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Ian F. C. Smith
Bernd Domer (Eds.)
Advanced Computing
LNCS 10864
Strategies for
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25th EG-ICE International Workshop 2018
Lausanne, Switzerland, June 10–13, 2018
Proceedings, Part II
123
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Advanced Computing
Strategies for
Engineering
25th EG-ICE International Workshop 2018
Lausanne, Switzerland, June 10–13, 2018
Proceedings, Part II
123
Editors
Ian F. C. Smith Bernd Domer
Applied Computing and Mechanics Institute for Landscape, Architecture,
Laboratory (IMAC) Construction and Territory (inPact)
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Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, University of Applied Sciences,
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Preface
The architecture–engineering–construction (AEC) industry worldwide spending is over

ten trillion dollars annually1. The industry is the largest global consumer of raw
materials, and constructed assets account for 25–49% of the world’s total carbon
emissions2. Also, the World Bank has estimated that each year, demand for civil
infrastructure exceeds supply (new plus existing infrastructure) creating an annual
shortfall of one trillion dollars3. This cannot continue. Engineers must find new ways to
design, build, manage, renovate, and recycle buildings and civil infrastructure.
Advanced computing strategies for engineering will be the enablers for much of this
transformation. Until recently, new computing strategies have not been able to pene-
trate into the AEC industry. Owners and other stakeholders have observed little return
on investment along with excessive risk associated with a fragmented industry where
computing competence is far from homogeneous. This is changing quickly as efficient
information modeling, the foundation of many computing strategies in this field,
becomes more accessible. Also, important advances in fields such as construction
management, life-cycle design, monitoring, diagnostics, asset management, and
structural control are being made thanks to fundamental computing advances in fields
such as machine learning, model-based reasoning, and human–computer interaction. In
parallel, studies of full-scale AEC cases are uncovering additional scientific challenges
for computer scientists.
The European Group for Intelligent Computing in Engineering (EG-ICE) was
established in Lausanne in 1993 to promote research that lies on the interface between
computing and engineering challenges. The primary goals of the group are to promote
engineering informatics research across Europe by improving communication and trust
between researchers, fostering collaborative research, and enhancing awareness of
recent research. The EG-ICE group maintains contact with similar groups outside
Europe and encourages contact with experts wherever they reside.
This volume contains papers that were presented at the 25th Workshop of the
European Group for Intelligent Computing in Engineering (EG-ICE), which was held
in Lausanne, Switzerland, June 10–13, 2018. Of the 108 abstracts that were submitted,
57 papers made it through the multi-step review process of evaluating abstracts,
commenting on full papers, and assessing subsequent revisions so that they could be
presented at the workshop.
1
https://www.statista.com/statistics/788128/construction-spending-worldwide/.
2
Shaping the Future of Construction, World Economic Forum, Geneva, 2016.
3
https://futureofconstruction.org/blog/infographic-six-megatrends-impacting-the-ec-industry/.
VI Preface
We are grateful to the many reviewers who worked hard to provide constructive
comments to authors. The scientific results presented here are a sample of the diversity
and creativity of those who are planting the seeds of the exciting transformation that is
coming over the next decade. It is not too soon.
April 2018 Ian F. C. Smith

Bernd Domer
Organization
Organizing Committee
Ian Smith Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, EPFL, Switzerland
(Workshop Co-chair)
Bernd Domer University of Applied Sciences, HEPIA, Switzerland
(Workshop Co-chair)
Raphaël Wegmann Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, EPFL, Switzerland
(Workshop Secretary)
Pierino Lestuzzi Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, EPFL, Switzerland
(Member)
Sai Pai (Member) Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, EPFL, Switzerland
Yves Reuland (Member) Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, EPFL, Switzerland
Gennaro Senatore Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, EPFL, Switzerland
(Member)
Ann Sychertz (Member) Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, EPFL, Switzerland
EG-ICE Committee
Pieter de Wilde (Chair) University of Plymouth, UK
Timo Hartmann Technical University of Berlin, Germany
(Vice-chair)
Haijiang Li (Secretary) Cardiff University, UK
Philipp Geyer (Treasurer Catholic University of Leuven, Belgium
and International
Representative)
Georg Suter (Chair, Best Technical University of Vienna, Austria
Paper Award
Committee)
Jakob Beetz RWTH Aachen University, Germany
(Committee Member)
Christian Koch Bauhaus University, Weimar, Germany
(Committee Member)
André Borrmann Technical University of Munich, Germany
(Past Chair)
Ian Smith Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, EPFL, Switzerland
(EG-ICE Fellow)
Scientific Committee
Jamal Abdalla American University of Sharjah, UAE
Burcu Akinci Carnegie Mellon University, USA
VIII Organization
Robert Amor University of Auckland, New Zealand

Chimay Anumba University of Florida, USA
Burcin Becerik-Gerber University of Southern California, USA
Jakob Beetz RWTH Aachen University, Germany
Mario Berges Carnegie Mellon University, USA
André Borrmann Technical University of Munich, Germany
Frédéric Bosché Heriot-Watt University, UK
Manfred Breit University of Applied Sciences, FHNW, Switzerland
Ioannis Brilakis University of Cambridge, UK
Hubo Cai Purdue University, USA
Jack Cheng Hong Kong University of Science and Technology,
SAR China
Symeon Christodoulou University of Cyprus, Cyprus
Lorenzo Diana Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, EPFL, Switzerland
Semiha Ergan New York University, USA
Esin Ergen Istanbul Technical University, Turkey
Boi Faltings Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, EPFL, Switzerland
Martin Fischer Stanford University, USA
Ian Flood University of Florida, USA
Adel Francis École de Technologie Supérieure, ÉTS, Canada
Renate Fruchter Stanford University, USA
James Garrett Carnegie Mellon University, USA
David Gerber University of Southern California, USA
Philipp Geyer Catholic University of Leuven, Belgium
Mani Golparvar-Fard University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA
Ewa Grabska Jagiellonian University, Poland
Carl Haas University of Waterloo, Canada
Amin Hammad Concordia University, Canada
Timo Hartmann Technical University of Berlin, Germany
Markku Heinisuo Tampere University of Technology, Finland
Shang-Hsien National Taiwan University, Taiwan
(Patrick) Hsieh
Raja Raymond Issa University of Florida, USA
Farrokh Jazizadeh Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, USA
Vineet Kamat University of Michigan, USA
Peter Katranuschkov Technical University of Dresden, Germany
Arto Kiviniemi University of Liverpool, UK
Christian Koch Bauhaus University, Weimar, Germany
Bimal Kumar UK
Markus König Ruhr University of Bochum, Germany
Debra Laefer New York University, USA
Kincho Law Stanford University, USA
SangHyun Lee University of Michigan, USA
Fernanda Leite University of Texas at Austin, USA
Haijiang Li Cardiff University, UK
Ken-Yu Lin University of Washington, USA
Organization IX
Jerome Lynch University of Michigan, USA

John Messner Pennsylvania State University, USA
Edmond Miresco École de Technologie Supérieure, ÉTS, Canada
Ivan Mutis Illinois Institute of Technology, USA
Hae Young Noh Carnegie Mellon University, USA
William O’Brien University of Texas at Austin, USA
Esther Obonyo Pennsylvania State University, USA
Feniosky Peña-Mora Columbia University, USA
Yaqub Rafiq University of Plymouth, UK
Yves Reuland Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, EPFL, Switzerland
Uwe Rüppel Technical University of Darmstadt, Germany
Rafael Sacks Technion - Israel Institute of Technology, Israel
Eduardo Santos University of Sao Paulo, Brazil
Sergio Scheer Federal University of Parana, Brazil
Raimar Scherer Technical University of Dresden, Germany
Gennaro Senatore Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, EPFL, Switzerland
Kristina Shea Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, ETH Zurich,
Switzerland
Kay Smarsly Bauhaus University, Weimar, Germany
Lucio Soibelman University of Southern California, USA
Sheryl Staub-French University of British Columbia, Canada
Georg Suter Technical University of Vienna, Austria
Pingbo Tang Arizona State University, USA
Jochen Teizer Ruhr University of Bochum, Germany
Walid Tizani University of Nottingham, UK
Žiga Turk University of Ljubljana, Slovenia
Xiangyu Wang Curtin University, Australia
Nobuyoshi Yabuki University of Osaka, Japan
Yimin Zhu Louisiana State University, USA
Pieter de Wilde University of Plymouth, UK
Contents – Part II
Monitoring and Control Algorithms in Engineering
Disaster Economics and Networked Transportation Infrastructures:

Status Quo and a Multi-disciplinary Framework to Estimate
Economic Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Fang Wei, Eyuphan Koc, Lucio Soibelman, and Nan Li
Data-Driven Operation of Building Systems: Present Challenges

and Future Prospects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Mario Bergés, Henning Lange, and Jingkun Gao
A Prototype Tool of Optimal Wireless Sensor Placement

for Structural Health Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Weixiang Shi, Changzhi Wu, and Xiangyu Wang
A System Analytics Framework for Detecting Infrastructure-Related

Topics in Disasters Using Social Sensing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Chao Fan, Ali Mostafavi, Aayush Gupta, and Cheng Zhang
Community Engagement Using Urban Sensing: Technology

Development and Deployment Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Katherine A. Flanigan and Jerome P. Lynch
Actuator Layout Optimization for Adaptive Structures Performing

Large Shape Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Arka P. Reksowardojo, Gennaro Senatore, and Ian F. C. Smith
Unsupervised Named Entity Normalization for Supporting Information

Fusion for Big Bridge Data Analytics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Kaijian Liu and Nora El-Gohary
Semantic Description of Structural Health Monitoring Algorithms

Using Building Information Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Michael Theiler, Kosmas Dragos, and Kay Smarsly
Development and Improvement of Deep Learning Based Automated

Defect Detection for Sewer Pipe Inspection Using Faster R-CNN . . . . . . . . . 171
Mingzhu Wang and Jack C. P. Cheng
Smart HVAC Systems — Adjustable Airflow Direction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193

Milad Abedi, Farrokh Jazizadeh, Bert Huang, and Francine Battaglia
XII Contents – Part II
Adaptive Approach for Sensor Placement Combining a Quantitative

Strategy with Engineering Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
Numa Joy Bertola and Ian F. C. Smith
Multi-occupancy Indoor Thermal Condition Optimization

in Consideration of Thermal Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Wooyoung Jung and Farrokh Jazizadeh
BIM and Engineering Ontologies
Benefits and Limitations of Linked Data Approaches for Road

Modeling and Data Exchange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Jakob Beetz and André Borrmann
Engineering Informatics to Support Civil Systems Engineering Practice . . . . . 262

Timo Hartmann
Automated Approaches Towards BIM-Based Intelligent Decision

Support in Design, Construction, and Facility Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
Fernanda Leite
Digital Construction Permit: A Round Trip Between GIS and IFC . . . . . . . . 287
Sébastien Chognard, Alain Dubois, Yacine Benmansour, Elie Torri,
and Bernd Domer
Standardized Names for Object Types and Attributes as Basis

for Cooperation Between Planning and Building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
Laura Böger, Wolfgang Huhnt, and Siegfried Wernik
The Emulation and Simulation of Internet of Things Devices

for Building Information Modelling (BIM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
Steven Arthur, Haijiang Li, and Robert Lark
Using IFC to Support Enclosure Fire Dynamics Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339

Johannes Dimyadi, Wawan Solihin, and Robert Amor
A Semantic Web-Based Approach for Generating Parametric Models

Using RDF. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
Farhad Sadeghineko, Bimal Kumar, and Warren Chan
A Proposal for the Integration of Information Requirements Within

Infrastructure Digital Construction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
Jaliya Goonetillake, Robert Lark, and Haijiang Li
Use Cases for Improved Analysis of Energy and Comfort Related

Parameters Based on BIM and BEMS Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
Filip Petrushevski, Maryam Montazer, Stefan Seifried,
Christian Schiefer, Gerhard Zucker, Thomas Preindl, Georg Suter,
and Wolfgang Kastner
Contents – Part II XIII
Building Information Modeling (BIM) Applications

in an Education Context. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
Alcínia Zita Sampaio
Data Exchange Requirement Analysis for Value for Money Assessment

in Public-Private Partnerships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
Guoqian Ren, Haijiang Li, Yi Jiao, and Weishuai Zhang
Towards an Ontology-based Approach for Information Interoperability

Between BIM and Facility Management. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447
Weiwei Chen, Keyu Chen, and Jack C. P. Cheng
Utilising the Potential of Standardised BIM Models by a Fundamental

Transformation of Collaboration Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
Katharina Klemt-Albert, Philipp Hagedorn, and Torben Pullmann
Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487

Contents – Part I
Advanced Computing in Engineering
Automatic Object Detection from Digital Images by Deep Learning

with Transfer Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Nobuyoshi Yabuki, Naoto Nishimura, and Tomohiro Fukuda
Data Driven Analytics (Machine Learning) for System Characterization,

Diagnostics and Control Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Jinkyoo Park, Max Ferguson, and Kincho H. Law
3D Imaging in Construction and Infrastructure Management:

Technological Assessment and Future Research Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Yujie Wei, Varun Kasireddy, and Burcu Akinci
IoT - An Opportunity for Autonomous BIM Reconstruction? . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

Robert Irmler, Steffen Franz, and Uwe Rüppel
Space Classification from Point Clouds of Indoor Environments Based

on Reconstructed Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Wolfgang Huhnt, Timo Hartmann, and Georg Suter
State-of-Practice on As-Is Modelling of Industrial Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

Eva Agapaki and Ioannis Brilakis
Pavement Defects Detection and Classification Using Smartphone-Based

Vibration and Video Signals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Symeon E. Christodoulou, Georgios M. Hadjidemetriou,
and Charalambos Kyriakou
Optimization Formulations for the Design of Low Embodied Energy

Structures Made from Reused Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Jan Brütting, Gennaro Senatore, and Corentin Fivet
Collaborative Immersive Planning and Training Scenarios in VR . . . . . . . . . 164

Christian Eller, Timo Bittner, Marcus Dombois, and Uwe Rüppel
3DFacilities: Annotated 3D Reconstructions of Building Facilities. . . . . . . . . 186

Thomas Czerniawski and Fernanda Leite
Meta Models for Real-Time Design Assessment Within an Integrated

Information and Numerical Modelling Framework. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Jelena Ninic, Christian Koch, and Walid Tizani
XVI Contents – Part I
A Visual Interactive Environment for Engineering Knowledge Modelling . . . 219

Ewa Grabska, Barbara Strug, and Grażyna Ślusarczyk
Lessons Learned with Laser Scanning Point Cloud Management

in Hadoop HBase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Anh-Vu Vo, Nikita Konda, Neel Chauhan, Harith Aljumaily,
and Debra F. Laefer
SLAM-Driven Intelligent Autonomous Mobile Robot Navigation

for Construction Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
Pileun Kim, Jingdao Chen, Jitae Kim, and Yong K. Cho
Computer Supported Construction Management
Making Each Workhour Count: Improving the Prediction

of Construction Durations and Resource Allocations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Martin Fischer, Nelly P. Garcia-Lopez, and René Morkos
Fiatech: History and Perspectives on Future Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296

William J. O’Brien and Vineeth Dharmapalan
Advanced Construction Information Modeling: Technology Integration

and Education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Raja R. A. Issa
Derivation of Minimum Required Model for Augmented Reality

Based Stepwise Construction Assembly Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
Nicolas Jeanclos, Mohammad-Mahdi Sharif, Shang Kun Li,
Caroline Kwiatek, and Carl Haas
Quantitative Analysis of Close Call Events. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359

Olga Golovina, Manuel Perschewski, Jochen Teizer, and Markus König
Towards a Data-Driven Approach to Injury Prevention in Construction . . . . . 385

Junqi Zhao and Esther Obonyo
Visual Data and Predictive Analytics for Proactive Project Controls

on Construction Sites. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
Jacob J. Lin and Mani Golparvar-Fard
Quantification of Energy Consumption and Carbon Dioxide Emissions

During Excavator Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
Hassanean S. H. Jassim, Weizhuo Lu, and Thomas Olofsson
Life-Cycle Design Support
Intelligent Computing for Building Performance Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457

Pieter de Wilde
Contents – Part I XVII
Quality Function Deployment Based Conceptual Framework

for Designing Resilient Urban Infrastructure System of Systems . . . . . . . . . . 472
Quan Mao, Nan Li, and Feniosky Peña-Mora
Quantifying Performance Degradation of HVAC Systems for Proactive

Maintenance Using a Data-Driven Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
Gokmen Dedemen and Semiha Ergan
Vulnerability Distribution Model of Critical Infrastructures Based

on Topological System Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498
Xiaobo Yao, Chuanfeng Han, Qian Chen, and Lingpeng Meng
Component-Based Machine Learning for Energy Performance Prediction

by MultiLOD Models in the Early Phases of Building Design . . . . . . . . . . . 516
Philipp Geyer, Manav Mahan Singh, and Sundaravelpandian Singaravel
Detect Relationship Between Urban Housing Development and Urban Heat

Island Dynamic in Hyper-density Hong Kong by Integrating GIS
and RS Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
Jin Yeu Tsou, Xiang Li, Katerina Tsou, Jiahui He, and Dongxu Pan
PPP Cost-Sharing of Multi-purpose Utility Tunnels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554

Ali Alaghbandrad and Amin Hammad
Data-Driven, Multi-metric, and Time-Varying (DMT) Building Energy

Benchmarking Using Smart Meter Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568
Jonathan Roth and Rishee K. Jain
Visual Pattern Recognition as a Means to Optimising Building

Performance? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 594
Tristan Gerrish, Kirti Ruikar, Malcolm Cook, Mark Johnson,
and Mark Philip
Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619

Monitoring and Control Algorithms in
Engineering
Disaster Economics and Networked
Transportation Infrastructures: Status Quo
and a Multi-disciplinary Framework
to Estimate Economic Losses
Fang Wei1 , Eyuphan Koc2 ✉

( )
, Lucio Soibelman2 , and Nan Li1
1
Department of Construction Management, Tsinghua University,
Beijing 100084, China
wei-f17@mails.tsinghua.edu.cn, nanli@tsinghua.edu.cn
2
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Southern California,
Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA
{ekoc,soibelman}@usc.edu
Abstract. In recent years, the frequency and severity of catastrophic events

triggered by natural hazards have increased. Meanwhile, man-made hazards, such
as terrorist attacks, and their impacts on infrastructure systems have gained
increasing attention. These hazards (both natural and man-made) can cause cata‐
strophic physical damage to transportation infrastructure systems that are essen‐
tial to the wellbeing of the society. Moreover, the direct economic losses (e.g.,
physical damage to infrastructure) diffuse and expand continually through the
disruption of economic activities between different regions and industries,
resulting in enormous and complex indirect losses. A comprehensive investiga‐
tion of total losses, including direct and indirect losses, requires the use of
economic impact analysis models. However, most of the economic impact anal‐
ysis methods and models introduced in the existing literature fail to incorporate
the spatially distributed and networked nature of transportation infrastructures.
To achieve a comprehensive and a realistic understanding of the economic
impacts caused by the disturbances to the transportation infrastructure, the spatial
distribution and the networked nature of transportation systems has to be
accounted for, and realistic and locally relevant hazard scenarios must be incor‐
porated into the economic analyses. This paper first provides a detailed account
of the status-quo in economic modeling associated with impact analysis of trans‐
portation disturbances to identify the gaps in this domain. Next, focusing on the
commuting related economic impacts of transportation disturbances as an
example, the paper introduces a multidisciplinary framework designed to demon‐
strate an understanding on how to address the gaps. Preliminary results from a
Los Angeles case study are presented.
Keywords: Disasters · Economic impact analysis · Transportation

Interindustry economics
© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018

I. F. C. Smith and B. Domer (Eds.): EG-ICE 2018, LNCS 10864, pp. 3–22, 2018.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-91638-5_1
4 F. Wei et al.
1 Introduction
Natural and man-made hazards disturb transportation systems that are essential to the
wellbeing of the society at an increasing rate and severity to cause extensive physical
damage. Direct economic losses resulting from physical damages diffuse and expand
continually through economic activities between different regions and industries,
resulting in enormous indirect losses. Research on transport-related economic losses
caused by the Niigata-Chuetsu earthquake shows that 40% of total losses occurred in
the Kanto region and other non-ignorable losses reached remote regions such as
Okinawa [1]. In this context, understanding the economic impacts of hazards beyond
the direct losses and studying the inter-industry and inter-regional diffusion of the impact
is critical. A comprehensive investigation of total losses (including direct, indirect and
induced costs) requires the use of tools from interindustry economics in the form of
economic impact analysis models.
Many researchers have been trying to estimate economic losses due to natural and
man-made hazards using models for economic impact analysis. Among varieties of
models that have been used the Input-Output models (IO) and the Computable General
Equilibrium (CGE) models are the most common approaches. In a pioneering study,
Cochrane [2] applied IO models to estimate disaster losses. Hallegatte [3] introduced
adaptive behaviors into IO models and proposed the Adaptive Regional Input-Output
model. Park et al. [4] and Park et al. [5] constructed demand-driven and supply-driven
regional Input-Output models based on IMPLAN and CFS data, and applied them to
evaluate the U.S. economic losses of various types of infrastructure disruptions caused
by hypothetical terrorist attacks. Rose [6] and Rose and Liao [7] estimated the regional
economic impacts of water supplies disruptions using a CGE model, and considered
resilience measures. Some researchers also integrated other non-economic methods,
such as Inoperability Input-Output Model [8]. However, the literature in hazards and
economic impact analysis mostly focuses on individual infrastructure components (e.g.
a bridge instead of the road network) and almost always fails to incorporate the spatially
distributed and networked nature of civil infrastructures into the impact assessment. This
is a major shortcoming of the works in this domain, as individual infrastructure compo‐
nents depend on the well-being of the network to carry out the desired functions. Thus,
e.g. if one studies the impact of a hazard on a port and does not consider the post event
condition of the inland highway network supporting the port’s functionality, the analysis
cannot provide insight into the totality of impacts induced on the supply chains going
through the port. Only a handful of studies attempted to estimate the economic impacts
of disturbances to spatially distributed and networked transportation systems. In addi‐
tion, a predominant number of these studies assumed - hypothetically or based on hazard
information - the failure of a small subset of infrastructure components and did not study
the full spectrum of the potential impacts, i.e. functionality losses that spread well
beyond a small subset of infrastructures, due to a locally relevant natural or man-made
hazard.
To achieve a comprehensive and a realistic understanding of the economic impacts
caused by the disturbances to the transportation systems, (1) the spatial distribution and
the networked nature of transportation systems has to be accounted for, and (2) realistic
Disaster Economics and Networked Transportation Infrastructures 5
and locally relevant hazard scenarios must be incorporated into the economic analyses.
Surveying the literature, we provide a detailed account of the status-quo in economic
modeling associated with the impact analysis of transportation disturbances to identify
the gaps in this domain. We also introduce an exemplary and a multidisciplinary frame‐
work developed to demonstrate an understanding on how to begin addressing these gaps.
The framework consists of an integration of engineering and economic domains, and
incorporates hazard-specific features to investigate the earthquake risk and the potential
impacts on commuting in the Greater Los Angeles Area. Direct impact indicators (in
terms of commuting times and distances) are selected in order to represent the perform‐
ance of the urban transportation network and how commuting based mobility can be
disrupted due to simulated functionality losses. These indicators are coupled with
economic impact analysis.
2 Literature Review
To draw a picture of the status-quo of this domain at the interface of economics and
engineering, a literature review was conducted. To find the articles studying economic
impact analysis and specifically focusing on transportation disturbances, Web of Science
was accessed. Initially, various combinations of the keywords or keyword groups such
as ‘economic losses’, ‘hazard’, ‘disaster’, ‘disruption’, ‘transportation’, ‘economic
impact analysis’, ‘supply chain disruption’ were used to list the previous works in the
area.
During the search process, a cut-off date was not used as we did not identify an earlier
review with a similar scope. From the results of the search, articles that are authored in
languages other than English were excluded. Note that our review did not include the
articles that exclusively used engineering approaches to study transportation distur‐
bances as well, i.e. studies that do not intend to analyze economic impacts were excluded.
These include works that focus on, among many other branches of engineering, trans‐
portation safety, traffic engineering and optimization, infrastructure management, and
so on. Lastly, articles from the field of economics that study direct and indirect economic
losses due to man-made or natural hazards were excluded from the review if they inves‐
tigated the impacts on several industries without clearly specifying the extent of losses
in transportation related sectors [9–11]. The attempts at the initial keyword-based search
helped us reveal 23 papers that satisfy our criteria. Studying the citation network of these
23 papers, 17 additional papers were discovered and added to the review inventory.
Among these studies, 34 are published in peer-reviewed journals, 5 of them are published
in conference proceedings and one is a technical report.
We present a categorization and elaborate on the reviewed studies based on this
categorization. Originating from the motivation of this paper, the reviewed studies were
categorized according to the following three dimensions: (1) Scope of Network Modeling
and Analysis, to distinguish studies that achieve explicit transportation network
modeling and analysis from the ones that do not attempt the same; (2) Scope of Hazard
Impact Information, to identify studies that base their hazard impact information on
simple assumptions, reported or reviewed impacts, or on realistic simulations of locally
6 F. Wei et al.
relevant hazards, or studies that simply do not have hazard information; (3) Scope of
Economic Modeling, to identify the spectrum of economic impact analysis methods and
tools utilized in reviewed studies. The remainder of this section is structured with respect
to the first two dimensions of this categorization scheme.
2.1 Category 1: Papers that Use Simple Assumptions for Hazard Impacts (Direct
Losses) and Do not Use Explicit Network Modeling
Among the reviewed studies, most have not used explicit transportation network
modeling and analysis, and only used simple assumptions for the treatment of hazard
impacts. Oztanriseven and Nachtmann [12] applied a Monte Carlo simulation model to
estimate the potential losses of waterway disruptions on the MKARNS (McClellan–Kerr
Arkansas River Navigation System), and calculated related holding cost, penalty cost
and transportation cost. Other studies tried to quantify the indirect economic impacts of
disruptions with initial losses spreading over numerous sectors. Lian and Haimes [13]
applied a DIIM (dynamic inoperability input-output model) to estimate the economic
impacts of a potential terrorist attack in Virginia which results in the inoperability of
truck transportation, broadcasting and telecommunications and utilities sectors, at a level
of 20%, 50% and 60%, respectively. It is essential to note that, in the case of terrorist
attacks, it is hard to simulate the hazard realistically due to the innate randomness of
these events. This leaves the researchers with simplistic assumptions about the damages
to the infrastructure. Li et al. [14] examined the economic impacts of a hypothetical
flooding scenario in London through an input-output analysis with initial losses in labor,
service and other sectors. Park et al. [15] proposed NIEMO (national interstate economic
model) and the supply-side NIEMO with a succeeding study [16] and applied the models
to evaluate port closure scenarios. However, the final demand losses were estimated
based on the reduction of imports and exports without any realistic hazard simulation.
Park [16] also conducted demand-side and supply-side models on hypothetical port
shutdown scenarios and looked at potential substitution effects estimated by econometric
simulation models.
Other researchers estimated the economic impacts of supply chain disruptions
without leveraging explicit network models. Wei et al. [17] estimated the direct and
indirect supply-chain-related losses of Chinese white alcohol industry caused by several
earthquakes in Sichuan using IIM (Inoperability Input-Output model). Gueler et al. [18]
built a coal delivery network including coal mines and power plants and calculated the
total transportation cost of partial or full disruption of the Ohio River as a transportation
mode. Tan et al. [19] and Zhang and Lam [20] investigated the direct and total import/
export related losses of port disruptions based on a Petri Net model for the Shenzhen
port, respectively, in which they illustrated the flow of the supply chain of printer busi‐
ness of HP through the Shenzhen port.
Rose and Wei [21] estimated the total economic impacts of a 90-day seaport shut‐
down scenario based on supply-driven and demand-driven IO models. Santos and
Haimes [22] estimated the economic impacts of airline transportation sector disruption
caused by terrorism using IIM. Pant et al. [23] applied an MRIIM (multi-regional inop‐
erability input-output model) to assess the economic losses of a two-week shutdown of
the Port of Catoosa without considering disturbances to commodity flows transported

through other ports. Thekdi and Santos [24] introduced a modified DIIM to quantify the
economic impacts of sudden-onset port disruptions with scenario-based methods.
Irimoto et al. [25] quantified the economic losses caused by regional and international
transport links interruptions based on inter-regional and trans-national IO models,
respectively. Tatano and Tsuchiya [1] used a SCGE (spatial computable general equi‐
librium model) to estimate the economic impacts of transportation infrastructure disrup‐
tions caused by Niigata-Chuetsu earthquake of 2004. The economic losses were calcu‐
lated based on a simple assumed two-period disruption scenario. Ueda et al. [26]
proposed a SCGE model to estimate the economic damage caused by railway traffic
interruption due to earthquake. In the model, the price of transport services was set at 1
to 10 times higher than usual. In his study presenting a conceptual framework only,
Thissen [27] pointed out that additional costs on transportation and commuting could
have larger economic impacts on the society due to permanent increase in transport cost
caused by increased security measures. The author proposed a SAGE (spatial applied
general equilibrium model) and analyzed how the surging transportation costs would
affect the production and labor market. However, the author did not deploy his frame‐
work on a case study.
2.2 Category 2: Papers that Use Reported/Reviewed Hazard Impacts (Direct

Losses) and Do not Use Explicit Network Modeling
Only a few studies managed to introduce the impacts of past disasters (based on reported
or reviewed disaster information) on transportation networks into economic models.
Jaiswal et al. [28] estimated the direct and landslide risk (in monetary value) in a trans‐
portation line in Southern India by simple math approach. Catastrophic events of the
recent past drew a lot of research attention. Kajitani et al. [29] investigated the 2011
Tohoku earthquake and tsunami to summarize the disaster related losses and estimated
the capacity losses. MacKenzie et al. [30] examined the production related losses of the
same event based on a multi-regional input-output model. Tokui et al. [31] calculated
the indirect economic losses caused by supply chain disruptions using modified forward
linkage model (a revised input-output model) based on self-estimated direct damages to
economic sectors; however, the process of finding the damage ratios was not discussed
in elaborate detail. These studies investigating the losses from the 2011 Tohoku earth‐
quake and tsunami do not particularly focus on transport systems; however, disturbance
to transportation is treated as a major source of economic loss. Xie et al. [32] used a
CGE model and estimated the indirect economic impacts of 15.6% decrease in road
freight service inputs to other sectors, which was triggered by transportation disruption
due to the Great 2008 Chinese Ice Storm. Yu et al. [33] estimated the economic losses
based on an IIM model when the transportation sector of Luzon, Philippines experienced
a 15% of inoperability according to World Bank estimates.
8 F. Wei et al.
2.3 Category 3: Papers that Use Realistic Simulated Hazard Impacts (Direct
Losses) but Do not Use Explicit Network Modeling
Only two studies in the review inventory calculated the economic losses based on real‐
istic simulated hazard impacts but without explicit network modeling. Zhang and Lam
[34] estimated the probability of port disruptions based on climate analysis and then
calculated the transportation related losses by a simple math approach. Rose et al. [35]
used CGE and IO models to quantify the total economic impacts of port cargo disruptions
caused by the SAFRR tsunami scenario which is based on extensive prior research.
2.4 Category 4: Papers that Use Simple Assumptions for Hazard Impacts (Direct
Losses) but Use Explicit Network Modeling
Only a handful of studies estimated the impacts of transportation disruptions with

explicit network modeling. Xie and Levinson [36] estimated the traffic related losses
caused by the increase in travel time triggered by the collapse of the I-35 Bridge on the
Mississippi river. However, they did not take the ripple effect across the national
highway system caused by the bridge collapse into account. Omer et al. [37] proposed
the NIRA framework (networked infrastructure resiliency assessment) and applied it on
estimating the resilience of a regional transportation network-transportation corridor
between Boston and New York City. Economic losses for Hartford-New York City Link
under different levels of disruptions were calculated based on simple indicators such as
average cost per hour per person. Ashrafi et al. [38] measured the costs of highway
closures based on commodity values and the increase in time cost, however, the authors
only investigated a single link disruption and could not accommodate commodity types
due to data shortage. It is worth mentioning that only transportation related costs were
calculated in these papers, as a result, the accounting of the ripple effects across other
industries caused by network disruptions was missing.
On the other hand, some studies leveraged advanced economic models and managed
to capture the ripple effects in the economy. Tsuchiya et al. [39] formulated an SCGE-
transportation integrated model and applied it to estimate the economic losses due to
links disconnection in hypothetical earthquake scenarios. However, they assumed that
there is no congestion and travel times were estimated based on shortest paths. Kim and
Kwon [40] built an integrated model consisting of a sub-transport model and a SCGE
model and applied it to assess the impacts of traffic accessibility disruptions and produc‐
tion losses due to nuclear and radiation accidents in Japan. A multi-disciplinary group
of researchers combined transportation network analysis with the National Interstate
Economic Model (NIEMO), and evaluated the economic impact of disruptions on major
elements of the highway network (bridges and tunnels) based on commodity flow data
[41, 42]. However, the selection of disrupted bridges was not based on hazard consid‐
erations and was largely hypothetical being based on auxiliary metrics such volume of
truck traffic crossing the bridge, number of alternative routes available, etc. Moreover,
TransNIEMO is computationally expensive due to data acquisition and reconciliation,
which limits the extensive application of the model.
2.5 Category 5: Papers that Use Reported/Reviewed Hazard Impacts (Direct

Losses) and Use Explicit Network Modeling
Some researchers were able to gather data on past hazards to investigate impacts on
transport networks. Mesa-Arango et al. [43] estimated the economic impacts of highway
segments closure due to severe floods based on FAF3 data and historical disruptions
records. Torrey [44] quantified the volumes of trucks and the amount of travel delay
based on public data in order to estimate the impacts of congestions on trucking industry
by region, metropolitan, state and national levels. However, both studies considered
transport related operational costs by simple math operations and did not investigate the
problem from inter-industry economics perspective. On the other hand, Tirasirichai and
Enke [45] applied a regional CGE model to evaluate the indirect economic losses
induced by increasing travel costs due to increased travel costs caused by damages to
highway bridges. The increased travel costs data was based on earlier studies [46, 47].
However, the indirect losses were calculated on a set of random elasticity values, which
are essential values to calibrate and identify all other parameters.
2.6 Category 6: Papers that Use Realistic Simulated Hazard Impacts (Direct
Losses) and Use Explicit Network Modeling
Lastly, very few studies estimated the economic impacts of transportation infrastructure
disruptions in a comprehensive way that incorporates explicit network modeling, and
realistically simulated and locally relevant hazard impacts. Cho et al. [48] integrated
seismic, transportation network, spatial allocation and economic models, and applied
their methodology on the Elysian Park earthquake scenario. Studying the same scenario,
Gordon et al. [49] estimated the structural damage, business interruptions, network
disruption and bridge repair costs of the earthquake based on an integrated, operational
model. Sohn et al. [50] estimated the final demand losses and increased transport costs
of 1812 New Madrid earthquake based on functionality losses in the transportation
network, final demand loss function, and an integrated commodity flow model. Postance
et al. [51] combined disaster simulation and network modeling by quantifying increased
travel time based on susceptible road segments and disruption scenarios. The scenarios
were identified through a susceptibility analysis. However, economic losses in this study
are measured by an increase travel time multiplying national user generalized cost
without considering ripple effects across other industries.
Based on all of the above, we draw the following conclusions from our literature
review. The existing economic impact analysis methods are sophisticated to the extent
that transportation disturbances due to natural and man-made hazards can be investi‐
gated in a comprehensive way. However, most of the literature in this area does not
leverage explicit transportation network models. This shortcoming undermines the
spatially distributed nature of and the interdependencies that exist within today’s trans‐
port systems. Moreover, hazards that create the disturbances are not incorporated into
the investigation in a systematic way, where researchers often use simplistic assumptions
to fill the gap of missing hazard impact information that is locally relevant to the study
area. Having identified these gaps in the literature, we propose a framework in the next
10 F. Wei et al.
section to demonstrate a multi-disciplinary understanding on how to begin addressing

these gaps.
3 Economic Impact Analysis of Commuting Disturbances
Here we introduce a multidisciplinary framework that was developed to demonstrate

possible approaches to address the gaps identified in the literature. It is essential to note
that the primary focus of this paper is the economics facet of the larger framework,
however, we broadly introduce the other facets as well. The framework was designed
to investigate the economic impacts of a potential earthquake event in the Greater Los
Angeles Area. It takes advantage of public domain hazard simulation software to esti‐
mate damage states and restoration timelines for the bridge inventory1 of a metropolitan
area. The results from earthquake hazard simulations are used to construct the degraded
versions of the network given the restoration information, to mimic the recovery of a
transportation network following an earthquake2.
In addition, the version of the framework introduced in this paper only focuses on
the impact on commuting (home-workplace-home trips taken on a daily basis) in the
study area and its economic consequences. Commuting is a rarely studied facet in
economics of transportation disturbances compared to some other services provided by
these networks (e.g., movement of freight goods). Leveraging fine grain public domain
data on commuters and an open source routing engine, the framework calculates
commuting costs (in terms of driving times and distances) for all of the commuters that
use the metropolitan transportation network to access their workplaces. First, routing is
done for the undamaged network (business-as-usual) to establish a pre-event baseline
for comparing the increasing commuting costs on the degraded, i.e. damaged network
versions. These costs are converted to monetary values and become inputs to the
economic impact analysis. Figure 1 illustrates the conceptual framework.
The economic impact analysis facet of the framework takes increasing commuting
costs as its input. Note that, during network analysis, it is assumed that commuters will
maintain trips to their workplaces as usual, i.e. the earthquake event does not cause loss
of employment, migration of labor or businesses, etc. This constant trip demand assump‐
tion is widely used in literature [52]. However, the commuting trips become costlier due
to the hazard-related disturbance to transportation. We assume that increasing costs of
commuting will be fully passed on to the consumers. Therefore, increasing costs result
in increasing prices for the outputs of every sector that uses transportation services as
an input. This increasing price effect throughout the economy and leads to a shrinkage
in consumer expenditures. Decreasing consumer expenditure has a direct inhibiting
impact on final demand. Consequently, the reduction in final demand results in a loss of
total economic output in the region. Quantifying the loss of economic output over the
1
We assume that most critical components of the transportation network are its bridges. This is
well established by the literature in transportation safety.
2
Earthquakes present a different opportunity for economic impact analysis than some of the
other hazards. This is due to the advanced ability of scientists to forecast the impact of these
events which gives way to policy initiatives directed to mitigation [50].
Fig. 1. Illustrating the conceptual framework.
restoration timeline of the network for its multiple degraded versions will allow us to
estimate the total economic impact due to the earthquake related disturbance of
commuting.
There are multiple ways for traffic network disruptions to induce increases in
commuting costs. One of the ways is through the increase in operation costs. Commuters
that have to travel on suboptimal routes due to the loss of functionality in the transpor‐
tation network will travel over longer distances for longer durations. Increasing
consumption in fuel, maintenance, repair, etc. follows from this adverse effect. In addi‐
tion, for businesses that are paying mileage reimbursements to their employees, it will
be costlier to provide the same benefit given a disrupted network. The mileage reim‐
bursements are usually paid in terms of a constant dollar amount per unit distance trav‐
eled (e.g., $0.5/km). Last but not least, that people spending more time driving means
they tend to spend less time on income generating or leisure activities. Here, there would
be time-money tradeoff effects.
To estimate the economic cost of commuting disturbance, two factors need to be
examined, namely the increase in travel distance and travel time. The economic cost of
12 F. Wei et al.
increasing travel distance can be estimated using average operation and reimbursement
costs. However, the cost of travel time is difficult to quantify as it is a non-market intan‐
gible item and related to many factors [53]. There is still no universally accepted
approach to quantify the cost of travel time. However, in this study, the average tradeoff
value of time is used to represent the market price value of travel time.
We primarily focus on these two effects in our framework. Originating from these
two effects, the economic impact of the commuting disturbance can be estimated based
on supply-side and demand-side Input-Output models. As restoration advances with
time, e.g. as bridges are opening to traffic, the economic impact of the hazard will
diminish with time. In our future work, we will use the results of this step-wise approach
as an economic resilience indicator that couples with engineered network resilience.
3.1 Estimating Costs of Increasing Travel Distance and Time

We quantify the direct impact indicators in the form of increasing travel times and
distances through network analysis. The increasing traveling costs are distributed among
economic sectors based on the Census data on commuters regarding the industries that
employ them.
Assume that there are M regions and N industries, and assume i, j (i, j = 1, 2, … M)
denote the origin and destination regions, respectively. Finally, we denote production
sectors with k (k = 1, 2, … N).
Economic costs of increasing travel distance are quantified as follows:
ΔTDCijk = TRCijk + ΔTOCijk (1)
where
ΔTDCijk is the cost of increasing travel distance (referenced to business-as-usual base‐

line network) from origin region3 i to destination region j for sector k.
ΔTRCijk is the increase in total reimbursement cost paid by employers to commuters
traveling from origin region i to destination region j for sector k.
ΔTOCijk is the increase in total operation cost from origin region i to destination region
j, in which higher fuel consumption is the biggest part.
ΔTOCijk is calculated simply by multiplying the total driving distance summed up for
all commuting trips from i to j by the average cost of driving. The former comes from
our network analysis and the latter is a statistic offered by the Bureau of Transportation
Statistics4.
3
The economic region in the full deployment of the framework will be the regions in Los
Angeles that we have the input-output table for.
4
These values are published annually by Bureau of Transportation Statistics. Average cost of
driving includes fuel, maintenance, and tires. Available online at: www.rita.dot.gov/bts.
For increasing travel time, the cost would be:
ΔTTCijk = ΔTTijk × ATCijk (2)
where
ΔTTCijk is the total cost of increasing travel time from origin region i to destination
region j for sector k.
ΔTTijk is the increase in total travel time summed up for commuting trips from region
i to j referenced to the baseline total.
ATCijk is the average tradeoff value of time. This is to account for the time spent by
commuters in driving instead of income generating or leisure activities.
In this way, the total cost of increasing travel distance and time:
ΔTCijk = ΔTDCijk + ΔTTCijk (3)
where
ΔTCijk is the increase in total travel cost from origin region i to destination region j for
sector k.
3.2 Estimating the Impact Through Interindustry Economics: Supply-Side IO

Model
In 1958, Ghosh [54] proposed the supply-driven IO model. It has fixed allocation coef‐
ficients similar to the Leontief Input-Output model [55]. Following its inception, the
model received criticism regarding its plausibility [56], however, Dietzenbacher [57]
proposed a way to address this problem by interpreting the Ghosh model as a price
model.
The designed framework uses a supply-side IO model to estimate the impact of
increasing commuting costs in the regional economy. It should be noted that the impact
of price inflation (caused by increasing transportation costs) on consumer expenditure
cannot be treated independently for every region as consumers may spend their money
on goods and services in any region in the Greater Los Angeles Area. Therefore, we
take the Greater Los Angeles Area as a single region and use a supply side IO model to
estimate the decreased consumer expenditures. To be specific, the inflation in sector k’s
goods and services caused by increasing travel costs in all regions results in decreasing
consumer expenditures in the Greater Los Angeles Area. In the supply-side IO model,
increasing travel costs are aggregated in order to estimate the whole impact on consumer
expenditure in the Greater Los Angeles Area.
The total increasing travel cost for sector k by all regions is aggregated as following:
∑ M ∑M
ΔTCK = ΔTCijk (4)
i=1 j=1
14 F. Wei et al.
The decreasing consumer expenditure is calculated as following:
ΔCEK = ΔTCk × (I − B)−1 (5)
where
ΔTCijk is the total price inflation for sector k due to increasing commuting costs.
ΔCEK is the decrease in total consumer expenditure for sector k after price inflation
effect.
(I − B)−1 is the output inverse matrix and B is the direct output coefficients matrix of
the Greater Los Angeles Area.
In the short term, it is assumed that producers will not be closed or new ones will
not be established but the existing producers will change their production quantity.
Therefore, the impact of reduced consumer expenditure on total output losses for each
region is not the same given different output levels for each region. Then the decreased
expenditures will be reallocated to each region.
The reallocation process of decreasing consumer expenditures is as following:
ΔCEjk = ckj × ΔCEK (6)
where
ΔCEjk is the total decreased consumer expenditure in region j for sector k.

ckj is the consumer expenditure ratio of region j to the whole area.
Next, we use a demand side IO model to estimate the economic impacts based on
reductions in final demand.
3.3 Estimating the Impact Through Interindustry Economics: Demand-Side IO

Model
Demand-side IO models have been proposed and widely-used to assess the economic
impact of reduction in final demand. Here, we make the assumption that there is no
substitution effect and consumer expenditures have direct impacts on final demand. This
assumption was proposed and used in TransNIEMO [42]. Then, the total output losses
can be calculated based on NIEMO, a demand-driven Input-Output model. This
demand-side version of NIEMO is useful to analyzing the backward linkage impacts.
In our framework, we estimate total output losses with an approach similar to [15] as
follows.
Using the decreasing consumer expenditures from the supply-side, we use a demand-
side Input-Output model to estimate the total output loss for sector k due to the losses
in final demand in destination region j.
( )
ΔXkj = (I − A)−1
j
× −ΔCEj
k
(7)
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The consumption of liquids, pastry, and trifles, can easily be guessed
at.
Here is an ancient receipt for making a Christmas game pie, found in
the books of the Salter’s Company, which is presumed to have often
furnished an annual treat to the members in the olden times; and
when made after this receipt, by the Company’s cook in modern
days, has been found to be excellent.
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of Chrystemasse.
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ij. Partruchis, ij. Pygeounes, and ij. Conynggys; and smyte hem on
peces and pyke clene awaye p’fro (therefrom) alle pᵉ (the) boonys pᵗ
(that) ye maye, and p’wt (therewith) do hem ynto a Foyle (a shield or
case) of gode paste, made craftily ynne pᵉ lykenes of a byrde’s bodye,
wᵗ pᵉ lyuours and hertys, ij. kydneis of shepe and farcys (seasonings
or forced meats) and eyren (eggs) made ynto balles. Caste p’to
(thereto) poudre of pepyr, salte, spyce, eysell,[14] and funges
(mushrooms) pykled; and panne (then) take pᵉ boonys and let hem
seethe ynne a pot to make a gode brothe p’ for (for it) and do yᵗ ynto
pᵉ foyle of paste and close hit uppe faste, and bake yᵗ wel, and so s’ue
(serve) yᵗ forthe: wt pᵉ hede of oone of pᵉ byrdes, stucke at pᵉ oone
ende of pᵉ foyle, and a grete tayle at pᵉ op’ and dyvers of hys longe
fedyrs sette ynne connynglye alle aboute hym.’
Marrow bones seem to have been in favour at an early date. 2,000
marrow bones were among the requisites for the Goldsmiths’
Company’s feast, on St. Dunstan’s day, 1449.
In the reign of Edward VI., 1548, a time of plague and scarcity, the
king thought it prudent to fix the price of cattle, &c., sold in the
several seasons of the year:—
£ s. d.
The best fat ox, from Midsummer to
Michaelmas, at 2 5 0
One of inferior sort 1 8 0
The best fat ox, from Hallowmas to
Christmas 2 6 8
The best fat ox, from Christmas to
Shrovetide 2 8 4
The best fat wether, from shearing time
to Michaelmas 0 4 0
One of ditto, shorn 0 3 0
The best fat ewe 0 2 6
One ditto, shorn 0 2 0
The best fat wether, from Michaelmas
to Shrovetide 0 4 4
One ditto, shorn 0 3 0
Essex barrelled butter, per pound 0 0 0¾
All sorts of other barrelled butter, per
pound 0 0 0½
Essex cheese, per pound 0 0 0¾
All other sorts 0 0 0½
We are not quite such prodigious devourers of eggs as our French
neighbours, having a greater amount of meat or solid animal food to
fall back upon, and fewer fast days. Another reason is, that we
cannot, like the French, get them so fresh and cheap; but as an
alimentary substance, eggs are always in demand at a ratio
proportionate to the prices at which they can be obtained. In Paris
the consumption of eggs is at least 175 per annum to every head of
the population; in the departments it is more than double that
amount; eggs entering into almost every article of food, and
butchers’ meat being scarce and dear. If we only use, in London, half
the number of eggs the Parisians do, there must be a sale of about
173 millions a year; and the consumption throughout the kingdom
would be fully 2,000 millions. Although smaller in size, and not equal
to a new-laid egg, the French eggs arrive in pretty good condition,
and, if sold off quickly, are well adapted for ordinary culinary
purposes. Few are wasted, for even when not very fresh, they are
sold for frying fish, and to the lower class of confectioners for pastry.
Fried eggs, boiled eggs chopped up with salad, egg sauce for fish,
&c., eggs for puddings, for omelets, and pancakes, all contribute to
the sale. Omelets, sweet or flavoured with herbs, are much less
patronized in this country than they are in France.
The sixty wholesale egg merchants and salesmen in the metropolis,
whose itinerant carts are kept constantly occupied in distributing their
brittle ware, might probably enlighten us as to the extent and
increasing character of the trade, and the remunerative nature of the
profits. Railways and steamers bring up large crates, and carefully
packed boxes of eggs, for the ravenous maws of young and old, who
fatten on this dainty and easily digested food. The various city
markets dispose of two millions of fowls, one million of game birds,
half a million of ducks, and about one hundred and fifty thousand
turkeys, every year. But even if we doubled this supply, what would it
be among the three million souls of the great metropolis requiring
daily food.
Ireland and the continent contribute largely to our supply of poultry
and eggs. Immense pens of poultry, purchased in the Irish market,
are shipped by the steamers to Glasgow and Liverpool. Commerce
owes much to the influence of steam, but agriculture is no less
indebted to the same power. Taking everything into account, and
examining all the advantages derived by cheap and rapid transit, the
manufacturer of food is quite as much indebted to the steam-ship
and the locomotive as the manufacturer of clothing.
There is no difficulty whatever in testing eggs; they are mostly
examined by a candle. Another way to tell good eggs is to put them
in a pail of water, and if they are good they will lie on their sides,
always; if bad, they will stand on their small ends, the large ends
always uppermost, unless they have been shaken considerably,
when they will stand either end up. Therefore, a bad egg can be told
by the way it rests in water—always end up, never on its side. Any
egg that lies flat is good to eat, and can be depended upon.
An ordinary mode is to take them into a room moderately dark and
hold them between the eye and a candle or lamp. If the egg be good
—that is, if the albumen is still unaffected—the light will shine
through with a reddish glow; while, if affected, it will be opaque, or
dark.
In Fulton and Washington market, New York, a man may be seen
testing eggs at almost any time of the year. He has a tallow candle
placed under a counter or desk, and taking up the eggs, three in
each hand, passes them rapidly before the candle, and deposits
them in another box. His practised eye quickly perceives the least
want of clearness in the eggs, and suspicious ones are re-examined
and thrown away, or passed into a ‘doubtful’ box. The process is so
rapid that eggs are inspected perfectly at the rate of 100 to 200 per
minute, or as fast as they can be shifted from one box to another, six
at a time.
The preservation of eggs for use on ship board has always occupied
a large share of attention. They have been usually smeared with oil
or grease, and packed in bran or sawdust. A plan recommended by
M. Appert for preserving eggs is to put them in a jar with bran, to
prevent their breaking; cork and hermetically seal the jar; and put it
into a vessel of water, heated to 200 degrees Fahrenheit, or 12
degrees below boiling. The vessel with water being taken from the
fire, the water must cool till the finger may be borne in it; then
remove the jar. The eggs may then be taken out, and will keep for six
months.
Salted ducks’ eggs are an article in great demand in some parts of
the East, for transport by the trading junks. The Malays salt them as
they do their meat; but the Chinese mix a red unctuous earth with
the brine, which no doubt stops the pores of the shell, and preserves
them better. They are put into this mixture at night, and taken out
during the day to be dried in the sun, which is, in fact, a half roasting
process in a tropical climate.
Pickled eggs, while they constitute a somewhat novel feature in the
catalogue of condiments, are at the same time particularly relishing.
When eggs are plentiful, farmers’ wives, in some localities, take four
to six dozen of such as are newly laid, and boil them hard; then,
divesting them of the shells, they place them in large-mouthed
earthen jars, and pour upon them scalded vinegar, well seasoned
with whole pepper, allspice, ginger, and a few cloves of garlic. When
this pickle is cold, the jars are closed, and the eggs are fit for use in
a month afterwards. Eggs thus treated are held in high esteem by all
the farm-house epicures.
Fowls’ eggs, variously coloured, and having flowers and other
matters upon them, formed by the colouring matter being picked off
so as to expose the white shell of the egg, are a part of all the Malay
entertainments in Borneo. The eggs eaten by the Dyaks are
frequently nearly hatched when taken from the nest, as they enjoy
them just as well as when fresh.
An article called ‘condensed egg’ is now sold in the shops. It consists
of the whole substance of the fresh uncooked egg, very delicately
and finely granulated by patent processes, after the watery particles,
which the egg naturally contains, have been completely exhausted
and withdrawn, without further alteration of its constituents. It
contains all the nutritious properties of the egg in its natural state,
and must be valuable to shipmasters, emigrants, and others. One
ounce of it is said to be equal to three eggs.
The ancient Romans, though not great beef-eaters, were particular
as to poultry. Dr. Daubeny, in his Lectures on Roman Husbandry,
says—‘The ancient Romans had large preserves, not only of poultry
and pigeons, but even of thrushes and quails enclosed in pens which
were called ‘ornithones,’ from which they could draw their supply for
the table at pleasure. We are told, indeed, of two sorts of ornithones,
the one merely aviaries stocked with birds for the amusement of the
proprietor; the other kind, constructed with a view to profit, which
were often of vast extent, to supply the demands of the Roman
market for such articles of luxury. In the Sabine country particularly,
we read of extensive pens, filled with birds for the latter purpose. For
thrushes alone there were large rooms provided, each capable of
holding several thousand birds. As they were put in to be fattened,
the place had only just light enough to enable the birds to see their
food, but there was a good supply of fresh water accessible. And I
may remark that, whilst nothing is said by the Roman writers about
the fattening of oxen and sheep, particular directions are given for
fattening poultry and other birds—a strong additional argument of the
little importance they attached to the larger animals as articles of
food.’
The following may be enumerated as the sportsman’s game in
Jamaica:—
1. The pintado, or wild guinea fowl (Numida Meleagris), a bird now
domesticated in our poultry-yards. In its wild state the flesh is
considered by many persons to equal that of the pheasant.
2. The quail (Perdix coturnix).
3. Wild pigeons, namely, ring-tail, bald-pate, pea-dove, white-breast,
white-wing, mountain-witch, ground dove, and red-legged partridge.
4. Snipe (Scolopax gallinago).
5. Wild duck, or mallard (Anas boschas).
6. Gray, or Gadwall duck (Anas strepera).
7. The common teal (Anas crecca), the flesh of which was so much
prized by the Roman epicures, and is still in request for the table.
8. Widgeon (Anas Penelope).
9. Gray and ring plover (Charadrius minor, and hiaticula).
If we are out shooting in Canada we may easily add to our mess the
ruffled grouse (Tetrao umbellus), although these, like many other
birds, are partridges with the settlers—this variety being termed the
birch partridge. Another species, the spruce partridge of the colonists
(T. Canadensis), is less palatable, for, unfortunately, it has a habit of
feeding upon laurel leaves. But here is something to make amends
—a fine Esquimaux curlew, as large as an English partridge, and a
mud-sucker, id est snipe.
Let me note a Canadian receipt for cooking a partridge, which may
be useful to sportsmen and travellers:—
‘Expedition is the maxim of all sylvan cookery, and as plucking the
feathers of a partridge would be too great a tax on the time and
patience of the voyageur, the method most in vogue is to run your
hunting knife round his throat and ancles and down his breast, when,
taking a leg in each hand, and pressing your thumb into his back,
you pop him out of his skin, as you would a pea from its pod. Then
make a spread-eagle of him on a forked twig, the other extremity of
which is thrust into the ground, and after wrapping a rasher of bacon
around his neck and under his wings, as ladies wear a scarf, you
incline him to the fire, turning the spit in the ground, and you will
have a result such as Soyer might be proud of. When your other
avocations will not afford time even for the skinning process, an
alternative mode is to make a paste of ashes and water, and roll up
your bird therein, with the feathers, and all the appurtenances
thereof, and thrust the performance in the fire. In due time, on
breaking the cemented shell (which is like a sugared almond), the
feathers, skin, &c., adhere to it, and then you have the pure kernel of
poultry within.’
The red-legged partridge is common in the Greek islands, on the
continent of Asia, and in the southern countries of Europe. In some
of the Cyclades, where the inhabitants are too poor to expend
money on powder, they chase the birds on foot, till they are so
wearied, as to be easily taken with the hand.
Of all the European birds, the quail (Coturnix vulgaris) is the most
remarkable, on account of the vast numbers which congregate on
the shores of the Mediterranean in the spring, coming from Asia
Minor and Northern Africa, to avoid the excessive heat. For a few
weeks in the month of April, when they first begin to arrive in Sicily,
everybody is a sportsman. Arriving always in the night, although not
a quail could be seen the evening before, the report of guns the next
morning, in all directions, attests their number and the havoc that
has begun upon them. Such prodigious numbers have appeared on
the western coasts of the kingdom of Naples, that a hundred
thousand have been taken in a day, within the space of four or five
miles.
The flesh of the turtle dove is considered much superior to that of the
wild pigeon.
The passenger pigeon (Columba migratoria) of America, is a very
large and well flavoured variety, being 16 inches long, and 24 inches
in the spread of its wings; its hue chiefly slate-colour. They migrate at
certain seasons in millions, and feed on acorns and fresh mast. They
travel in the morning and evening, and repose about mid-day in the
forests. Their passage, whether in spring or autumn, lasts from 15 to
20 days, after which they are met with in the centre of the United
States. The Indians often watch the roosting places of these birds,
and knocking them on the head in the night, bring them away by
thousands. They preserve the oil or fat, which they use instead of
butter. There was formerly scarcely any little Indian village in the
interior, where a hundred gallons of this oil might not at any time be
purchased.
These pigeons spread over the whole of North America, abounding
round Hudson’s Bay, where they remain till December. They arrive in
the fur countries in the latter end of May, and depart in October. They
are met with as far south as the Gulf of Mexico, but do not extend
their range westward of the Rocky Mountains. Stray passenger
pigeons have been taken both in Norway and in Russia; and this bird
has found a place in the British fauna, from a solitary bird having
been shot in Westhall, Fifeshire, on the 31st December, 1825. Like
other pigeons, this genus makes a slender platform nest of sticks
and straws, but, unlike other pigeons, prolific as it is, it lays but one
egg. The female builds the nest, the male bird fetches the materials.
The time of incubation is 16 days, and the male relieves the female
in sitting during that period. The immense number of these birds
baffles all computation. Those eminent ornithologists, Wilson and
Audubon, describe flocks seen by them to contain respectively from
thousands of millions to upwards of a billion in each, the daily food
required to sustain which would be at least 60,000 bushels; and the
New York Evening Post informs us that, on one day, seven tons of
these pigeons were brought into the New York market by the Erie
railroad.
In their breeding places, herds of hogs are fed on the young pigeons
or ‘squabs,’ which are also melted down by the settlers, as a
substitute for butter or lard. The felling a single tree often produces
200 squabs, nearly as large as the old ones, and almost one mass of
fat. When the flocks of full grown pigeons enter a district, clap-nets
and guns are in great requisition. Pennant, in his Arctic Zoology,
says, Sir William Johnstone told him, that at one shot, he brought
down with a blunderbuss above a hundred and twenty pigeons.
Wagon loads of them are poured into the towns, and sold as cheap
as a half-penny up to two-pence the dozen. The flesh tastes like the
common wild blue pigeon, but is, if anything, better flavoured. Why (it
has been asked) could not this large pigeon, whose migratory habits
are principally caused by search for food, be introduced into this
country as a tame variety, or by crossing with our native breeds
enlarge the size; or, in the same way as fresh mutton was sent from
Australia, be sent in casks potted in their own fat, to supply us with
cheap pigeon pies? And the same with a cross with the large Texan
rabbit, or the wild American turkey, the latter being far superior in
size and appearance to its degenerate descendant, the tame turkey,
sometimes as much as four feet in length, and five feet from wing to
wing? The canvas-back ducks of America are there boasted of
exceedingly as a delicacy, yet, although a great variety of useless
water-fowl has been introduced merely as an ornament to the ponds
and streams of our gentry, no attempt has been made to bring this
kind to our farm-yards and tables; and even if it was found
impossible to tame the pure breed, a cross with our own might be
effected. In the capercailzie, or cock of the wood, a bird of the
grouse species, but nearly as large as a turkey, once indigenous to
Scotland, but now only found in the north of Europe, and in the
bustard, the largest European land-bird, the cock weighing from 25
to 27 lbs., we have examples of two fowls well worth the trial of
domesticating by the amateur or intelligent agriculturist, a trial which,
if successful, would probably repay quite as well as competition
about the colour of a feather, or the shortness of a tail, and in time
would be the means of affording a constant, certain, and moderately-
priced supply, which is never the case while animals remain in a wild
or half-wild state.
Although the forests of New Zealand are not thickly inhabited by the
feathered tribes, there are many birds to be met with. Among others
are the following, which are excellent eating.—The wild pigeon,
which is very large and common; the parrot or ka-ka; and the tui or
mocking bird, which is about the size of the English black-bird, and
of the same colour, but with two bunches of white feathers under the
neck—his notes are few, but very melodious, resembling the tinkling
of small bells, which harmonize together as they are delivered. The
bronze-winged pigeon of Australia is most delicate eating. It abounds
in summer, when the acacia seeds are ripe.
GRALLATORES.
From the order of grallatores, waders or stilt-birds, we find many
which yield choice dainties, whether it be the ostrich or emu for their
eggs, the bustard and bittern, the flamingo for its tongue, the plover,
dotterel, curlew, snipe, woodcock, rail, &c., for the table.
An ostrich egg is considered as equal in its contents to 24 of the
domestic hen. When taken fresh from the nest, they are very
palatable, and are wholesome, though somewhat heavy food. The
best mode of cooking them is that practised by the Hottentots, who
place one end of the egg in the hot ashes, and making a small orifice
at the other, keep stirring the contents with a stick till they are
sufficiently roasted; and thus, with a seasoning of salt and pepper,
you have a very nice omelet. The nest sometimes contains as many
as 24 eggs, and the difficulty the sportsman has is how to carry away
his spoil. The usual plan is to denude himself of his upper or lower
garments, and, tying up the orifices of leg-holes or arm-holes, to
make an impromptu sack, in which he can bear away his prize. If he
leaves them, he will be sure to find on his return that the ostrich has
broken the eggs, because they have been disturbed.
The eggs of the emu of South America are large, and, although the
food which they afford is coarse, it is not unpalatable.
The emu, or New Holland cassowary, is becoming rarer as
settlements advance. The same remark applies also to the kangaroo
and other animals against whom a war of extermination seems to
have been declared.
The emu is easily domesticated when taken young, and becomes
very familiar with, and attached to, the dogs, which generally leads to
the death of a tame one. A full-grown one, when erect, stands seven
feet high. The natives creep on them and spear them. The eggs are
of a tea green colour, with a watered appearance on the surface.
There is a singularity in the growth of the feathers—two of them
spring from one quill. The bird is principally valued for its oil. The skin
of a full-grown bird produces six or seven quarts of oil, clear, and of a
beautiful bright yellow colour. The method of extracting or ‘trying’ out
the oil is to pluck the feathers, cut the skin into pieces, and boil it; but
the aborigines prefer the flesh with the skin upon it, regarding it as
the Esquimaux do the flesh of whales and seals, as a highly luscious
treat. The flesh is eaten by Europeans, and preferred by some to the
kangaroo; the rump part is considered as delicate as fowl; the legs
coarser, like beef, but still tender.
Bustards are plentiful in many parts of the Cape Colony, and the
smaller sorts, called koerhans, are approachable in a bush country;
but the larger kinds, called paws, are a great prize, as they are found
on plains, and are generally shot with ball. In Australia, the bustard is
called, colonially, the wild turkey. It is a fine large bird, frequently
weighing 12 to 15 lbs., and extending full six feet, from tip to tip of
the wings. There it is declared excellent for eating, but its flesh is
much too gamey for ordinary palates.
Don Pernetty, in his Historical Journal of the Voyage to the Falkland
Islands, under the command of M. de Bouganville, says, they found
the bustard ‘exquisite either boiled, roasted, or fricasseed. It
appeared from the account we kept that we ate 1,500. It is, indeed,
hardly to be conceived that the ship’s company of our two frigates,
consisting of a hundred and fifty men, all in perfect health and with
good stomachs, should have found a quantity of these birds
sufficient for their subsistence during a stay of more than two
months, within a tract of country not exceeding three leagues.’
But they also tried other descriptions of feathered game. The wild
ducks were found, in general, to have the taste of mussels. Of a kind
of grey goose, weighing about 19 or 20 lbs., it is reported: ‘Its flesh
was oily, had a disagreeable smell and a fenny taste; but it was
eaten by the ships’ companies when no bustards were given them.’
The clucking hen of Jamaica (Ardea scolopacea), on the authority of
Browne and Robinson, is looked upon as the best wild fowl in the
country, although the latter writer tells us it feeds upon snakes,
toads, and lizards, as well as wood snails and gully crabs. The
flavour is, however, represented to be remarkably fine—a compound
of ham, partridge, and pigeon. The flesh is of a peculiarly close and
compact texture, and very tender.
The mangrove hen (Rallus Virginianus), indigenous to the watery
marshes of Jamaica, greatly resembles the dappled grey variety of
the common fowl. At the pullet age, the young birds are run down,
when feeding on the mud, with great facility. At this time, I have
found them to be delicious eating. Persons, on whose taste reliance
may be placed, say that, though a plover be undoubtedly a fine bird
for the table, and the sanderling a great delicacy, the young
mangrove hen exceeds both, as it combines all their peculiarity of
flavour with the fleshiness of the quail. This is no small
commendation. But much depends upon your cuisinier; if he is a
good artiste—a man of undoubted talents, it matters little what the
materials be.
The Rallus crex is another esteemed dainty of no ordinary kind, and
a most delicious bird.
In the reign of Henry the Eighth, the bittern was held in great esteem
at the tables of the great. Its flesh has much the flavour of hare, and
is far from being unpleasant.
Snipe of all kinds, from the ‘teeterer,’ that hovers about the edge of
the surf, to the jack snipe (Scolopax gallinula), half-brother to the
woodcock, are in high esteem for the table. The ‘green’ sportsman
finds these birds the most perplexing of all feathered game when on
the wing. Their catter-cornered, worm-fence line of flight renders
them very difficult to hit, until long practice has rendered the
marksman’s eye familiar with their erratic movements. Some
sportsmen take them at an angle; others after they have made their
tack; and others, again, seem to blaze away at them without any
particular aim, and yet always bring down their bird. The yellow-
legged snipe is in America considered the best species for the table.
They should be larded and roasted in bunches of three, and served
in gravy made from their own unctuous drippings. There are few
side-dishes more popular with epicures than snipe on toast. Some
cooks stuff them with a composition of bread crumbs and egg, highly
seasoned; but, in my opinion, they are far better without this kind of
‘trimmings.’
While the trail of the woodcock is a choice morsel with the English
epicure, the inhabitants of the North of Europe, to whose forests the
woodcocks retire in the summer, never eat the birds, esteeming their
flesh unwholesome, from the circumstance of their having no crops.
But they are particularly fond of the eggs, which the boors offer for
sale in large quantities in the principal markets, and this contributes,
possibly, to make the birds so scarce.
The semi-palmated snipe, better known by its common sobriquet of
‘pill-will-willet,’ the loud shrill note which it emits, is at certain periods
of the year esteemed an excellent bird in America. It ought to be
served up in the mode that snipes usually are, and for these
delicious viands it is esteemed a tolerable substitute when in good
order.
Dampier, nearly two centuries ago, speaking of the flamingo, says:
‘Their flesh is lean and black, but not ill-tasted. They have large
tongues, and near the root of them a piece of fat, which is accounted
a great dainty.’
The flamingo was much esteemed by the Romans at their
sumptuous entertainments. Their flesh is thought tolerably good
food, and the tongue was looked upon by the ancients as among the
most delicate of all eatables. Pliny, Martial, and many other writers,
speak of it in the highest terms of commendation. Many who have
tried it, consider the flesh extremely rich, much like that of the wild
duck, but with a strong fishy taste. The tongue is certainly delicate,
but scarcely worthy the high encomiums bestowed on it by the
ancients.
During the surveying expedition of Captain Owen, on the east coast
of Africa, the sailors used to shoot hundreds of these beautiful birds
for the purpose of making a dish of the tongues alone. The
remainder of the bird—in imitation of the Roman epicures—being
thrown away.
NATATORES.
The Natatores, or swimming birds, supply us with very choice food.
Even many of the coarse sea fowl are not rejected by voyagers.
The Chinese shoot sea-gulls in large numbers, which add to their
stock of food. A man is constantly engaged in the bay of San
Francisco, California, shooting sea-gulls, which he sells to the
Chinese at the rate of 25 cents each. The San Francisco Evening
News says,—‘This bird is a slow and steady mover, of large size,
and flies at a convenient distance over the head of the sportsman.
The man in the skiff was armed with a double-barrelled shot gun,
both barrels of which he would load, and taking a dead gull would
throw it high in the air and allow it to fall at some distance from the
boat. This would naturally attract a flock of gulls, and as they made
their slow circuit around the spot, the gunner raised his piece and
generally succeeded in bringing down a bird for both barrels. He
would then re-load as fast as possible, and if a gull was in range,
another shot was fired and another trophy won.’
The flesh of sea-fowl is generally too rancid to find much favour with
fastidious palates. Sailors indeed eat the livers and hearts of the
penguins, which are exceedingly palatable, but the black flesh of the
body is rank and oily, and has rather a perfumed taste. Some
voyagers, however, tell us, that eaten in ragouts, they are good as
that made from a hare.
The young puffins, having gorged themselves with sprats and
crustacea, when pickled with spices, are by some considered
dainties, and they are, occasionally, potted in the North. But when it
has attained its ugly full developed bill, like a short, thick plough
coulter, this bird does not look very prepossessing. Besides making
use of them for food, some of the islanders use them for fire-wood.
They split them open, dry them, and then burn them feathers and all.
There is a species of puffin, the Puffinus urinatrix or P. brevicaudis,
popularly termed the mutton-bird by Tasmanian colonists, which is
met with on some of the New Zealand islands. It forms the principal
food for the native inhabitants of Foveaux Straits, and by them is
called the titi. It is a sea bird of black colour,[15] in its usual condition
smaller than the common duck. Like all sea birds it has thin, slender
legs, with webbed feet: the wings are long, with many joints, I forget
how many: the bill is a little hooked at the point. They are generally
in large flocks, covering the ocean as far as the eye can reach;
sometimes flying all in the same direction, at other times crossing
through each other like swarming bees. They breed on the small
uninhabited islands scattered round the coasts of Stewart’s Island.
These islands have a loose, dry, peatish soil, on a stony bottom.
Their being exposed to the stormy winds, loaded with the salt spray
of the sea, prevents the growth of a forest, except patches of stunted
bushes intermixed with a sort of soft, light green fern. The loose soil
is perforated with numberless birdholes, like a piece of worm-eaten
wood, running from two to four feet underground in a horizontal
direction, at the farthest end of which is the nest. Each female lays
only one egg, which is nearly as big as a goose egg, on which they
sit—it is believed male and female alternately—many weeks. The
young bird is full grown in the month of April, which corresponds to
October in Europe. At that time, almost all the inhabitants of Foveaux
Straits, old and young—the infirm only excepted—repair to the Titi
Islands, and take the young birds out of their nests, which amount to
many thousands, and a great many still escape. They put a stick in
the hole to feel where the bird is, which generally betrays itself by
biting the stick. If the hole is so long that the bird cannot be reached
by the hand, a hole is dug over it, the bird taken out and killed by
breaking its head, and the broken hole covered with rubbish and
earth, so that it may be used again the next year. Afterwards the
birds are plucked, and, to clean the skin from the hairy down, it is
moistened and held over the fire, when it is easily wiped quite clean.
Then the neck, wings, and legs are cut off, the breast is opened, the
entrails are taken out, and the body is laid flat, either to be salted or
to be boiled in its own fat, and preserved in air-tight kelp bags.
Though it cannot be said that the young birds suffer, they being killed
so quickly, yet it might seem cruel to rob the parents of their young
ones on so large a scale, and one would fancy a great deal of
fluttering and screaming of the old ones, bewailing the bereavement
of their offspring. But that is not the case. None of the old birds make
their appearance in the day-time. They are all out at sea, and come
only to their nests in the evening when it gets dark, and are off again
at day-break. But yet it would seem the parents would be distressed
at finding their nests robbed. Not so. It would seem as if Providence
had ordered it so that man should go and take the young birds for his
food without hurting the feelings of the parents. When the young
birds are full grown, then they are neglected by their parents, in
order to starve them to get thin, else they would never be able to fly
for the heaviness of their fat. It seems that at the time when they are
taken by men, they are already forsaken by the old birds; and those
that are not taken are compelled by hunger, when they have been
starved thin and light, to leave their holes and go to sea. The old
birds are tough and lean, but the young ones, which are nearly twice
as big, contain, when the legs, wings, neck, and entrails are taken
off, three-fourths of pure white fat, and one-fourth of red meat and
tender bones. The flavour is rather fishy, but, if once used to it, not
bad at all, only rather too fat. They eat best when salted and smoked
a little, and then boiled a short time, and afterwards eaten cold. If
properly salted, they might make an article of trade, like herrings in
Europe. The fat when clean is quite white, and looks just like goose
fat, but the taste is rather oily; however, it may be used for a good
many other purposes than for food. It burns very well on small
shallow tin lamps, which get warmed by the light and melt the fat.
The feathers are very soft, and would make excellent beds if they
could be cured of the oily smell, which it is likely they can.
The following remarks on the articles of food found in the arctic
regions are by one of the officers of the Assistance:—
‘To the feathered tribe we are chiefly indebted, and foremost in the
list for flavour and delicacy of fibre stand the ptarmigan (Lagopus
mutus) and the willow grouse (Tetrao saliceti). The flesh is dark-
coloured, and has somewhat the flavour of the hare. These may be
used in pie, stewed, boiled, or roast, at pleasure, and are easily shot.
Next in gustatory joys, the small birds rank, a kind of snipe, and a
curlew sandpiper; both are, however, rarely met with, and do not
repay the trouble of procuring them.
‘The brent goose (Anser torquatus) is excellent eating, and its flesh
is free from fishy taste. Then follow the little auk or rotge (Alca alle),
the dovekey, or black guillemot (Uria grylle), the loon, or thick-billed
guillemot (Uria Brunnichii). The first two are better baked with a
crust, and the last makes, with spices and wine, a soup but little
inferior to that of English hare. All these are found together in flocks,
but the easiest method of obtaining them is either to shoot them at
the cliffs where they breed, or as they fly to and fro from their feeding
ground.
‘The ducks now come upon the table, and are placed in the following
order by most Polar epicures. The long-tailed duck (Fuliluga
glacialis), the king duck (Anas spectabilis), and the eider duck (A.
mollissima). They require to be skinned before roasting or boiling,
and are then eatable, but are always more or less fishy.
‘The divers are by some thought superior for the table to the ducks,
but the difference is very slight. The red-throated diver was most
frequently seen, but few were shot; and of the great northern divers
(Colymbus glacialis) none were brought to table, two only having
been seen. Some of the gulls were eaten, and pronounced equal to
the other sea birds; they were the kittiwake, the tern, and the herring
or silver gull.
‘The denizens of the sea have fallen little under our notice, and they
may be dismissed with the remark, that curried narwhal’s skin can be
tolerated, but not recommended. Some fresh-water fish were caught,
and proved to be very good; they are said to be a kind of trout.’
The eggs of sea-fowl, although much eaten on the coasts, are
seldom brought to market for consumption in our large English
towns, and yet they form a considerable article of traffic in several
parts of the world, and are procured in immense quantities about the
lands near the North and South Poles.
The precipitous cliffs of England are occasionally searched for the
eggs of the razor-billed auk, which are esteemed a delicacy, for
salads especially.
A correspondent at San Francisco informs me that an important
trade is carried on in that city in the eggs of sea birds. He states, that
the Farallones de los Frayles, a group of rocky islets, lying a little
more than twenty miles west of the entrance to the Bay of San
Francisco, are the resort of innumerable sea-fowl, known by the
fishermen as ‘murres.’ These islands are almost inaccessible, and,
with a single exception, are uninhabited. They, therefore, very
naturally afford a resort for great multitudes of birds. Some time
since a company was organized in San Francisco for the purpose of
bringing the eggs of the murres to market. An imperfect idea of the
numbers of these birds may be formed from the fact, that this
company sold in that city the last season (a period of less than two
months, July and parts of June and August) more than five hundred
thousand eggs! All these were gathered on a single one of these
islands; and, in the opinion of the eggers, not more than one egg in
six of those deposited on that island was gathered. My
correspondent informs me that he was told by those familiar with the
islands that all the eggs brought in were laid by birds of a single kind.
Yet they exhibit astonishing variations in size, in form, and in
colouring. There is no reason to suppose that he was misinformed in
regard to these eggs being deposited by a single species. The men
could have had no motive for deception, and similar facts are
observable on the Labrador coast and in the islands north of
Scotland. Besides, the writer ascertained from other sources, that all
the eggs brought to the market were obtained from a limited portion
of the island, known as the Great Farallone—called the Rookery,
where a single species swarm in myriads, and where no other kind
of bird is found. Naturalists, who have received specimens of these
birds, pronounce them to be the thick-billed or Brunnich’s guillemot,
or murre, of Labrador and Northern Europe. The eggs are three and
a half inches in length, and are esteemed a great delicacy.
There is a small island off the Cape of Good Hope, named Dassen
Island, about six miles from the mainland, which is one and a half
mile long by one broad, from which 24,000 eggs of penguins and
gulls are collected every fortnight, and sold at Cape Town for a half-
penny each.
The late Lieut. Ruxton, R.N., speaking of the Island of Ichaboe, on
the Western Coast of Africa, says, ‘Notwithstanding that the island
had been occupied for nearly two years, during which time
thousands upon thousands of penguins had been wantonly
destroyed, on the cessation of work these birds again flocked to their
old haunts, where they had again commenced laying their eggs. The
rocks round the island are literally covered with penguins,
cormorants, and albatrosses. The former, wedged together in a
dense phalanx, have no more dread of man than ducks in a poultry-
yard, although they have met with such persecution on the island;
and any number might be taken by the hand without any difficulty.
The sailors eat the livers and hearts, which are exceedingly
palatable, but the flesh of the body is rank and oily.’[16]
Captain Morrell, also writing of Ichaboe (Nautical Magazine, vol. 13,
p. 374), tells us, ‘Eggs may be obtained here in great quantities. In
the months of October and November this island is literally covered
with jackass-penguins and gannets, which convene here for the
purpose of laying and incubation. The nests of the gannets are
formed like those of the albatross, but are not so much elevated;
while the jackass-penguins lay their eggs in holes in the ground from
twelve to thirty inches in depth, which they guard with the strictest
vigilance. They frequently lay three or four eggs, but the gannet
seldom lays more than two.’
A correspondent, writing from Tristan d’Acunha, in September, gives
an account of his adventures in taking penguins’ eggs. ‘This is now
the time for penguins’ eggs. They get great numbers of them. There
are two rookeries, as they call them; one on the east, and one on the
west, of us. To the one on the west, they go over land, beyond
Elephant Bay. I went there last year, when I saw the great sea
elephant and the penguins for the first time. But this year I have
been disappointed, the weather has been so unsettled. But
yesterday was a fine day, and they were going in the boat to the
other, to which they can go only by water; so I went with them. It was

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Textbook Advanced Computing Strategies For Engineering 25Th Eg Ice International Workshop 2018 Lausanne Switzerland June 10 13 2018 Proceedings Part Ii Ian F C Smith Ebook All Chapter PDF

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Advanced Computing Strategies for

Engineering 25th EG ICE International

Neural Information Processing: 25th International

Computational Science ICCS 2018 18th International

Applied Cryptography and Network Security 12th

Cloud Computing and Security 4th International

Neural Information Processing: 25th International

Neural Information Processing: 25th International

Neural Information Processing: 25th International

Computational Science ICCS 2018 18th International

ISSN 0302-9743 ISSN 1611-3349 (electronic)

Library of Congress Control Number: 2018943445

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018

Printed on acid-free paper

The architecture–engineering–construction (AEC) industry worldwide spending is over

April 2018 Ian F. C. Smith

Robert Amor University of Auckland, New Zealand

Jerome Lynch University of Michigan, USA

Monitoring and Control Algorithms in Engineering

Disaster Economics and Networked Transportation Infrastructures:

Data-Driven Operation of Building Systems: Present Challenges

A Prototype Tool of Optimal Wireless Sensor Placement

A System Analytics Framework for Detecting Infrastructure-Related

Community Engagement Using Urban Sensing: Technology

Actuator Layout Optimization for Adaptive Structures Performing

Unsupervised Named Entity Normalization for Supporting Information

Semantic Description of Structural Health Monitoring Algorithms

Development and Improvement of Deep Learning Based Automated

Smart HVAC Systems — Adjustable Airflow Direction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193

Adaptive Approach for Sensor Placement Combining a Quantitative

Multi-occupancy Indoor Thermal Condition Optimization

Benefits and Limitations of Linked Data Approaches for Road

Engineering Informatics to Support Civil Systems Engineering Practice . . . . . 262

Automated Approaches Towards BIM-Based Intelligent Decision

Standardized Names for Object Types and Attributes as Basis

The Emulation and Simulation of Internet of Things Devices

Using IFC to Support Enclosure Fire Dynamics Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339

A Semantic Web-Based Approach for Generating Parametric Models

A Proposal for the Integration of Information Requirements Within

Use Cases for Improved Analysis of Energy and Comfort Related

Building Information Modeling (BIM) Applications

Data Exchange Requirement Analysis for Value for Money Assessment

Towards an Ontology-based Approach for Information Interoperability

Utilising the Potential of Standardised BIM Models by a Fundamental

Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487

Advanced Computing in Engineering

Automatic Object Detection from Digital Images by Deep Learning

Data Driven Analytics (Machine Learning) for System Characterization,

3D Imaging in Construction and Infrastructure Management:

IoT - An Opportunity for Autonomous BIM Reconstruction? . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

Space Classification from Point Clouds of Indoor Environments Based

State-of-Practice on As-Is Modelling of Industrial Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

Pavement Defects Detection and Classification Using Smartphone-Based

Optimization Formulations for the Design of Low Embodied Energy

Collaborative Immersive Planning and Training Scenarios in VR . . . . . . . . . 164

3DFacilities: Annotated 3D Reconstructions of Building Facilities. . . . . . . . . 186

Meta Models for Real-Time Design Assessment Within an Integrated

A Visual Interactive Environment for Engineering Knowledge Modelling . . . 219

Lessons Learned with Laser Scanning Point Cloud Management

SLAM-Driven Intelligent Autonomous Mobile Robot Navigation

Computer Supported Construction Management

Making Each Workhour Count: Improving the Prediction

Fiatech: History and Perspectives on Future Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296