffic signal might change every 60 seconds all day long, whereas a pre-timed traffic signal might change every 60 seconds in the
busiest hours of the morning and afternoon but change every 120 seconds at the less busy times of the day.
These work better than fixed-time traffic signals as they can use collected data to adjust their times throughout the day, helping
traffic flow better. However, they still have limitations and aren’t often used in busy areas. A pre-timed traffic signal can work
well on an average day, but on days where an event like a concert or a traffic accident occurs, things are thrown off and they are
no longer effective.

 Adaptive Traffic Control Systems (ATCS)

Adaptive Traffic Control Systems (ATCS) use advanced technology like sensors and algorithms for data analysis to optimize
traffic flow by adjusting signals in real-time. These are meant to be able to respond to the constant changes in traffic conditions to

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keep traffic moving quickly and efficiently. These work by collecting data from detectors like loops embedded into the pavement,
cameras, radar, and connected vehicles, putting this data through their algorithms, and then adjusting traffic signals in real-time
while also using the data to predict future traffic patterns.

The largest benefit of ATCS is how quickly they can adapt to handle real-time traffic issues. One of their best features is their
ability to detect emergency vehicles, changing signals to allow the vehicles to move quickly and safely through the intersection.
They can also adapt depending on the types of traffic moving through the area at any given time, such as different types of
vehicles, cyclists, public transit, and pedestrians.

 Smart Traffic Signals

Smart traffic signals are a new approach to traffic control that utilizes developing technologies to collect and analyze data to
optimize the timing and coordination of traffic signals in real-time. There are many sensory technologies that smart traffic signals
use, depending on what works best in the intersection. They might use above-ground sensors like radars or video cameras, or
embedded sensors like loop detectors or pressure plates. The data collected by these sensors is fed into advanced algorithms to
assess traffic patterns and optimize traffic flow continuously throughout the day.

Apart from the main benefit of optimizing traffic to maintain safety and efficiency, smart traffic signals can also prioritize
different traffic like emergency vehicles, public transportation, and pedestrians. They can even lengthen their traffic signal times
to ensure longer vehicles like buses or trams can make it through an intersection safely.

The two largest challenges for smart traffic signals are costs and maintenance. Between the sensors and control systems, the
upfront cost is substantially higher than more basic traffic systems, and maintenance is necessary to keep everything working
properly over time. The benefits tend to outweigh the costs, however.

 Connected Traffic Signals

Vehicle-to-Infrastructure (V2I) communication is a technology that enables vehicles to communicate with the surrounding
infrastructure, such as traffic signals, roadside sensors, toll booths, parking facilities, and transportation management systems. By
enabling vehicles and infrastructure to work together, V2I communication allows for a safer and more efficient traffic area.

 Pedestrian-Activated Traffic Signals

Pedestrian-activated traffic signals are traffic control devices designed to prioritize pedestrian safety and provide pedestrians with
a dedicated signal phase to cross the road. These signals are typically located at intersections or mid-block crossings where
pedestrians need assistance in safely crossing the road. They can be push buttons, which are activated by the pedestrian wishing to
cross, or sensors like infrared or microwave detectors that register the presence of the pedestrian without any extra effort on the
part of the pedestrian. The type of sensor and signal depends on the type of intersection and the traffic signals that already exist
there. These enhance pedestrian safety by giving the pedestrian a timetable for when they can cross, instead of leaving them to try
to decide when to cross on their own.

 Eco-Friendly Traffic Signals

Eco-friendly traffic signals are traffic control devices designed to reduce energy consumption and their impact on the
environment. Some of these traffic signals use solar technology to power them while others use different types of lights that are
more energy-efficient like LED bulbs. Traffic signals can also be designed to minimize how much power they consume during
their use, which often includes optimizing signal times to reduce usage when traffic is light. One of the easiest ways to promote
sustainability in traffic signal design is to use recyclable materials when building.

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Fixed-Time Traffic Signals Actuated Traffic Signals Smart Traffic Signals

Traffic Signal Warrant

A warrant is a condition that an intersection must meet to justify a signal installation. The Manual on Uniform Traffic Control
Devices (MUTCD) specifies eight "traffic control signal needs studies", known as warrants. However, "The satisfaction of a
traffic signal warrant or warrants shall not in itself require the installation of a traffic control signal." (MUTCD, 4C.01) The final
decision is made based upon the traffic engineer's judgment.

Process to Determine If Signal Is Warranted

The traffic engineer analyzes vehicle traffic volume, pedestrian activity, intersection crash history, and the physical environment
in order to determine whether or not the intersection warrants a traffic control signal.
Engineers examining the intersection may review the following:
 Number of vehicles entering the intersection from all directions during 4-hour and 8-hour periods
 Vehicular volumes during peak hours, classified by vehicle type for traffic movement in all directions
 Pedestrian volume on each crosswalk in all directions, including children, the elderly, and/or persons with disabilities,
during each hour of the day
 Requests from participants attending nearby facilities and activity centers that serve the young, elderly, and/or persons
with disabilities
 Posted speed limit
 Physical layout
 Crash experience/history

9 (NINE) Warrants of Traffic Signals

1. Warrant 1 - Eight-Hour Vehicular Volume
The Eight-Hour Vehicular Volume signal warrant is intended for application at locations where a large volume of intersecting
traffic is the principal reason to consider installing a traffic control signal, or where the traffic volume on a major street is so heavy
that traffic on a minor intersecting street suffers excessive delay or conflict when entering or crossing the major street.

2. Warrant 2 - Four-Hour Vehicular Volume

The Four-Hour Vehicular Volume signal warrant conditions are intended to be applied where the volume of intersecting traffic is
the principal reason to consider installing a traffic control signal.

3. Warrant 3 - Peak Hour

The Peak Hour signal warrant is intended for use at a location where conditions are such that for a minimum of one hour of an
average day, the minor-street traffic suffers undue delay when entering or crossing the major street.

4. Warrant 4 - Pedestrian Volume

The Pedestrian Volume signal warrant is intended for application where the traffic volume on a major street is so heavy that
pedestrians experience excessive delay in crossing the major street.

5. Warrant 5 - School Crossing

The School Crossing signal warrant is intended for application where the fact that school children crossing the major street is the
principal reason to consider installing a traffic control signal.

6. Warrant 6 - Coordinated Signal System

The Coordinated Signal System warrant is intended for application where the progressive movement in a coordinated signal
system sometimes necessitates installing traffic control signals. This warrant applies to intersections where traffic control signals
would not otherwise be needed in order to maintain proper platooning of vehicles.

7. Warrant 7 - Crash Experience

The Crash Experience signal warrant conditions are intended for application when the severity and frequency of crashes are the
principal reasons to consider installing a traffic control signal.

8. Warrant 8 - Roadway Network

9. Warrant 9 - Intersection Near a Grade Crossing

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The Intersection near a Grade Crossing signal warrant is intended for use at a location where none of the conditions described in
the other eight signal warrants are met, but the proximity to the intersection of a grade crossing on an intersection approach
controlled by a STOP or YIELD sign is the principal reason to consider installing a traffic signal.

The Roadway Network signal warrant is intended for application where installing a traffic control signal might be justified to
encourage concentration and organization of traffic flow on a roadway network.

Traffic Signal Design | Webster's Formula for Optimum Cycle Length

Webster's method is a rational approach for designing traffic signals. It is simple and is based on the formulae given by Webster.
Webster's method is an important topic from the GATE CE exam perspective. Therefore, in this blog, we will cover the method in
detail along with examples and practice problems.

Technical Terms
Before getting into the Webster method, it is important to understand some of the technical terms related to traffic signals as
discussed further.

 Cycle Length
Traffic signal works on the time-sharing principle. Cycle length is the time taken to complete one full cycle of the signal at an
intersection. For instance, it is the time taken for a signal to go from red, yellow, green, and then come back to the red signal.

 Green and Red Interval

The green and red interval is the amount of time for the green and red signals respectively.

 Change Interval
Change interval is the amount of time for the yellow signal. The yellow time is also called the amber time. Amber time can be
calculated using simple formula as explained below.

In the above case, as the vehicle can see the amber signal from its stopping sight distance, so, the vehicle can slow down and come
to halt before the signal turns red.

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But in the above case, the signal is amber only after the vehicle crosses its stopping sight distance. Therefore,
sufficient time must be provided so that the vehicle can pass the signal without any disturbance.
The distance needed to be traveled by the vehicle is the summation of the stopping sight distance (SSD) of the
vehicle, length of the carriageway (W), and length of the vehicle (L). Now, the amber time is found as,

Amber time = (SSD + W + L) / v,

Where, v is the velocity of the vehicle (or design speed)

 Clearance Interval
Clearance interval is the amount of time for pedestrians to cross and extra time for vehicles to clear the intersection.
 Phase
Phase is the number of paths crossing at an intersection. For example, in a four-armed intersection, the number of
phases is also four. It is also given as the summation of the green interval, change, and clearance interval.
 Lost Time
In a traffic signal, once the signal is green, the vehicle that is first in queue will take some time to react to the signal
and start moving. The second vehicle will take slightly lesser time than the first vehicle and so on. This time will
decrease and will eventually reach a constant time called the headway.

The extra time in excess of the headway taken by the vehicles upfront the queue is called lost time. Each phase will
have the lost time and needs to be factored in to calculate the optimum cycle length.

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  Saturation Flow (s)
Saturation flow is the highest amount of vehicular flow that is possible. It is given as the inverse of headway. If the
headway is in seconds, then the saturation flow is given as,
Saturation flow = 3600/headway in vehicles per hour.
 Observed Volume (v)
Observed volume is the actual observed volume of traffic flow that is happening at the intersection. It is also
represented as vehicles per unit time.
 Critical Flow Ratio
The critical flow ratio at a phase is the ratio between the observed volumes of flow to the saturation flow occurring
at all the phases of an intersection. It is given as,

Critical flow ratio at ith phase = observed volume / saturation flow = v/s at ith phase

Optimum Cycle Lenght By Webster Method

Using the above parameters, Webster created a simple formula to calculate the optimum cycle length for an
intersection. The optimum cycle length is also taken as the total cycle time for a signal system. Webster's formula is
given as,

Optimum cycle length (Co) = (1.5*L + 5) / (1 - y),

Where, L - total lost time including all red time,

L = (n * Lost time at a phase) + All red time
n - number of phases
All red time is usually taken as zero
Lost time at a phase is usually taken as 2 seconds
y - is the summation of the critical flow ratio at all the phases

Green Time by Webster Method

Green time for a road 'a' by Webster's method is given as,

Ga = (ya/y) * (Co - L),

where, ya - critical flow ratio for road 'a'

y - summation of all critical flow ratio
Co - Optimum cycle length
L - lost time including all red time

Example Problem
Question: The normal flow of traffic on crossroads A and B are 400 and 250 vehicles per hour respectively. The
saturation of flow for roads A and B are estimated as 1250 and 1000 vehicles per hour respectively. The all-red time
for pedestrians to cross is 12 seconds. Design a two-phase traffic system by Webster's method.

Solution:
By Webster method, Optimum cycle length (Co) = (1.5*L + 5) / (1 - y),
n=2
Lost time = 2 s (usually taken)
All red = 12 s (given)

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L = (n * Lost time at a phase) + All red time
L = (2*2) + 12 = 16
Road A:
Observed volume (va) = 400
Saturation flow (sa) = 1250

Road B:
Observed volume (vb) = 250
Saturation flow (sb) = 1000

Critical flow ratio on road A (ya) = va/sa = 400/1250 = 0.32

Critical flow ratio on road B (yb)= vb/sb = 200/1000 = 0.25

y = ya + yb = 0.32 + 0.25 = 0.57

Now, Co = (1.5*16 + 5) / (1 - 0.57) = 67.44

Therefore, the optimum cycle length is 67.44 s

Road Markings
Lines and symbols on the road are meant to show the alignment of the roads. Ideally these are reflective so that you
may clearly and safely follow the roads even at night. Road markings also indicate the number of lanes on the road,
where you may overtake other vehicles, which lane to use for turning, and where you must stop for signs or other
traffic signals.

Road markings are basically of four major types

 Center lines,
 Edge lines,
 Cross walks and
 Pavement messages

 Centre Lines
These are lines in the center of the road to separate traffic proceeding in opposite directions.
 Broken Lines
Broken lines are used in areas where there are no restrictions on overtaking, a solid line is painted alongside the
broken line. You may not overtake if the solid line is on your side of the center line.
 Edge lines
These are solid lines along the side of the road. They indicate where the edge Is and can be used also as traffic
guidance. An edge line which slants towards the centre of the road forewarns that the road is narrowed ahead. An
edge line may be crossed only by traffic moving to and from the shoulder of the road.
 Cross Walk
White solid lines across the road are usually used to denote pedestrian's crosswalks commonly at intersections; you
must stop for pedestrians at cross walks.
 Pavement Messages
These are messages or symbols which are lettered or painted on the roads pavement to warn of conditions ahead.
Diagonal Lines
These are painted on the road for protection, to separate traffic or to prevent traffic from turning left. Do not drive on
these areas if you can avoid doing so.

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  Zebra Lines
These are used to indicate where pedestrians can cross the roads. You must stop for pedestrians that have stepped on
the lines. In traffic queues leaves pedestrian crossing clear.

 Lanes
These are spaces on the road demarcated by lines to guide traffic flow moving in the same or opposite direction.
For traffic in the same direction the lines are normally yellow Lines separating traffic moving in opposite directions
are usually white.
 Island
Where there is a traffic island on the road. Pass on the right of it unless signs or road markings indicate otherwise.
 Traffic Hold-up
In traffic holdup or so called "traffic jams" do not try to "jump the queue by the cutting into another lane or
unauthorized use of siren by overtaking the vehicles waiting in front of you.
 Traffic Lights at Junctions
Although green light means you may go, do not go forward if other vehicles ahead are held at a junction. It is
pointless. as you will only contribute towards a solid jam. When the red and amber lights are showing together, you
must stop.
.
Rail crossing
 Level crossing Space
Never drive "nose to tail' over any level crossing. Never drive on to one unless you can see that the road is clear on
the rail and on the other side. Never stop on or immediately after any level crossing.
 Level Crossing with Gates
Some level crossings have gates, or barriers that are operated automatically or by attendant. Some also have flashing
red warning lights. Do not cross the railway once the lights have started to flash or when the gates are being closed.
 Level crossing without Gates
At level crossing with no gates, or attendants or warning light, you must stop, look both ways, listen, and make sure
there is no train coming before you cross.

Always give way to trains

Unmanned Level Crossing
 Some level crossings without gates or attendant have flashing red("stop light"). When the red lights flash,
you must stop and wait.
 Do not cross the railway as train will reach the crossing soon after the lights begin to flash, The lights will
go off when it is safe to cross.
 Stopping on a Crossing
 If your vehicle stalls or breaks down, or if you have an accident on the crossing:

FIRST: Get passengers out of vehicle and away from the level crossing as quickly as possible.

SECOND: Listen carefully for the approach of railway traffic, try and push the vehicle clear of the crossing and
stand well clear of the crossing.

THIRD: If the above attempt proves impossible, making phone call or get in contact with the Signalman.

NOTE: Common sense dictates that where there are sufficient hands around, some could be used to push the vehicle
off the tracks while someone tries to contact the signalman.

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Level crossing AlarmIf you are already crossing when the red light comes on/ļ¬‚ashes and bell starts ringing, keep
going.
Work Zone Devices
The lives of highway construction workers depend on drivers who are expected to obey speed limits in work zones.

If you are convicted of exceeding the speed limit in a highway work zone, the penalty carries heavy fine.

Do not forget, the color orange marks a work zone and means slow down, Vou would also see this sign "SLOW,
MEN AT WORK" at such places.

 Flaggers
Flaggers show signs to drivers in work zone areas They wear orange or yellow vest, yellow - green shirt or jacket.
They use "STOP/SHOW" paddles/red flag to direct motorists and to let workers or construction vehicle to cross the
road.

Lines Marking Zebra Crossing Railway Level Crossing

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