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Adsorption and Diffusion
in Nanoporous Materials
Second Edition
Adsorption and Diffusion
in Nanoporous Materials
Second Edition
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vii
viii Contents
xv
xvi Preface
their applications in many fields, such as optics, electronics, ionic conduction, ionic
exchange, gas separation, membranes, coatings, catalysts, catalyst supports, sensors,
pollution abatement, detergency, and biology.
The present book is a development of some of the author’s previous books, book
chapters of books, and papers. The author has tried, in the present text, to give a
state-of-the-art description of some of the most important aspects of the theory and
practice of adsorption and diffusion, fundamentally, of gases in microporous crys-
talline, mesoporous ordered, and micro/mesoporous amorphous materials.
In the present monograph, the adsorption process in multicomponent systems will
not be discussed with the exception of the final chapter in which adsorption from
the liquid phase is analyzed. We are studying here adsorption and diffusion, funda-
mentally, from the point of view of materials science. That is, we are interested in
the methods for the use of single-component adsorption and diffusion in the char-
acterization of the adsorbent surface, pore volume, pore size distribution (PSD), and
the study of the parameters characterizing single-component transport processes in
porous systems. Besides, in the text, the following areas are studied: (1) adsorption
energetic, (2) adsorption thermodynamic, and (3) dynamic adsorption in plug-flow
bed reactors. On the other hand, in the text, the structure or morphology and the
methods of synthesis and modification of silica, active carbons, zeolites, and related
materials and mesoporous molecular sieves are also discussed. Other adsorbents
normally used in different applications, such as alumina, titanium dioxide, magne-
sium oxide, and clays and pillared clays, are not discussed.
From the point of view of the application of dynamic adsorption systems, in the
present book, the author will only analyze the use of adsorbents to clean gas or liquid
flows by the removal of a low concentrated impurity applying a plug-flow adsorption
reactor (PFAR), where the output of the operation of the PFAR is a breakthrough
curve.
Finally, in the first place, this book is dedicated, in first place, to my family. It
is also devoted to the advisors of my postgraduate studies and the mentors in my
postdoctoral fellowships. Concretely, I would recognize Dr. Jürgen Büttner, advi-
sor during my MSc studies, who was the first to explain me the importance of the
physics and chemistry of surfaces in materials science. I would also acknowledge
my senior PhD tutor, late Prof. Dr. Alekzander A. Zhujovistskii, who in 1934 was
the first to recognize the complementary role of the adsorption field and capillary
condensation in adsorption in porous materials and was later one of the absolute cre-
ators of gas chromatography. He taught me how to see inside a scientific data using
general principles. In addition, I feel like to recognize my junior PhD tutor, Prof. Dr.
Boris S. Bokstein, a very well-known authority in the study of transport phenomena,
who gave me a big stimulus in the study of diffusion. I also want to appreciate the
mentors of my postdoctoral fellowships, Prof. Dr. Fritz Storbeck, who gave me the
opportunity to be in contact with the most advanced methods of surface studies;
Prof. Dr. Evgenii D. Shchukin, one of the creators of a new science, physicochemi-
cal mechanics, who taught me the importance of surface phenomena in materials
Preface xvii
science; and the late academician Mijail M. Dubinin and Prof. Dr. A.V. Kiseliov, two
of the most important scientists in the field of adsorption science and technology
during the past century. Both of them gave me the great opportunity to be in close
contact with their philosophy in the study of adsorption systems.
xix
1 Statistical Physics
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Statistical physics or statistical mechanics named as statistical thermodynamics in the
case of equilibrium systems was originated in the work of Maxwell and Boltzmann
(1860–1900) on the kinetic theory of gases [1–5]. Later, in his book Elementary
Principles of Statistical Physics, Gibbs (1902) made the major advance, so far, in
the theory and methods of calculation of statistical physics by the introduction of
the ensemble conception. More recently, Einstein, Fermi, Bose, Tolman, Langmuir,
Landau, Fowler, Guggenheim, Kubo, Hill, Bogoliubov, and others have contributed
to the subsequent development and fruitful application of statistical physics [6–10].
dU = TdS − PdV + ∑ µ dn
i
i i
where:
U(S, V, ni) is the internal energy of the system
S is its entropy
V is its volume
T is its temperature
µi is the chemical potential
ni is the number of moles of one of the N components, which form the system
Likewise, using the Legendre transformations (see Appendix 1.1), that is, subtracting
TS from U, the Helmholtz free energy F = U − TS , a new thermodynamic function
depending on T, V, and n, that is, F(T, V, n) is obtained.
1
2 Adsorption and Diffusion in Nanoporous Materials
dF = −SdT − PdV + ∑ µ dn
i
i i
d Ω = −SdT − PdV + ∑ µ dn
i
i i
dH = TdS − VdP + ∑ µ dn
i
i i
dG = −SdT + VdP + ∑ µ dn
i
i i
TABLE 1.1
Thermodynamic Relations
∂U ∂U ∂U
T = −P = µi =
∂S V, ni ∂V S, ni ∂ni S ,V, ni ( i ≠ j )
∂F ∂F ∂F
−S = −P = µi =
∂T V, ni ∂V T, ni ∂ni T ,V, ni ( i ≠ j )
∂H ∂H ∂H
T = V = µi =
∂T P, ni ∂P S, ni ∂ni S, P, ni ( i ≠ j )
∂G ∂G ∂G
−S = V = µi =
∂T P, ni ∂P T, ni ∂ni T , P, ni ( i ≠ j )
∂Ω ∂Ω ∂Ω
−S = −P = −ni =
∂T V, µi ∂P T ,µi ∂ni T, ni ( i ≠ j )
Statistical Physics 3
= = NkT
PV nRT
where:
R = 8.31451 [JK−1mol−1] is the ideal gas constant
R = NAk
NA = 6.02214 × 1023 [mol−1] is the Avogadro number
k = 1.38066 [JK−1] is the Boltzmann constant
In an ideal gas we assume that the molecules are noninteracting, that is, they do not
affect each other’s energy levels. Each particle has a certain energy, and at T > 0, the
system possesses a total energy E. In addition, from quantum mechanics we know
that the possible energies, if we consider the particles confined in a cubic box of
volume, V = abc, (Figure 1.1) are given by [4]
h2 h2 N 2
E ( n1, n2 , n3 ) =
8L2m
n(
1
2
+ n2
2
+ n3)
2
=
8m
where, N 2 = (n12 + n22 + n32 ) and n1, n2, and n3 are the quantum numbers, each of which
could be any integer number except zero.
4 Adsorption and Diffusion in Nanoporous Materials
b y
x a
FIGURE 1.1 Box of volume, V = abc, where the molecules of the ideal gas are confined.
E= ∑∑∑ E (n , n , n )
n1 n2 n3
1 2 3
and N molecules are compatible with a huge number of different (n1, n2, n3) quantum
numbers corresponding with different microstates. Therefore, a macrostate or ther-
modynamic state of a system is composed, or is compatible, with a huge number, Ω,
of microstates or quantum states [8].
Finally, it is necessary to affirm that the thermodynamic state–macrostate is
experimentally observable, whereas the quantum state–microstate is usually not
observable.
Ω
N= ∑n
i =1
i
Statistical Physics 5
and the summation is taken over all the Ω accessible Ei energy states that are allow-
able for the concrete system in study.
Now, it is necessary to make some postulates in order to mathematically deal with
the ensemble concept [6,9].
Ω
S = −k ∑ p ln p
i =1
i i (1.2)
Insulation wall
The possible energy states of the systems in the ensemble are Ej = Ej(V, N), since
all the systems in the ensemble have the same volume V and number of particles N,
then all the systems in the ensemble have the same set of energy states. Thereafter,
the number of systems in the energy state Ei is ni. Therefore, following the third
postulate, the probability to select a system in the ensemble with energy Ei is [7]
ni
pi = (1.3)
N
where N is the whole number of systems in the canonical ensemble,
Ω
∑ p =1
i =1
i
where the summations are carried out over all the allowable energy states of the
system under study, that is, Ω.
To calculate the probability distribution for the canonical ensemble, we only need
to find the conditions for the maximum entropy of the whole canonical ensemble sys-
tem as expressed in Figure 1.2. In this scheme, the canonical ensemble is represented
as a thermodynamic closed system composed of a collection of replicated systems
enclosed by a wall, which do not allow the exchange of energy and matter with the
rest of the universe. Therefore, based on the second postulate and the additive prop-
erty of entropy, we need to calculate the maximum of
Ω
S = −k Ν ∑ p ln p
i =1
i i
Statistical Physics 7
where the summation is taken over all the states allowable for the system under
study. Then the calculation of the maximum is under the following two conditions:
Ω
∑n = N
i=1
i
and
Ω
∑n E = E
i =1
i i
where N is the total number of systems in the ensemble and E is the total energy of
the ensemble. Now dividing by N,
Ω
S = −k ∑ p ln p
i =1
i i
∑i=1
pi = 1 and ∑pE =E
i=1
i i
in which E is the average energy in a system of the ensemble. Now, to apply the
method of the Lagrange multipliers [13] (see Appendix 1.2) we must define the fol-
lowing auxiliary function [9]:
Ω Ω Ω
f = −k ∑i =1
pi ln pi + α ∑
i =1
pi + β ∑pE
i =1
i i (1.4)
F = U − TS (1.7)
8 Adsorption and Diffusion in Nanoporous Materials
Then [6]
Ω
∑ p E = E =U
i =1
i i (1.8)
S = −kβU + k ln Z (1.10)
kβU − S = k ln Z (1.11)
Thus, if we take
1
β= (1.12)
kT
and
F = kT ln Z (1.13)
It follows that Equation 1.10 will be equivalent to Equation 1.7; subsequently, is pos-
sible the calculation of all the thermodynamic functions by the use of the partition
function, because the Helmholtz free energy F could operate as a starting point
(Table 1.2) [8–10]:
TABLE 1.2
Thermodynamic Parameters Calculated with the Help of the Canonical
Partition Function
∂ ln Z ∂ ln Z ∂ ln Z
U = kT 2 P = kT S = k ln Z + T
∂V ∂V ∂T
∂ ln Z ∂ ln Z ∂ ln Z ∂ ln Z
G = kT − ln Z + T H = kT T + V ∂V µi = −kT
∂V ∂T ∂ni
Una columella che sta avanti una nicchia con un frontispizio segna il
sepolcro di Salvio, fanciullo di anni 6, come lo fa sapere l’iscrizione:
SALVIVS PVER
VIX. ANNIS VI.
La sigla che segue al nome di Arrius, che io d’un tratto supplii con un
I, ma che nel marmo ben non si comprende, fu interpretata
diversamente. La più parte ritennero significare Arrii, seguendo
l’ermeneutica adottata da Bréton nel leggere l’iscrizione di Cejo; ma
Bréton è poi curioso che, abbandonandola in questa iscrizione,
abbia voluto leggere nella sigla una J, che interpretò per Juliæ. La
ragione sola che costei potesse essere la Julia Felix, una de’ più
ricchi proprietarj di Pompei, non pare nè seria, nè da accettarsi.
Piuttosto dovrebbesi essere meglio inclinati a ritenerlo liberto di
Giulia la figliuola di Augusto, che avanti la morte del padre
chiamavasi Livia, e così sarebbe stato conservo di questa imperiale
matrona colle due Tichi, di cui menzionammo più sopra le tombe.
Greche di nome codeste due liberte, parimenti greco sarebbe il
nome di Diomede: forse quindi tutti compatrioti.
Il monumento pompeggia sull’altezza d’un muro con un terrapieno
che serve di base a questa tomba di famiglia; esso si costituisce di
un frontispizio con pilastrini d’ordine corintio ai lati ed è in cattivo
stato ed ha nulla di rimarchevole fuor che alcuni fasci nella facciata,
e due teste di marmo l’una di uomo, l’altra di donna, appena
abozzate, che gli antichi avevano costume di collocar nei sepolcri
per distinguerli.
Dietro la testa d’uomo, era questa iscrizione:
M. ARRIO
PRIMOGENI
Già più pareti di camere delle loro dipinture non hanno che qualche
traccia appena: altre l’hanno perduta affatto; già segni ed emblemi
caratteristici scomparvero, caddero graffiti, scomparvero iscrizioni,
rovinarono muri, da che la distruzione dei tetti fosse già opera del
cataclisma vesuviano, e chi visita con interesse Pompei se ne
preoccupa e tanto più in quanto la parte primamente scoperta si
giudichi, come provai, la più interessante.
Che avrebbesi dunque a fare?
V’ha chi crede che por mano a riparazioni e ristauri sia opera
profana poco meno di empia e si ha forse ragione: epperò per que’
tratti almeno, ne’ quali la rovina si determina così da togliere ogni
ulteriore interesse per l’archeologo e pel curioso osservatore, non
potrebbe mo’ cavarsene partito, purchè ceduti, dietro apposite
discipline e dicevoli corrispettivi, a ricchi privati, si imponesse ai
cessionari di ricostruire sulla originaria architettura pompejana?
Delle migliaja di ricchi sfondolati che visitano ogni anno gli scavi, chi
può dire non si trovi alcuno che ami avere in questo ridentissimo ed
ubertoso pendio che il Vesuvio sogguarda, al par di Cicerone, il suo
vaghissimo Pompejanum?
Come Cuvier ha dalle ossa fossili rinvenute ricostruito perfino
animali preistorici e da più secoli scomparsi dalla terra, più
facilmente potrebbesi dalla pianta degli edifici rifare gli alzati e
l’architetto governativo e la commissione che si dovrebbe creare
fornirebbero le architetture e così mano mano sull’antico verrebbesi
riedificando il novello Pompei, perenne e non indegno scopo di
curiosità e di studio a nazionali e forestieri.
È un’idea codesta siccome un’altra.
Una ne emise assai prima l’illustre autore dei Martyrs e del Génie du
Christianisme nel suo Voyage en Italie nel brevissimo cenno che vi
dettò su d’Ercolano, di Portici e di Pompei, e parmi che giovi di
riferire, perocchè al medesimo fine essa miri della mia proposta. «En
parcourant cette cité des morts — scrive il visconte di
Chateaubriand, une idée me poursuivoit. A mesure que l’on
déchausse quelque édifice à Pompeïa, on enlève ce que donne la
fouille, ustensiles de ménage, instruments de divers métiers,
meubles, statues, manuscrits, etc., et l’on entasse le tout au Musée
Portici. Il y auroit selon moi quelque chose de mieux à faire: ce seroit
de laisser les choses dans l’endroit où on les trouve et comme on les
trouve, de remettre des toits, des plafonds, des planchers et des
fenêtres, pour empêcher la dégradation des peintures et des murs;
de relever l’ancienne enceinte de la ville; d’en clore les portes, afin
d’y établir une garde de soldats avec quelques savants versés dans
les arts. Ne seroit-ce pas là le plus merveilleux Musée de la terre,
une ville romaine conservée toute entière, comme si ses habitants
venoient d’en sortir un quart d’heure auparavant?
«On apprendroit mieux l’histoire domestique du peuple romain, l’état
de la civilisation romaine dans quelques promenades à Pompeïa
restaurée, que par la lecture de tous les ouvrages de l’antiquité.
L’Europe entière accourroit: les frais qu’exigeroit la mise en œuvre
de ce plan seroient amplement compensés par l’affluence des
étrangers à Naples. D’ailleurs rien n’obligeroit d’exécuter ce travail à
la fois, on continueroit lentement, mais régulièrement les fouilles; il
ne foudroit qu’un peu de brique, d’ardoise, de charpente et de
menuiserie pour les employer en proportion da déblai. Un architecte
habile suivroit, quant aux restaurations, le style local dont il trouveroit
des modèles dans les paysages peints sur les murs mêmes des
maisons de Pompeïa.»
Come si può accorgere il lettore, di poco la mia idea si discosta da
codesta di Chateaubriand, la quale per altro, limitandosi ad una
semplice opera di restauro, oltre che è combattuta fieramente dagli
archeologi, è forse di poco pratica attivazione, avuto riguardo alla
condizione delle muraglie in generale che mal sopporterebbero la
sovrapposizione di quell’altra parte di muro che valesse a
completarla, senza dire che in più luoghi il salnitro e altre ragioni di
degradazione vieterebbero il ritorno delle dipinture.
Qualunque sia il pensiero tendente alla conservazione di Pompei, di
questa così interessante città che si va ogni dì più evocando dal suo
sepolcro in cui giacque presso a due mila anni, mette conto esser
preso in considerazione ed esame, principalmente da chi è preposto
alla pubblica cosa. Se lo stato trova di sua convenienza e decoro di
consacrare alla conservazione de’ monumenti e de’ cimelii antichi
disseminati per tutta Italia, istituti e somme ragguardevoli, per
ragione maggiore volger deve le sue cure alla conservazion di
questa antica città, perocchè ben dicesse l’inglese Taylor, scrivendo
a Carlo Nodier intorno appunto ad essa e ad Ercolano:
«Roma non è che un vasto museo; Pompei è un’antichità vivente.»
Bacone, parlando di antichità, di storie sfigurate e di storici
frammenti sfuggiti per avventura alla distruzione del tempo, li
paragona alle tavole che galleggiano dopo il naufragio; ebbene le
Rovine di Pompei sono preziose reliquie di un naufragio che
meritano essere ad ogni costo salvate, che vogliono ad ogni modo
essere strappate al continuo e latente processo di loro completa
distruzione e allora soltanto potremo sclamare con Schiller:
L’are
Sorgono ancor. Venite e il sacro foco
Raccendete agli dei, chè troppo lunghi
Secoli di votiva ostia l’han privi [317].
FINE.
APPENDICE PRIMA
I busti di Bruto e di Pompeo [318].