Textbook Adhd Stress and Development Petr Bob Ebook All Chapter PDF

ADHD Stress and Development Petr
Bob
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://textbookfull.com/product/adhd-stress-and-development-petr-bob/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...
Parental Stress and Early Child Development Adaptive

and Maladaptive Outcomes 1st Edition Kirby Deater-
Deckard
https://textbookfull.com/product/parental-stress-and-early-child-
development-adaptive-and-maladaptive-outcomes-1st-edition-kirby-
deater-deckard/
Care Ethics, Democratic Citizenship and the State Petr

Urban
https://textbookfull.com/product/care-ethics-democratic-
citizenship-and-the-state-petr-urban/
ADHD in the schools assessment and intervention

strategies Dupaul
https://textbookfull.com/product/adhd-in-the-schools-assessment-
and-intervention-strategies-dupaul/
ADHD For Dummies (2nd Edition) Jeff Strong
https://textbookfull.com/product/adhd-for-dummies-2nd-edition-
jeff-strong/
Wild Pedagogies Bob Jickling
https://textbookfull.com/product/wild-pedagogies-bob-jickling/
Metamathematics of First Order Arithmetic 1st Edition

Petr Hájek
https://textbookfull.com/product/metamathematics-of-first-order-
arithmetic-1st-edition-petr-hajek/
A New Hypothesis on the Anisotropic Reynolds Stress

Tensor for Turbulent Flows Volume I Theoretical
Background and Development of an Anisotropic Hybrid k
omega Shear Stress Transport Stochastic Turbulence
Model László Könözsy
https://textbookfull.com/product/a-new-hypothesis-on-the-
anisotropic-reynolds-stress-tensor-for-turbulent-flows-volume-i-
theoretical-background-and-development-of-an-anisotropic-hybrid-
k-omega-shear-stress-transport-stochastic-turbul/
Priming-Mediated Stress and Cross-Stress Tolerance in

Crop Plants 1st Edition Mohammad Anwar Hossain (Editor)
https://textbookfull.com/product/priming-mediated-stress-and-
cross-stress-tolerance-in-crop-plants-1st-edition-mohammad-anwar-
hossain-editor/
Yoga for Stress Magbook
https://textbookfull.com/product/yoga-for-stress-magbook/
SPRINGER BRIEFS IN PSYCHOLOGY
Petr Bob · Jana Konicarova
ADHD, Stress, and

Development
1 23
SpringerBriefs in Psychology
SpringerBriefs present concise summaries of cutting-edge research and practical
applications across a wide spectrum of fields. Featuring compact volumes of 50 to
125 pages, the series covers a range of content from professional to academic.
Typical topics might include:
• A timely report of state-of-the-art analytical techniques
• A bridge between new research results as published in journal articles and a
contextual literature review
• A snapshot of a hot or emerging topic
• An in-depth case study or clinical example
• A presentation of core concepts that readers must understand to make indepen-
dent contributions
SpringerBriefs in Psychology showcase emerging theory, empirical research, and
practical application in a wide variety of topics in psychology and related fields.
Briefs are characterized by fast, global electronic dissemination, standard publishing
contracts, standardized manuscript preparation and formatting guidelines, and
expedited production schedules.
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/10143

Petr Bob • Jana Konicarova
ADHD, Stress,
and Development
Petr Bob Jana Konicarova
Center for Neuropsychiatric Research of Center for Neuropsychiatric Research
Traumatic Stress of Traumatic Stress
Department of Psychiatry & UHSL Department of Psychiatry & UHSL
First Faculty of Medicine, Charles First Faculty of Medicine, Charles
University University
Prague, Czech Republic Prague, Czech Republic
TCM Klinik
Bad Kotzting, Germany
ISSN 2192-8363 ISSN 2192-8371 (electronic)

SpringerBriefs in Psychology
ISBN 978-3-319-96492-8 ISBN 978-3-319-96494-2 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-96494-2
Library of Congress Control Number: 2018950403
© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer
Nature 2018
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of
the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation,
broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information
storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the
editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors
or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims
in published maps and institutional affiliations.
This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Preface
Attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), a lot of movements, feelings

and ideas that often seem to interact without clear meaning and purpose. With
respect to current knowledge, this distraction and hyperactivity may have various
reasons and conditions which may characterize ADHD development. This book
introduces new “old-fashion” concept proposed by Hughlings Jackson, who studied
hierarchical organization of the CNS during development and found that various
brain developmental stages are connected on various hierarchical levels, and closely
linked to each other in a similar way like components of a “solution” create unique
qualities of the whole system and its unity. Opposite of these healthy developmental
stages as Jackson found are various conditions and disturbances that may lead to
“dissolution,” where more primitive functions are not congruent and integrated with
later-developed neural organization. As historically proposed by Jackson in his
until-now-accepted concept of the brain development, this dysfunctional develop-
ment may be related to interference of older and later-developed brain functions
during ontogenesis. This interference may manifest in the case when emergence of
a new function that should insert the older one is not related to diminishing or suf-
ficient inhibition of this older function which leads to “neural dissolution.”
Although this Jackson’s concept significantly influenced modern neurology, psy-
chology, and psychiatry, its connection with ADHD development currently repre-
sents new field of research and clinical applications focused on disintegrated
primitive reflexes, balance deficits, and other symptoms of cognitive and motor dis-
integration that may occur in children with ADHD.
Those Jackson’s ideas inspired also Janet and Freud, who later used Jackson’s
concept of dissolution to develop psychological theory of trauma, intrapsychic con-
flict, and dissociation, where they used concept of mental “dissolution.” In connec-
tion with these historical concepts, this book links recent findings about stress and
dissociation in ADHD children with various recent and historical neuroscientific
findings which show that specific processes related to brain developmental disorga-
nization create vulnerable background that increases sensitivity to stress stimuli
from psychosocial environment, mainly in families and schools.
v
vi Preface
In this context, the purpose of this approach to ADHD development is to show

close connections between historical roots in neurology, psychology, and psychiatry
with current thinking about developmental deficits in ADHD and new psychologi-
cal findings which indicate that ADHD children are more sensitive with respect to
stress stimuli and have increased tendencies to mental dissociation. This sensitive
background that occurs in ADHD children is likely closely related to unfinished
developmental stages that tend to interfere with each other, as, for example, highly
prevalent manifestations of disinhibited primitive reflexes that likely frequently
occur in ADHD children.
This book ADHD, Stress, and Development aims to review basic and modern
findings on ADHD development, and also it suggests new horizons in context of
these “old-fashion” perspectives provided by Jackson, Janet, and Freud. Those
novel perspectives may help to understand modern findings about disinhibited prim-
itive reflexes and their links to increased psychological vulnerability and sensitivity
with respect to various stress stimuli from social environment. The book may be
useful as a comprehensive review for research, health care, and teaching practice
and also for any reader interested in the topics of ADHD and brain development.
Petr Bob
Jana Konicarova
Motto
I search my soul,
in the darkest space of night,
knocking to the door,
where is my goal to find the light.
With hands tied, looking into your eyes,
hidden map of life and fate
there I have found.
Contents
1 Definition, Diagnosis and Epidemiology of Attention Deficit

and Hyperactivity Disorder�� 1
References�� 7
2 Historical and Recent Research on ADHD�� 11
2.1 Brain and Cognition in ADHD �� 11
2.2 Attentional, Affective and Executive Dysfunctions in ADHD �� 12
2.3 Relationship Between ADHD and Dyslexia �� 14
References�� 15
3 Attentional Functions and Stress, Implications for ADHD�� 21
3.1 Stress Related Neuroimmune and Neuroendocrinological
Dysregulation�� 22
3.2 Stress, Memory Consolidation and Dissociative Experiences�� 24
3.3 Conscious Disintegration, Dissociative Experiences
and ADHD�� 26
References�� 28
4 Neural Dissolution, Dissociation and Stress in ADHD �� 33
4.1 Brain Development and Neural Dissolution �� 34
4.2 Process of Dissolution and Primitive Reflexes �� 35
4.3 Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
and Primitive Reflexes�� 36
References�� 37
5 Attention, Brain-Mind Integration and ADHD�� 41
References�� 43
6 Implications for Education and Therapy of ADHD Children �� 47
References�� 53
Index�� 57
ix
Introduction
Special features that distinguish this book from the competitive literature: According
to literature review, there is not a competitive book focused on ADHD, stress, and
dissociation that would connect basic developmental characteristics such as disin-
hibited primitive reflexes and balance deficits with influences of stress. The book
aims to develop connections and horizons of recent findings about stress and dis-
sociation in ADHD children with various recent and historical neurobiological and
psychological findings. Altogether these findings suggest that specific processes
related to brain developmental disorganization create vulnerable background that
increases sensitivity to stress stimuli from psychosocial environment, mainly in
families and schools.
In this context, the topic of the proposed book is focused on basic neurodevelop-
mental processes that connect neurobiological development of basic reflective and
cognitive functions and their interactions with various environmental influences.
These processes are closely related to developmental mechanisms of primitive func-
tions and their integration or “dissolution” based on hierarchical developmental
stages as proposed by Hughlings Jackson. These processes are closely linked to
development of consciousness, attentional mechanisms, and memory processes that
constitute awareness and psychological experience. In this context, psychopatho-
logical processes are linked to mechanisms of disturbed inhibitory functions that
may result to interference of more primitive functions with higher levels of atten-
tional and cognitive neural processes. These disturbed developmental processes
also create sensitive interactions with environmental influences, mainly with stress-
ful experiences that may lead to manifestations of pathological dissociative symp-
toms that increase attentional and affective disturbances in many children with
ADHD. In a wider context, these findings show new connections and explanations
of various interesting topics such as disinhibited primitive reflexes, balance difficul-
ties, disturbed attentional and motor functions, stress experiences, and integrative
functions of consciousness.
xi
Chapter 1
Definition, Diagnosis and Epidemiology
of Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity
Disorder
Small boy Josef K. involved in the “Trial” of life, 8 years old, who never rests with
exception of sleep he still walks, jumps and his hands look like never ending story
of irrestible movements frequently unexpected and without a clear purpose. This
boy is a typical simple and short example of ADHD with very strongly developed
hyperactivity. Case studies like this one and many others are described in historical
descriptive studies as well as in current reports on ADHD. Historical descriptions of
these symptoms that preceded diagnostic definitions but also current formulations
included in basic diagnostic classification systems such as ICD-10, DSM-IV and
DSM-V dealing with ADHD are most frequently defined by descriptions of behav-
ioral characteristics which similarly as in other neuropsychological disorders are
related to deficits in “executive functions” that enable to control and regulate cogni-
tive processes and “self-control”. In the case of ADHD as a typical developmental
disorder these neurocognitive characteristics frequently manifest in various typical
ontogenetic stages from early childhood to adulthood, which are mainly related to
specific deficits in attentional and executive functions (for example, Hallowell and
Ratey 2005; Seidman 2006; Cherkasova et al. 2013).
Most typical symptoms according to DSM-IV-TR are excessive motor activity,
inattention, and impulsiveness that manifest in childhood (American Psychiatric
Association 2000). In addition, most modern definition of ADHD based on nearly
two decades of research provides evidence that ADHD can continue from childhood
to adulthood. According to DSM-V (American Psychiatric Association 2013)
definiton ADHD is characterized by a pattern of behavior that can be divided into
two categories of inattention and hyperactivity, and impulsivity. Children must have
at least six symptoms from either (or both) the inattention group of criteria and the
hyperactivity and impulsivity criteria, while older adolescents and adults (over age
17 years) must have at least five symptoms. According to DSM-V ADHD symptoms
must be present prior to age 12 years, compared to 7 years as the age of onset in
DSM-IV, which is supported by research evidence since 1994. In addition DSM-V
does not include exclusion criteria for people with autism spectrum disorder because
symptoms of both disorders may co-occur but may not occur exclusively during the
© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer International 1

Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018
P. Bob, J. Konicarova, ADHD, Stress, and Development,
SpringerBriefs in Psychology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-96494-2_1
2 1 Definition, Diagnosis and Epidemiology of Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity…
Fig. 1.1 Destiny of many

ADHD children reminds
fatality that experienced
Josef K. in Kafka’s novel
“Trial”
course of schizophrenia or another psychotic disorder and may not be better

explained by another mental disorder, such as a depressive or bipolar disorder, anxi-
ety disorder, dissociative disorder, personality disorder, or substance intoxication or
withdrawal (Fig. 1.1).
This most modern definition is preceeded by long history initiated by Alexander
Crichton in 1798 who published a book: “An inquiry into the nature and origin of
mental derangement” with subtitle: “comprehending a concise system of the physi-
ology and pathology of the human mind and a history of the passions and their
effects”. In the second chapter of this book (volume II): “On Attention and its
Diseases” he described possibilities of abnormal inattention as increased distracti-
bility by extraneous and even slight stimuli and also a considerable restlessness and
impulsivity (Crichton 1798; Burd and Kerbeshian 1988; Lange et al. 2010). These
symptoms according to current criteria may be associated with ADHD.
Other historical description of ADHD was published by Heinrich Hoffmann,
who in his book of stories “Struwwelpeter” described cases of typical “ADHD”
behavior (Hoffman 1845/2002) (Fig. 1.2).
Another historical description of ADHD symptoms provided Still (1897), which
today is called “Still’s disease” (Burd and Kerbeshian 1988; Farrow 2006; Lange
et al. 2010). Still (1902) in his work discussed psychic conditions which are con-
cerned with abnormal defects of moral control in children and divided these cases
into two groups (1) including children with physical disease (such as a cerebral
tumor, meningitis, epilepsy, head injury or typhoid fever), and (2) children without
general impairment of intellect and without physical disease. This differentiation is
the origin for the later definition of minimal cerebral dysfunction, historically
related to ADHD (Burd and Kerbeshian 1988; Rothenberger and Neumärker 2005;
Lange et al. 2010; Leahy 2017).
Later in 1932 Kramer and Pollnow reported detailed descriptions of motor rest-
lessness in their work “On a hyperkinetic disease of infancy” (“Über eine hyperki-
netische Erkrankung im Kindesalter”) (Kramer and Pollnow 1932; Burd and
Kerbeshian 1988; Lange et al. 2010). Another important historical addition to the
ADHD literature was published by Bradley in 1937, who reported positive influ-
1 Definition, Diagnosis and Epidemiology of Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity… 3
Fig. 1.2 One of the first books describing in details few “ADHD” cases
ence of stimulant medication on children’s behavior, mainly by the use of benze-

drine (the first pharmaceutical amphetamine) that remarkably improved school
performance in approximately half of the children (Bradley 1937; Burd and
Kerbeshian 1988; Lange et al. 2010). Further important investigations were pub-
lished by Laufer et al. (1957), who introduced therapy by methylphenidate which
is nowadays considered as drug of first choice (Leonard et al. 2004; Morton and
Stockton 2000).
Another scientific discovery of hyperactivity was reported by Ross and Ross
(1976), who described a causal connection between brain damage and behavioral
disorders similar to the postencephalitic behavior disorder. This finding later sig-
nificantly influenced the concept of “minimal brain damage” proposed by Kessler
(1980), who hypothesized that hyperactivity in children may be caused by brain
damage (Barkley 2006). In this context Knobloch and Pasamanick (1959) proposed
that the cerebral damage may manifest continuously in the range from minimal dam-
age to severe abnormalities, such as cerebral palsy and mental deficiency. This mini-
mal damage even in cases when it cannot be objectively demonstrated may cause
hyperactive behavior (Barkley 2006; Ross and Ross 1976; Burd and Kerbeshian 1988)
and later this concept of minimal brain damage or “minimal brain dysfunction” was
associated with descriptions of a specific syndrome (Conners 2000).
The term “minimal brain dysfunction” was in 1968 replaced by conceptualiza-

tion and definition of hyperactivity even it was still understood mainly as a result of
some biological origin more than environmental causes (Barkley 2006, Burd and
Kerbeshian 1988; Lange et al. 2010). This concept was later incorporated into the
official diagnostic nomenclature described in the second edition of the Diagnostic
and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-II) (Barkley 2006; Volkmar
2003) as the disorder characterized by overactivity, restlessness, distractibility, and
short attention span, especially in young children that usually diminishes in adoles-
cence (American Psychiatric Association 1968; Barkley 2006; Burd and Kerbeshian
1988; Lange et al. 2010).
Later in the 1970s “Attention Deficit Disorder: with and without hyperactivity”
in the third edition of the diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders
(DSM-III) was defined and conceptualized with predominant focus on attention
deficits, whether “International Classification of Diseases (ICD-9)” by the World
Health Organization continued its focus on hyperactivity. This new formulation
enables to define subtypes of Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) that may occur
with or without hyperactivity (Burd and Kerbeshian 1988; Barkley 2006; Lange
et al. 2010).
Later in 1987 the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-
III-R) changed the concept of the two subtypes and introduced Attention deficit-
Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) subdivided into three subtypes: (1) a predominantly
inattentive type; (2) a predominantly hyperactive-impulsive type; and (3) a com-
bined type including symptoms of both dimensions (American Psychiatric
Association 1994). In addition historical concepts of brain damage or dysfunction
were supported by new evidence about structural brain abnormalities in children
with ADHD using neuroimaging techniques (Burd and Kerbeshian 1988; Lahey
et al. 1994; Barkley 2006; Lange et al. 2010). Following development of DSM-IV
diagnostic descriptions, in ICD-10 were used almost identical criteria how to
describe and identify inattentive, hyperactive, and impulsive symptoms but ICD-10
is more demanding and requires presence of all criteria. In addition to DSM IV and
ICD-10, DSM V provides some additional criteria that taken into account combined
diagnosis of ADHD and Autistic Spectrum Disorders (Ramtekkar 2017; American
Psychiatric Association 2013; Ustun et al. 2017).
Recent findings indicate that ADHD is most frequently diagnosed in school chil-
dren but according to these research and clinical data it may frequently manifest
also in pre-school age, which in this early age also usually include all typical symp-
toms such as hyperactivity, decreased self-control and attentional deficits (Egger
et al. 2006; Posner et al. 2007; Cherkasova et al. 2013; Caye et al. 2016). These
pre-school children also may have some co-morbid symptoms such as oppositional
disorder, communication difficulties or anxiety disorders. In majority of the pre-
school children may manifest combined forms of various typical symptoms, which
mainly include attentional symptoms co-existing with hyperactivity and impulsivity
(Lahey et al. 1994, 2004, 2005; Galera et al. 2011; Caye et al. 2016; Weissenberger
et al. 2017). Typical deficits of pre-school children with ADHD in comparison to
healthy children most usually are inhibitory dysfunctions linked to hyperactivity
and impulsivity. These dysfunctions at pre-school age are more prevalent than in
1 Definition, Diagnosis and Epidemiology of Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity… 5
school age children but on the other hand attentional difficulties manifest in pre-
school children less frequently than in the school aged children. The school aged
children frequently have combined disorder which may manifest in at about 60–80%
of child population with diagnosis of ADHD (Dalen et al. 2004; Seidman 2006;
Cherkasova et al. 2013; Caye et al. 2016).
But unfortunately majority of ADHD related difficulties are recognized later in
the school age, when these children have difficulties and related stressful experi-
ences in the school, which frequently co-occur with various psychiatric comorbidi-
ties [at about 70% of children with ADHD in school age manifest other psychiatric
symptoms mainly anxiety and depression] (Barkley 2006; Jensen et al. 2001; Caye
et al. 2016; Weissenberger et al. 2017). In the school age attentional difficulties typi-
cally increase but hyperactivity and impulsivity in comparison to the pre-school age
may continue without significant changes (Lahey et al. 1994, 2004; Cherkasova
et al. 2013; Caye et al. 2016).
According to epidemiological data ADHD symptoms developed later in adoles-
cence are very similar to ADHD in children with typically increased attentional
deficits that are more frequent than hyperactivity and impulsivity, and also treatment
procedures in adolescence are very similar (Biederman et al. 2000; Molina et al.
2009; Caye et al. 2016). Positive feature of adolescent and adult development is
significant occurrence of spontaneous remissions in at about 1/3 (Cherkasova et al.
2012). Recent studies show that at age 25 ADHD persists in at about 65% of ADHD
population (Faraone et al. 2006; Biederman et al. 2000; Molina et al. 2009; Caye
et al. 2016).
But although the 1/3 of the adult ADHD is without symptoms, in comparison to
healthy controls, there is evidence that they have stastically higher levels of various
difficulties in later school education, in work and professional carreer, in communi-
cation and relationships, for example increased promiscuity and unstable marriages,
increased prevalence of various types of injuries and accidents, and comorbid psy-
chiatric disorders (Barkley et al. 2008; Cherkasova et al. 2013; Caye et al. 2016;
Biederman et al. 1996. 2006; Klein et al. 2012; Mannuzza et al. 1993, 1997, 1998,
2008; Molina et al. 2009; Weiss and Hechtman 1993; Yan 1998).
According to reported evidence adult ADHD symptoms are significantly
related to higher prevalence of antisocial personality disorder and behavioral dis-
orders. These data show that antisocial personality disorder manifests in 12–28%
of adults with ADHD (in healthy controls it is 2–8%) and behavioral disorders
manifest in 22–62% of adults with ADHD (healthy controls just 4–8%) (Barkley
et al. 2008; Biederman et al. 2006; Klein et al. 2012; Mannuzza et al. 1997, 1998;
Molina et al. 2009; Cherkasova et al. 2013; Caye et al. 2016; Weiss and Hechtman
1993). These highly prevalent antisocial personality disorders and behavioral
disorders in adults with ADHD are also related to increased manifestations of
criminal behavior, mood disorders, anxiety disorders and addictive behavior in
comparison to healthy controls (Kessler et al. 2006; Sobanski 2006; Barkley et al.
2008). In addition reported data show that antisocial behavior in children is fre-
quently related to the same difficulties in adulthood in at about 20–45% of adult
persons with ADHD diagnosis (Barkley 2006; Biederman et al. 2006; Cherkasova
et al. 2013; Caye et al. 2016). For example according to reported data at about 10%
or more individuals in prison have ADHD diagnosis (Serfontein 1994; Black et al.
2004; Gunter et al. 2008).
Most significant factors that predict these difficulties are related to genetic influ-
ences (Faraone et al. 2005), smoking during pregnancy (Cornelius and Day 2009;
Galéra et al. 2011; Linnet et al. 2003), drinking alcohol and using drugs or psycho-
thropic medication in pregnancy (Linnet et al. 2003; Rodriguez et al. 2009) and also
maternal stress during pregnancy (Galéra et al. 2011; Millichap 2008; Linnet et al.
2003; Rodriguez et al. 2009). Important prediction factors of later difficulties are
also early manifestations of ADHD symptoms and reported data show that later
manifestations of ADHD symptoms indicate better prognosis (Berlin et al. 2003;
Brocki et al. 2007; Latimer et al. 2003; LeBlanc et al. 2008; Wahlstedt et al. 2008;
Chronis et al. 2007). Other very important negative factors for future prognosis rep-
resent early occurrence of oppositional disorder, mood disorder and anxiety, and
lower level of intelligence (Barkley et al. 2008; Biederman et al. 1996, 2011; Molina
et al. 2009; Swanson et al. 2007). Major negative factors represent also occurrence
of psychopathology in parents, ADHD in other family members, social and eco-
nomical status of families, and frequent conflicting situations (Biederman et al.
1996, 2011; Weiss and Hechtman 1993).
Nevertheless as recent research indicates most negative factor in adulthood with
respect to future prognosis represents persistence of ADHD symptoms in adoles-
cence and in later stages of life in adulthood (Barkley et al. 2008; Biederman et al.
1996, 2008, 2010; Klein et al. 2012; Weiss and Hechtman 1993; Caye et al. 2017).
In addition “Multimodal Treatment Study of Children with ADHD” (MTA) shows
that psychiatric treatment does not present important factor determining long-term
development of ADHD (MTA-Cooperative-Group 1999). Nevertheless some find-
ings indicate that psychiatric treatment in certain cases may have positive outcome
in later development of ADHD (Swanson et al. 2007). Some studies also show that
stimulant treatment may be important for treatment of comorbid diagnoses such as
anxiety and depression (Biederman et al. 2009; Powers et al. 2008) although effect
of the treatment in some cases may be just temporary without long-term conse-
quences (Molina et al. 2009).
In summary, historical and recent research indicates that certain developmental
and environmental factors may have significant influence for future pathogenesis of
ADHD and indicate important preventive criteria for family care, education, respon-
sible parenthood planning, healthy life style during pregnancy, exposition to stress-
ful events and some other factors that may influence ADHD and its treatment.
References
American Psychiatric Association. (1968). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders
(DSM-II) (2nd ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.
(DSM-IV) (4th ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.
(DSM-II) (4th ed text revision). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.
References 7
(DSM-V) (5th ed.). Arlington: American Psychiatric Publishing.
Barkley, R. A. (2006). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: A handbook for diagnosis and treat-
ment (3rd ed.). New York: Guilford Press.
Barkley, R. A., Murphy, K. R., & Firscher, M. (2008). ADHD in adults: What the Science Says.
New York: Guilford Press.
Berlin, L., Bohlin, G., & Rydell, A. M. (2003). Relations between inhibition, executive functioning,
and ADHD symptoms: A longitudinal study from age 5 to 8(1/2) years. Child Neuropsychology,
9, 255–266.
Biederman, J., Faraone, S., Milberger, S., Curtis, S., Chen, L., Marrs, A., Ouellette, C., Moore,
P., & Spencer, T. (1996). Predictors of persistence and remission of ADHD into adolescence:
Results from a four-year prospective followup study. Journal of the American Academy of
Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 35, 343–351.
Biederman, J., Mick, E., & Faraone, S. V. (2000). Age-dependent decline of symptoms of atten-
tion deficit hyperactivity disorder: Impact of remission definition and symptom type. American
Journal of Psychiatry, 157, 816–818.
Biederman, J., Monuteaux, M. C., Mick, E., Spencer, T., Wilens, T. E., Silva, J. M., Snyder, L. E.,
& Faraone, S. V. (2006). Young adult outcome of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: A
controlled 10-year follow-up study. Psychological Medicine, 36, 167–179.
Biederman, J., Petty, C. R., Dolan, C., Hughes, S., Mick, E., Monuteaux, M. C., & Faraone, S. V.
(2008). The long-term longitudinal course of oppositional defiant disorder and conduct dis-
order in ADHD boys: Findings from a controlled 10-year prospective longitudinal follow-up
study. Psychological Medicine, 38, 1027–1036.
Biederman, J., Monuteaux, M. C., Spencer, T., Wilens, T. E., & Faraone, S. V. (2009). Do stimu-
lants protect against psychiatric disorders in youth with ADHD? A 10-year follow-up study.
Pediatrics, 124(1), 71–78.
Biederman, J., Petty, C. R., Evans, M., Small, J., & Faraone, S. V. (2010). How persistent is
ADHD? A controlled 10-year follow-up study of boys with ADHD. Psychiatry Research,
177(3), 299–304.
Biederman, J., Petty, C. R., Clarke, A., Lomedico, A., & Faraone, S. V. (2011). Predictors of per-
sistent ADHD: An 11-year follow-up study. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 45(2), 150–155.
Black, D. W., Arndt, S., Hale, N., & Rogerson, R. (2004). Use of the mini international neuropsy-
chiatric interview (MINI) as a screening tool in prisons: Results of a preliminary study. The
Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law, 32, 158–162.
Bradley, C. (1937). The behavior of children receiving benzedrine. American Journal of Psychiatry,
94, 577–585.
Brocki, K. C., Nyberg, L., Thorell, L. B., & Bohlin, G. (2007). Early concurrent and longitudinal
symptoms of ADHD and ODD: Relations to different types of inhibitory control and working
memory. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 48, 1033–1041.
Burd, L., & Kerbeshian, J. (1988). Historical roots of ADHD. Journal of the American Academy of
Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 27(2), 262.
Caye, A., Spadini, A. V., Karam, R. G., Grevet, E. H., Rovaris, D. L., Bau, C. H., Rohde, L.
A., & Kieling, C. (2016). Predictors of persistence of ADHD into adulthood: A systematic
review of the literature and meta-analysis. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 25(11),
1151–1159.
Caye, A., Sibley, M. H., Swanson, J. M., & Rohde, L. A. (2017). Lae-onset ADHD: Understamding
the evidence and building theoretical frameworks. Current Psychiatry Reports, 19, 106.
Cherkasova, M. V., Ponde, M. P., & Hechtman, L. (2012). Adolescent and adult outcome of atten-
tion deficit hyperactivity disorder: Presentation and predictors. Minerva Psichiatrica, 53(1),
11–27.
Cherkasova, M., Sulla, E. M., Dalena, K. L., Pondé, M. P., & Hechtman, L. (2013). Developmental
course of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and its predictors. Journal of the Canadian
Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 22, 47–54.
Chronis, A. M., Lahey, B. B., Pelham, W. E., Jr., Williams, S. H., Baumann, B. L., Kipp, H.,
Jones, H. E., & Rathouz, P. J. (2007). Maternal depression and early positive parenting pre-
dict future conduct problems in young children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.

Developmental Psychology, 43, 70–82. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.43.1.70.
Conners, C. K. (2000). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder-historical development and over-
view. Journal of Attention Disorders, 3, 173–191.
Cornelius, M. D., & Day, N. L. (2009). Developmental consequences of prenatal tobacco expo-
sure. Current Opinion in Neurology, 22(2), 121–125.
Crichton, A. (1798). An inquiry into the nature and origin of mental derangement: Comprehending
a concise system of the physiology and pathology of the human mind and a history of the pas-
sions and their effects. Journal of Attention Disorders, 12, 200–204.
Dalen, L., Sonuga-Barke, E. J., Hall, M., & Remington, B. (2004). Inhibitory deficits, delay aver-
sion and preschool AD/HD: Implications for the dual pathway model. Neural Plasticity, 11(1–
2), 1–11.
Egger, H. L., Kondo, D., & Angold, A. (2006). The epidemiology and diagnostic issues in pre-
school attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A review. Infants and Young Children, 19(2),
109–122.
Faraone, S., Perlis, R., Doyle, A., Smoller, J., Goralnick, J., Holmgren, M., & Sklar, P. (2005).
Molecular genetics of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 57,
1313–1323.
Faraone, S. V., Biederman, J., & Mick, E. (2006). The age-dependent decline of attention deficit
hyperactivity disorder: A meta-analysis of follow-up studies. Psychological Medicine, 36(2),
159–165.
Farrow, S. J. (2006). Sir George Frederick Still (1868–1941). Rheumatology, 45(6), 777–778.
Galéra, C., Cote, S. M., Bouvard, M. P., Pingault, J. B., Melchior, M., Michel, G., Boivin, M., &
Tremblay, R. E. (2011). Early risk factors for hyperactivity-impulsivity and inattention trajec-
tories from age 17 months to 8 years. Archives of General Psychiatry, 68, 1267–1275.
Gunter, T. D., Arndt, S., Wenman, G., Allen, J., Loveless, P., Sieleni, B., & Black, D. W. (2008).
Frequency of mental and addictive disorders among 320 men and women entering the iowa
prison system: Use of the MINI-plus. The Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and
the Law, 36, 27–34.
Hallowell, E. M., & Ratey, J. J. (2005). Delivered from distraction: Getting the most out of life with
attention deficit disorder. New York: Ballantine Books.
Hoffmann, H. (1845/2002). Shock-headed Peter (Bilingual edition). Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers
(2002).
Jensen, P. S., Hinshaw, S. P., Kraemer, H. C., Lenora, N., Newcorn, J. H., Abikoff, H. B., March,
J. S., Arnold, L. E., Cantwell, D. P., Conners, C. K., Elliott, G. R., Greenhill, L. L., Hechtman,
L., Hoza, B., Pelham, W. E., Severe, J. B., Swanson, J. M., Wells, K. C., Wigal, T., & Vitiello,
B. (2001). ADHD comorbidity findings from the MTA study: Comparing comorbid subgroups.
Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 40, 147–158.
Kessler, J. W. (1980). History of minimal brain dysfunctions. In H. E. Rie & E. D. Rie (Eds.),
Handbook of minimal brain dysfunctions: A critical view (pp. 18–51). New York: Wiley.
Kessler, R. C., Adler, L., Barkley, R., Biederman, J., Conners, C. K., Demler, O., Faraone, S. V.,
Greenhill, L. L., Howes, M. J., Secnik, K., Spencer, T., Ustun, T. B., Walters, E. E., & Zaslavsky,
A. M. (2006). The prevalence and correlates of adult ADHD in the United States: Results from
the national comorbidity survey replication. American Journal of Psychiatry, 163, 716–723.
Klein, R. G., Mannuzza, S., Olazagasti, M. A., Roizen, E., Hutchison, J. A., Lashua, E. C., &
Castellanos, F. X. (2012). Clinical and functional outcome of childhood attention-deficit/
hyperactivity disorder 33 years later. Archives of General Psychiatry, 69(12), 1295–1303.
Knobloch, H., & Pasamanick, B. (1959). Syndrome of minimal cerebral damage in infancy.
Journal of the American Medical Association, 170(12), 1384–1387.
Kramer, F., & Pollnow, H. (1932). Über eine hyperkinetische erkrankung im kindesalter.
Monatsschrift für Psychiatrie und Neurologie, 82, 1–40.
Lahey, B. B., Applegate, B., McBurnett, K., Biederman, J., Greenhill, L., Hynd, G. W., Barkley,
R. A., Newcorn, J., Jensen, P., Richters, J., et al. (1994). DSM-IV field trials for attention deficit
hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents. American Journal of Psychiatry, 151(11),
1673–1685.
References 9
Lahey, B. B., Pelham, W. E., Loney, J., Kipp, H., Ehrhardt, A., Lee, S. S., Willcutt, E. G., Hartung,
C. M., Chronis, A., & Massetti, G. (2004). Three-year predictive validity of DSM-IV attention
deficit hyperactivity disorder in children diagnosed at 4-6 years of age. American Journal of
Psychiatry, 161, 2014–2020.
Lahey, B. B., Pelham, W. E., Loney, J., Lee, S. S., & Willcutt, E. (2005). Instability of the DSM-IV
subtypes of ADHD from preschool through elementary school. Archives of General Psychiatry,
62, 896–902.
Lange, K. W., Reichl, S., Lange, K. M., Tucha, L., & Tucha, O. (2010). The history of atten-
tion deficit hyperactivity disorder. ADHD Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorders, 2,
241–255.
Latimer, W. W., August, G. J., Newcomb, M. D., Realmuto, G. M., Hektner, J. M., & Mathy, R. M.
(2003). Child and familial pathways to academic achievement and behavioral adjustment: A
prospective six year study of children with and without ADHD. Journal of Attention Disorders,
7, 101–116.
Laufer, M. W., Denhoff, E., & Solomons, G. (1957). Hyperkinetic impulse disorder in children’s
behavior problems. Psychosomatic Medicine, 19(1), 38–49.
Leahy, L. G. (2017). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A historical review (1775 to pres-
ent). Journal of Psychosocial Nursing and Mental Health Services, 55, 10–16. https://doi.
org/10.3928/02793695-20170818-08.
LeBlanc, N., Boivin, M., Dionne, G., Brendgen, M., Vitaro, F., Tremblay, R., & Pérusse, D. (2008).
The development of hyperactive–impulsive behaviors during the preschool years: The predic-
tive validity of parental assessments. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36, 977–987.
Leonard, B. E., McCartan, D., White, J., & King, D. J. (2004). Methylphenidate: A review
of its neuropharmacological, neuropsychological and adverse clinical effects. Human
Psychopharmacology, 19, 151–180.
Linnet, K. M., Dalsgaard, S., Obel, C., Wisborg, K., Henriksen, T. B., Rodriguez, A., Kotimaa, A.,
Moilanen, I., Thomsen, P. H., Olsen, J., & Jarvelin, M. R. (2003). Maternal lifestyle factors in
pregnancy risk of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and associated behaviors: Review of
the current evidence. American Journal of Psychiatry, 160, 1028–1040.
Mannuzza, S., Klein, R. G., Bessler, A., Malloy, P., & LaPadula, M. (1993). Adult outcome of
hyperactive boys: Educational achievement, occupational rank, and psychiatric status. Archives
of General Psychiatry, 50, 565–576.
Mannuzza, S., Klein, R. G., Bessler, A., Malloy, P., & Hynes, M. E. (1997). Educational and occu-
pational outcome of hyperactive boys grown up. Journal of the American Academy of Child
and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 1222–1227.
Mannuzza, S., Klein, R. G., Bessler, A., Malloy, P., & LaPadula, M. (1998). Adult psychiatric sta-
tus of hyperactive boys grown up. American Journal of Psychiatry, 155, 493–498.
Mannuzza, S., Klein, R. G., & Moulton, J. L., III. (2008). Lifetime criminality among boys with
attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: A prospective follow-up study into adulthood using
official arrest records. Psychiatry Research, 160, 237–246.
Millichap, J. G. (2008). Etiologic classification of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.
Pediatrics, 121(2), e358–e365.
Molina, B. S. G., Hinshaw, S. P., Swanson, J. M., Arnold, L. E., Vitiello, B., Jensen, P. S., Epstein,
J. N., Hoza, B., Hechtman, L., Abikoff, H. B., Elliott, G. R., Greenhill, L. L., Newcorn,
J. H., Wells, K. C., Wigal, T., Gibbons, R. D., Hur, K., Houck, P. R., & MTA Cooperative
Group. (2009). The MTA at 8 years: Prospective follow-up of children treated for combined-
type ADHD in a multisite study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent
Psychiatry, 48, 484–500.
Morton, W. A., & Stockton, G. G. (2000). Methylphenidate abuse and psychiatric side effects.
Primary Care Companion to the Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 2, 159–164.
MTA-Cooperative-Group. (1999). A 14-month randomized clinical trial of treatment strategies for
attentiondeficit/hyperactivity disorder. The MTA Cooperative Group. Multimodal Treatment
Study of Children with ADHD. Archives of General Psychiatry, 56(12), 1073–1086.
Posner, K., Melvin, G. A., Murray, D. W., Gugga, S. S., Fisher, P., Skrobala, A., Cunningham, C.,
Vitiello, B., Abikoff, H. B., Ghuman, J. K., Kollins, S., Wigal, S. B., Wigal, T., McCracken,
J. T., McGough, J. J., Kastelic, E., Boorady, R., Davies, M., Chuang, S. Z., Swanson, J. M.,
Riddle, M. A., & Greenhill, L. L. (2007). Clinical presentation of attention-deficit/hyperactivity
disorder in preschool children: The preschoolers with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder
treatment study (PATS). Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 17, 547–562.
Powers, R. L., Marks, D. J., Miller, C. J., Newcorn, J. H., & Halperin, J. M. (2008). Stimulant treat-
ment in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder moderates adolescent academic
outcome. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 18, 449–459.
Ramtekkar, U. P. (2017). DSM-5 changes in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and autism
spectrum disorder: Implications for comorbid sleep issues. Children (Basel)., 4(8). pii: E62.
doi: 10.3390/children4080062.
Rodriguez, A., Olsen, J., Kotimaa, A. J., Kaakinen, M., Moilanen, I., Henriksen, T. B., Linnet,
K. M., Miettunen, J., Obel, C., Taanila, A., Ebeling, H., & Jarvelin, M. R. (2009). Is prenatal
alcohol exposure related to inattention and hyperactivity symptoms in children? Disentangling
the effects of social adversity. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 50, 1073–1083.
Ross, D. M., & Ross, S. A. (1976). Hyperactivity: Research, theory and action. New York: Wiley.
Rothenberger, A., & Neumärker, K. J. (2005). Wissenschaftsgeschichte der ADHS. Kramer-
Pollnow im Spiegel der Zeit. Darmstadt: Steinkopff.
Seidman, L. J. (2006). Neuropsychological functioning in people with ADHD across the lifespan.
Clinical Psychology Review, 26, 466–485.
Serfontein, G. (1994). ADD in adults. New York: Simon and Schuster.
Sobanski, E. (2006). Psychiatric comorbidity in adults with attentiondeficit/hyperactivity disorder
(ADHD). European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 256(0), i26–i31.
Still, G. F. (1897). On a form of joint disease in children. Medico-Chirurgical Transactions, 80,
47–59.
Still, G. F. (1902). Some abnormal psychical conditions in children: The Goulstonian lectures.
Lancet, 1, 1008–1012.
Swanson, J. M., Hinshaw, S. P., Arnold, L. E., Gibbons, R. D., Marcus, S. U. E., Hur, K., Jensen,
P. S., Vitiello, B., Abikoff, H. B., Greenhill, L. L., Hechtman, L., Pelham, W. E., Wells, K. C.,
Conners, C. K., March, J. S., Elliott, G. R., Epstein, J. N., Hoagwood, K., Hoza, B., Molina,
B. S., Newcorn, J. H., Severe, J. B., & Wigal, T. (2007). Secondary evaluations of MTA
36-month outcomes: Propensity score and growth mixture model analyses. Journal of the
American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 46, 1003–1014.
Ustun, B., Adler, L. A., Rudin, C., Faraone, S. V., Spencer, T. J., Berglund, P., Gruber, M. J.,
& Kessler, R. C. (2017). The World Health Organization adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity
disorder self-report screening scale for DSM-5. JAMA Psychiatry, 74, 520–526. https://doi.
org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2017.0298.
Volkmar, F. R. (2003). Changing perspectives on ADHD. American Journal of Psychiatry, 160(6),
1025–1027.
Wahlstedt, C., Thorell, L. B., & Bohlin, G. (2008). ADHD symptoms and executive function
impairment: Early predictors of later behavioral problems. Developmental Neuropsychology,
33, 160–178.
Weiss, G., & Hechtman, L. (1993). Hyperactive children grown up: ADHD in children, adoles-
cents, and adults (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford Press.
Weissenberger, S., Ptacek, R., Klicperova-Baker, M., Erman, A., Schonova, K., Raboch, J., &
Goetz, M. (2017). ADHD, lifestyles and comorbidities: A call for an holistic perspective- from
medical to societal intervening factors. Frontiers in Psychology, 6(8), 454.
Yan, W. W. (1998). An investigation of adult outcome of hyperactive children in Shanghai.
Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 52 Suppl, S303–S305.
Chapter 2
Historical and Recent Research on ADHD
Current conceptualization and definition of ADHD is a result of long term history of

clinical research and epidemiological findings that partially uncovered ADHD etiol-
ogy and ontogenetic development. In this chapter historical context and recent theo-
ries of ADHD development will be introduced with main focus on hypofrontality
and its connection with inhibitory deficits that are frequently related to cognitive
disturbances and impulsivity. In the current perspective very useful conceptualiza-
tion of ADHD also describes the so-called “hot and cool” theory which might enable
to understand connections between inhibitory deficits and emotional enhancement
in ADHD etiopathogenesis.
2.1 Brain and Cognition in ADHD
ADHD represents historically heterogenous concept of long term clinical research

which was started by introduction of “minimal brain dysfunction” by Still in 1902
(Still 1902), who provided detailed descriptions of hyperactivity and hyperkinetic
symptoms, and much later attentional dysfunctions were described by Douglas in
1970s (Douglas 1972). In this historical context recent diagnostic conceptualization
includes all these basic types of symptoms “inattentive”, “hyperactive-impulsive”
and “combined” (Valera et al. 2009).
Following very interesting clinical research documented certain similarities
between ADHD and frontal lobe dysfunctions, which suggested a hypothesis that
ADHD is closely linked to disturbances in frontal brain regions (Mattes 1980).
Later findings in addition suggested that also some subcortical structures may play
an important role in ADHD development (Rubia et al. 1999), and mainly those
with predominant noradrenergic and dopaminergic receptors (Pliszka 2005; Nigg
2001). These research findings reported decreased volumes of corpus striatum, pre-
frontal cortex, corpus callosum and cerebellum that likely are closely related to
functional cognitive and affective changes observed in ADHD (Seidman et al. 2005;
© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer International 11

Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018
P. Bob, J. Konicarova, ADHD, Stress, and Development,
SpringerBriefs in Psychology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-96494-2_2
12 2 Historical and Recent Research on ADHD
Nigg 2001; Castellanos et al. 2006; Valera et al. 2007; Castellanos and Proal 2012).
But taken together recent findings show that although certain structures might be
more related to ADHD, most likely the brain as a whole is affected, which is mainly
manifested as the decreased brain volumes in comparison to healthy control popula-
tion (Castellanos and Proal 2012).
In addition in context of research about brain correlates of consciousness and
cognition recent findings show that also other structures related to attentional func-
tions with widespread and distributed localizations in various brain structures may be
closely related to ADHD symptoms and dysfunctions (Willcutt et al. 2005; Castellanos
and Proal 2012). Taken together recent findings indicate that various widespread spe-
cific functional and morphological changes may be related to behavioral, cognitive
or affective abnormalities in ADHD (Semrud-Clikeman et al. 2000; Bush et al. 2005;
Castellanos et al. 2002; Valera et al. 2009; Pievsky and McGrath 2017).
2.2 ttentional, Affective and Executive Dysfunctions

A
in ADHD
Major results in recent ADHD research supported by clinical evidence are focused
on processes of executive control which is typically affected in ADHD (Nigg 2001;
Hofmann et al. 2012; Martinez et al. 2016). Mainly these typical deficits include
dysfunctions in inhibitory control. The inhibitory control is related to voluntary
processes that influence information selection during attentional processing and
resolution of conflincting situations that needs to suppress less dominant incongru-
ent information— for example in experiments with conflicting Stroop taks, when
stimuli are presented in ambiguous forms, which involves a word that describes a
color written by a different color and the task is to name the color or word, i.e.
“What color is this?”: WHITE (Barkley 1997; Schachar et al. 2000; Nigg 1999
2001; Sergeant et al. 2003; Roessner et al. 2007; Martinez et al. 2016).
New empirical findings and theoretical conceptualizations strongly suggest that
altogether with inhibitory dysfunctions also increased emotional excitation may
play a role in ADHD deficits. For example the so-called “cool” cognitive deficits in
executive functions are closely linked to attentional dysfunctions and on the other
hand “hot”, which means affective deficits related to dysfunctional ability to process
emotional information that produces hyperactivity and impulsivity (Castellanos
et al. 2006; Toplak et al. 2005; Antonini et al. 2015; Martinez et al. 2016). As a
consequence of this dysbalance ADHD children tend to experience very strong and
overwhelming positive and negative emotions which on behavioral levels may man-
ifest as impulsivity (Martel 2009).
These recent findings indicate that ADHD cannot be explained only as a conse-
quence of frontal lobe executive dysfunctions and an important role can be attrib-
uted to emotional dysfunctions related to increased excitability in the limbic system,
which may cause ADHD dysregulation in cases without frontal executive dysfunc-
tions (Castellanos et al. 2006; Toplak et al. 2005; Antonini et al. 2015; Martinez
et al. 2016).
2.2 Attentional, Affective and Executive Dysfunctions in ADHD 13
Altogether these findings suggest the so-called “dual-pathway” concept of the

two basic developmental trajectories that may lead to ADHD (Sonuga-Barke 2003).
The first is represented by frontal executive dysfunctions (Barkley 1997; Solanto
et al. 2001; Sonuga-Barke 2003; Antonini et al. 2015; Martinez et al. 2016) and the
second is mainly linked to dysfunctions in brain systems related to emotions and
motivation (Sagvolden et al. 1998). These findings indicate basic differences
between deficits of the so-called behavioral inhibition and inhibitory dysfunctions
related to motivation (Nigg 2001). In addition these two basic inhibitory functions
are related to different neural network systems that define basic conceptualization of
the dual-pathway model (Sonuga-Barke 2003). These findings implicate that atten-
tional disorders and hyperkinetic-impulsive symptoms may represent two indepen-
dent but co-existing forms of ADHD.
Implications of these findings are also very important for diagnostic concep-
tualizations and considerations of therapeutic interventions with the main focus
on attentional deficits that are more or less related to the other specific symptoms
linked to hyperactivity and impulsivity, and their combination. Important factors for
diagnostic identification of these symptoms represent mainly age, other psychiatric
diagnoses and also influences of pharmacological treatment that need to be carefully
taken into account (Valera et al. 2009; Cherkasova et al. 2013; Antonini et al. 2015).
In addition these basic conceptualizations are also in agreement with epidemio-
logical findings that at about 50% of children with ADHD have various motor
abnormalities and difficulties (Pitcher et al. 2002). These motor abnormalities usu-
ally have higher prevalence in children with attentional deficits and combined type
than in children with predominant symptoms of hyperactivity and impulsivity (Piek
et al. 1999; Pitcher et al. 2003; Antonini et al. 2015; Martinez et al. 2016).
In addition recent findings indicate that attentional and executive dysfunctions
may be related to impulsivity that manifests frequently in ADHD and may be related
to various social dysfunctions and also higher vulnerability to stress influences
(Martinez et al. 2016). For example, recent findings show that children with ADHD
frequently manifest antisocial behavior most likely due to deficits in executive func-
tions, impulsivity and aggressive behavior related to stressful situations (McKay
and Halperin 2001; Thapar et al. 2006; Seidman 2006; Antonini et al. 2015; Martinez
et al. 2016). These deficits in executive functions in ADHD likely represent signifi-
cant predictor of drug addiction (van Emmerik-van Oortmerssen et al. 2012). At
about 1/3 of children with ADHD reach remission in adulthood (Cherkasova et al.
2012). Nevertheless majority of ADHD children may have the same or similar
symptoms also in later age as was shown in some studies in 1990s (Wender 1995;
Goldstein 1997) and symptoms as well as treatment in adults with ADHD are very
similar, and the symptoms mainly include hyperactivity a impulsivity (Biederman
et al. 2000; Molina et al. 2009; Antonini et al. 2015). Impulsivity is frequently
related to antisocial behavior that occurs in 20–45% of adults with ADHD and inter-
personal problems (Barkley 2006; Biederman et al. 2006; Cherkasova et al. 2013;
Caye et al. 2016). According to some data at about 10% or more individuals from
population who commit various forms of criminal behavior have ADHD (Serfontein
1994; Black et al. 2004; Gunter et al. 2008; Cherkasova et al. 2013).
2.3 Relationship Between ADHD and Dyslexia
Another dysfunction that has been observed in ADHD is impaired phonological

processing and poor word identification related to reading difficulties, which are
typical for dyslexia (Bradley and Bryant 1983; Laasonen et al. 2010, 2012; Gray
and Climie 2016). On the other hand behavioral symptoms of ADHD such as hyper-
activity, impulsivity, inattention or short-term and working memory deficits also
frequently occur in children with dyslexia (Siegel 1994; Hari and Renvall 2001;
Carroll et al. 2005; Laasonen et al. 2012). Some authors also reported that dyslexia
(similarly as ADHD) could be related to deficits in visual attention processes which
may cause that reading based on sensitive spatial discrimination may become sub-
jectively very difficult (Bosse et al. 2007; Facoetti et al. 2010; Laasonen et al. 2012).
Typical disturbances similar in ADHD and dyslexia also include significant and
high error rates in various tasks most likely due to deficits in activation of a self-
monitoring systems, mainly when they are confronted with conflicting situations or
very difficult tasks (Hajcak and Simons 2008; O’Connell et al. 2009). These data
indicate that typical dysfunctions in ADHD and dyslexia are related to disturbances
in error monitoring as a consequence of deficits in higher-order executive monitor-
ing system that enables control processes in daily life which are necessary for learn-
ing from previous experiences and behavior (Garavan et al. 2002; Schachar et al.
2004; Van De Voorde et al. 2010).
In this context, children with ADHD and dyslexia typically have high occurrence
of reading and spelling errors, attentional deficits, various behavioral problems such
as involuntary and uncontrolled speech and movements, and high sensitivity to psy-
chosocial stress. For example, they make spelling errors under dictation or in text
production and have difficulties to develop an appropriate orthographic representa-
tion of words (Goswami 1999; Re and Cornoldi 2010, 2013; Re et al. 2007, 2008).
Current findings also indicate that these spelling difficulties most likely are
related to attentional and self-regulatory disturbances, even in children with ADHD
and dyslexia these problems may have different neurocognitive mechanisms (Kroese
et al. 2000; Re and Cornoldi 2013). In general context, Ehri (1986, 1995) proposed
a stage theory of reading and writing development which suggests qualitatively dif-
ferent stages of learning to spell that is mainly based on visual and morphological
information that may be disturbed from various reasons.
Well known model for learning of reading and writing was developed also by
Frith (1985), who proposed that associative learning of a particular graphic configu-
ration in which children discover phonemes may lead to errors due to incorrect
association between a grapheme and the corresponding phoneme. Specific and
crucial role in associative learning have various brain systems that enable informa-
tion integration in the “procedural memory system” which enables learning of new
information and also control and monitoring mechanisms of long-established cog-
nitive information and motor skills (Mishkin et al. 1984; Squire and Knowlton
2000). This procedural memory processing enables basic functions underlying sym-
bolic and language functions that are typically represented as grammar, lexical
References 15
retrieval and related mental imagination in working memory processing (Ullman

and Pierpont 2005). According to several findings, procedural memory deficits
could explain some basic processes responsible for deficits in learning language that
result in grammatical impairments and lexical retrieval deficits such as difficulties
to follow appropriate word order patterns, producing questions or representing
grammatical elements that depend on functional categories (Leonard 1995; Ullman
and Pierpont 2005). In addition children with learning language difficulties also
show disturbances in assigning thematic roles in passive sentences or assigning ref-
erence to pronouns or reflexives (van der Lely 1994, 1996), have troubles to judge
the syntactic acceptability of sentences (Liles et al. 1977; Rice et al. 1999), to iden-
tify errors of syntax such as of word order and phonological representations of real
words suggesting impairment of procedural declarative memory (Kamhi and Koenig
1985; Ullman and Pierpont 2005). For example, children with learning language
deficits typically have difficulties to use phonetic properties of words and to catego-
rize, differentiate and generalize among words and their parts (Botting and Conti-
Ramsden 2001; Weismer et al. 2000) which indicates phonological working memory
difficulties (Gathercole and Baddeley 1990; Ullman and Pierpont 2005).
In addition these learning difficulties in schools frequently represent another
important condition that may influence social dysfunctions and related other stress
experiences. Taken together these stress influences may determine emotional dys-
functions and lability related to increased excitability in the limbic system, which
may increase ADHD dysfunctions also in cases without prenatally caused or innate
frontal executive dysfunctions (Teicher et al. 2003; Toplak et al. 2005; Castellanos
et al. 2006; Ouyang et al. 2008; Sobanski et al. 2010; Martinez et al. 2016).
References
Antonini, T. N., Becker, S. P., Tamm, L., & Epstein, J. N. (2015). Hot and cool executive functions
in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and comorbid oppositional defiant dis-
order. Journal of International Neuropsychological Society, 8, 584–595.
Barkley, R. (1997). Behavioral inhibition, sustained attention, and executive functions: Constructing
a unifying theory of ADHD. Psychological Bulletin, 121, 65–94.
Barkley, R. A. (2006). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: A handbook for diagnosis and treat-
ment (3rd ed.). New York: Guilford Press.
Biederman, J., Mick, E., & Faraone, S. V. (2000). Age-dependent decline of symptoms of atten-
tion deficit hyperactivity disorder: Impact of remission definition and symptom type. American
Journal of Psychiatry, 157, 816–818.
Biederman, J., Monuteaux, M. C., Mick, E., Spencer, T., Wilens, T. E., Silva, J. M., Snyder, L. E.,
& Faraone, S. V. (2006). Young adult outcome of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: A
controlled 10-year follow-up study. Psychological Medicine, 36, 167–179.
Black, D. W., Arndt, S., Hale, N., & Rogerson, R. (2004). Use of the mini international neuropsy-
chiatric interview (MINI) as a screening tool in prisons: Results of a preliminary study. The
Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law, 32, 158–162.
Bosse, M. L., Tainturier, M. J., & Valdois, S. (2007). Developmental dyslexia: The visual attention
span deficit hypothesis. Cognition, 104, 198–230.
Botting, N., & Conti-Ramsden, G. (2001). Non-word repetition and language development in
children with specific language impairment (SLI). International Journal of Language and
Communication Disorders, 36, 421–432.
Bradley, L., & Bryant, P. E. (1983). Categorizing sounds and learning to read: A causal connection.
Nature, 301, 419–421.
Bush, G., Valera, E. M., & Seidman, L. J. (2005). Functional neuroimaging of attention-deficit/
hyperactivity disorder: A review and suggested future directions. Biological Psychiatry, 57,
1273–1284.
Carroll, J. M., Maughan, B., Goodman, R., & Meltzer, H. (2005). Literacy difficulties and psychi-
atric disorders: Evidence for comorbidity. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46(5),
524–532.
Castellanos, F. X., & Proal, E. (2012). Large-scale brain systems in ADHD: Beyond the prefrontal-
striatal model. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 16, 17–26.
Castellanos, F. X., Lee, P. P., Sharp, W., et al. (2002). Developmental trajectories of brain volume
abnormalities in children and adolescents with attentiondeficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal
of the American Medical Association, 288, 1740–1748.
Castellanos, F. X., Sonuga-Barke, E. J., Milham, M. P., & Tannock, R. (2006). Characterizing
cognition in ADHD: Beyond executive dysfunction. Trends in Cognitive Science, 10, 117–123.
Caye, A., Spadini, A. V., Karam, R. G., Grevet, E. H., Rovaris, D. L., Bau, C. H., Rohde, L. A.,
& Kieling, C. (2016). Predictors of persistence of ADHD into adulthood: A systematic review
of the literature and meta-analysis. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 25(11),
1151–1159.
Cherkasova, M. V., Ponde, M. P., & Hechtman, L. (2012). Adolescent and adult outcome of atten-
tion deficit hyperactivity disorder: Presentation and predictors. Minerva Psichiatrica, 53(1),
11–27.
Cherkasova, M., Sulla, E. M., Dalena, K. L., Pondé, M. P., & Hechtman, L. (2013). Developmental
course of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and its predictors. Journal of the Canadian
Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 22, 47–54.
Douglas, V. I. (1972). Stop, look and listen: The problem of sustained attention and impulse control
in hyperactive and normal children. Canadian Journal of Behavioral Science, 4, 259–282.
Ehri, L. C. (1986). Sources of difficulty in learning to spell and read. In M. L. Wolraich &
D. Routh (Eds.), Advances in developmental and behavioral pediatrics (Vol. 7, pp. 121–195).
Greenwich: JAI.
Ehri, L. C. (1995). Phases of development in learning to read by sight. Journal of Research in
Reading, 18, 116–125.
Facoetti, A., Trussardi, A. N., Ruffino, M., Lorusso, M. L., Cattaneo, C., Galli, R., Molteni, M., &
Zorzi, M. (2010). Multisensory spatial attention deficits are predictive of phonological decod-
ing skills in developmental dyslexia. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 22, 1011–1025.
Frith, U. (1985). Beneath the surface of surface dyslexia. In J. C. Marshall, M. Coltheart, &
K. Patterson (Eds.), Surface dyslexia and surface dysgraphia (pp. 310–330). London:
Routledge.
Garavan, H., Ross, T. J., Murphy, K., Roche, R. A. P., & Stein, E. A. (2002). Dissociable execu-
tive functions in the dynamic control of behavior: Inhibition, error detection, and correction.
NeuroImage, 17, 1820–1829.
Gathercole, S. E., & Baddeley, A. D. (1990). Phonological memory deficits in language disordered
children: Is there a causal connection? Journal of Memory and Language, 29, 336–360.
Goldstein, S. (1997). Managing attention and learning disorders in late adolescence and adult-
hood. New York: Wiley.
Goswami, U. (1999). The relationship between phonological awareness and orthographic repre-
sentation in different orthographies. In M. Harris & G. Hatano (Eds.), Learning to reading and
write: A cross-linguistic perspective (pp. 134–156). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Gray, C., & Climie, E. A. (2016). Children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder and reading
disability: A review of the efficacy of medication treatments. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 988.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00988.
References 17
Gunter, T. D., Arndt, S., Wenman, G., Allen, J., Loveless, P., Sieleni, B., & Black, D. W. (2008).
Frequency of mental and addictive disorders among 320 men and women entering the iowa
prison system: Use of the MINI-plus. The Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and
the Law, 36, 27–34.
Hajcak, G., & Simons, R. F. (2008). Oops!. I did it again: An ERP and behavioral study of double-
errors. Brain and Cognition, 68, 15–21.
Hari, R., & Renvall, H. (2001). Impaired processing of rapid stimulus sequences in dyslexia.
Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 5, 525–532.
Hofmann, W., Schmeichel, B. J., & Baddeley, A. D. (2012). Executive functions and self-regulation.
Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 16, 174–180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2012.01.006.
Kamhi, A. G., & Koenig, L. A. (1985). Metalinguistic awareness in normal and language-
disordered children. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 16, 199–210.
Kroese, J. M., Hynd, G. W., Knight, D. F., Hiemenz, J. R., & Hall, J. (2000). Clinical appraisal of
spelling ability and its relationship to phonemic awareness (blending, segmenting, elision, and
reversal) phonological memory, and reading in reading disabled, ADHD, and normal children.
Reading and Writing, 13, 105–131.
Laasonen, M., Lehtinen, M., Leppämäki, S., Tani, P., & Hokkanen, L. (2010). Project DyAdd:
Phonological processing, reading, spelling, and arithmetic in adults with dyslexia or ADHD.
Journal of Learning Disabilities, 43(1), 3–14.
Laasonen, M., Salomaa, J., Cousineau, D., Leppamaki, S., Tani, P., Hokkanen, L., & Dye, M.
(2012). Project DyAdd: Visual attention in adult dyslexia and ADHD. Brain and Cognition,
80, 311–327.
Leonard, L. B. (1995). Functional categories in the grammars of children with specific language
impairment. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 38, 1270–1283.
Liles, B. Z., Shulman, M. D., & Barlett, S. (1977). Judgments of grammaticality by normal and
language-disordered children. The Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders, 42, 199–209.
Martel, M. M. (2009). Research review: A new perspective on attention-deficit/hyperactivity dis-
order: Emotion dysregulation and trait models. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry,
50, 1042–1051.
Martinez, L., Prada, E., Satler, C., Tavares, M. C., & Tomaz, C. (2016). Executive dysfunctions:
The role in attention deficit hyperactivity and post-traumatic stress neuropsychiatric disorders.
Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 1230. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01230.
Mattes, J. A. (1980). The role of frontal lobe dysfunction in childhood hyperkinesis. Comprehensive
McKay, K. E., & Halperin, J. M. (2001). ADHD, aggression, and antisocial behavior across the
lifespan. Interactions with neurochemical and cognitive function. Annals of the New York
Academy of Sciences, 931, 84–96.
Mishkin, M., Malamut, B., & Bachevalier, J. (1984). Memories and habits: Two neural systems. In
G. Lynch, J. L. McGaugh, & N. W. Weinburger (Eds.), Neurobiology of learning and memory
(pp. 65–77). New York: Guilford Press.
Molina, B. S. G., Hinshaw, S. P., Swanson, J. M., Arnold, L. E., Vitiello, B., Jensen, P. S., Epstein,
J. N., Hoza, B., Hechtman, L., Abikoff, H. B., Elliott, G. R., Greenhill, L. L., Newcorn,
J. H., Wells, K. C., Wigal, T., Gibbons, R. D., Hur, K., Houck, P. R., & MTA Cooperative
Group. (2009). The MTA at 8 years: Prospective follow-up of children treated for combined-
type ADHD in a multisite study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent
Nigg, J. T. (1999). The ADHD response-inhibition deficit as measured by the stop task: Replication
with DSM-IV combined type, extension, and qualification. Journal of Abnormal Child
Psychology, 27, 393–402.
Nigg, J. (2001). Is AD/HD a disinhibitory disorder? Psychological Bulletin, 127, 571–598.
O’Connell, R. G., Bellgrove, M. A., Dockree, P. M., Lau, A., Hester, R., Garavan, H., Fitzgerald,
M., Foxe, J. J., & Robertson, I. H. (2009). The neural correlates of deficient error awareness in
attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Neuropsychologia, 47, 1149–1159.
Ouyang, L., Fang, X., Mercy, J., Perou, R., & Grosse, S. D. (2008). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity
disorder symptoms and child maltreatment: A population-based study. Journal of Pediatrics,
153, 851–856. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpeds.2008.06.002.
Piek, J. P., Pitcher, T. M., & Hay, D. A. (1999). Motor coordination and kinaesthesis in boys
with attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology,
41, 159–165.
Pievsky, M. A., & McGrath, R. E. (2017). The neurocognitive profile of attention-deficit/hyper-
activity disorder: A review of meta-analyses. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 32, 1–15.
https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acx055.
Pitcher, T. M., Piek, J. P., & Barrett, N. C. (2002). Timing and force control in boys with attention
deficit hyperactivity disorder: Subtype differences and the effect of comorbid developmental
coordination disorder. Human Movement Science, 21, 919–945.
Pitcher, T. M., Piek, J. P., & Hay, D. A. (2003). Fine and gross motor ability in males with ADHD.
Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 45, 525–535.
Pliszka, S. R. (2005). The neuropsychopharmacology of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.
Biological Psychiatry, 57, 1385–1390.
Re, A. M., & Cornoldi, C. (2010). Expressive writing difficulties of ADHD children: When good
declarative knowledge is not sufficient. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 25(3),
315–323.
Re, A. M., & Cornoldi, C. (2013). Spelling errors in text copying by children with dyslexia
and ADHD symptoms. Journal of Learning Disabilities. https://doi.org/10.1177/
0022219413491287.
Re, A. M., Pedron, M., & Cornoldi, C. (2007). Expressive writing difficulties in children described
by their teacher as exhibiting ADHD symptoms. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 40, 244–255.
Re, A. M., Caeran, M., & Cornoldi, C. (2008). Improving expressive writing skills of children
rated for ADHD symptoms. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 41, 535–544.
Rice, M. L., Wexler, K., & Redmond, S. M. (1999). Grammaticality judgements of an extended
optional infinitive grammar: Evidence from English-speaking children with specific language
impairment. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 42, 943–961.
Roessner, V., Becker, A., Banaschewski, T., & Rothenberger, A. (2007). Executive functions in
children with chronic tic disorders with/without ADHD: New insights. European Child and
Adolescent Psychiatry, 16(Suppl 1), 36–44. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-007-1005-5.
Rubia, K., Overmeyer, S., Taylor, E., et al. (1999). Hypofrontality in attention deficit hyperactivity
disorder during higher-order motor control: A study with functional MRI. American Journal
of Psychiatry, 156, 891–896.
Sagvolden, T., Aase, H., Zeiner, P., & Berger, D. (1998). Altered reinforcement mechanisms in
attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Behavioral Brain Research, 94, 61–71.
Schachar, R., Mota, V. L., Logan, G. D., Tannock, R., & Klim, P. (2000). Confirmation of an
inhibitory control deficit in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Abnormal Child
Psychology, 28, 227–235.
Schachar, R. J., Chen, S., Logan, G. D., Ornstein, T. J., Crosbie, J., Ickowicz, A., & Pakulak,
A. (2004). Evidence for an error monitoring deficit in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.
Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 32, 285–293.
Seidman, L. J. (2006). Neuropsychological functioning in people with ADHD across the lifespan.
Clinical Psychology Review, 26, 466–485.
Seidman, L. J., Valera, E. M., & Makris, N. (2005). Structural brain imaging of attention-deficit/
hyperactivity disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 57, 1263–1272.
Semrud-Clikeman, M. S., Steingard, R. J., Filipek, P., Biederman, J., Bekken, K., & Renshaw,
P. F. (2000). Using MRI to examine brain-behavior relationships in males with attention defi-
cit disorder with hyperactivity. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent
Serfontein, G. (1994). ADD in adults. New York: Simon and Schuster.
Sergeant, J. A., Geurts, H., Huijbregts, S., Scheres, A., & Oosterlaan, J. (2003). The top and bot-
tom of ADHD: A neuropsychological perspective. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews,
27, 583–592.
References 19
Siegel, L. S. (1994). Working memory and reading: A life span perspective. International Journal
of Behavioral Development, 17, 109–124.
Sobanski, E., Banaschewski, T., Asherson, P., Buitelaar, J., Chen, W., Franke, B., Holtmann, M.,
Krumm, B., Sergeant, J., Sonuga-Barke, E., Stringaris, A., Taylor, E., Anney, R., Ebstein, R. P.,
Gill, M., Miranda, A., Mulas, F., Oades, R. D., Roeyers, H., Rothenberger, A., Steinhausen,
H. C., & Faraone, S. V. (2010). Emotional lability in children and adolescents with atten-
tion deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): Clinical correlates and familial prevalence.
Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 51, 915–923. https://doi.
org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02217.x.
Solanto, M. V., Abikoff, H., Sonuga-Barke, E., Schachar, R., Logan, G. D., Wigal, T., Hechtman,
L., Hinshaw, S., & Turkel, E. (2001). The ecological validity of delay aversion and response
inhibition as measures of impulsivity in AD/HD a supplement to the NIMH multi-modal treat-
ment study of AD/HD. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 29, 215–228.
Sonuga-Barke, E. J. (2003). The dual pathway model of AD/HD: An elaboration of
neuro-developmental characteristics. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 27, 593–604.
Squire, L. R., & Knowlton, B. J. (2000). The medial temporal lobe, the hippocampus, and the
memory systems of the brain. In M. S. Gazzaniga (Ed.), The new cognitive neurosciences
(pp. 765–780). Cambridge: MIT Press.
Still, G. (1902). The Goulstonian lectures on some abnormal psychical conditions in children.
Lecture 1. Lancet, 1, 1008–1012.
Teicher, M. H., Andersen, S. L., Polcari, A., Anderson, C. M., Navalta, C. P., & Kim, D. M. (2003).
The neurobiological consequences of early stress and childhood maltreatment. Neuroscience
and Biobehavioral Reviews, 27, 33–44.
Thapar, A., Van Den Bree, M., Fowler, T., Langley, K., & Whittinger, N. (2006). Predictors of
antisocial behaviour in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. European Child
and Adolescent Psychiatry, 15, 118–125.
Toplak, M. E., Jain, U., & Tannock, R. (2005). Executive and motivational processes in adolescents
with attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Behavioral and Brain Functions, 1, 8.
Ullman, M. T., & Pierpont, E. I. (2005). Specific language impairment is not specific to language:
The procedural deficit hypothesis. Cortex, 41, 399–433.
Valera, E. M., Faraone, S. V., Murray, K. E., & Seidman, L. J. (2007). Meta-analysis of struc-
tural imaging findings in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 61,
1361–1369.
Valera, E. M., Brown, A., & Seidman, L. J. (2009). Neuropsychology of ADHD and other disor-
ders of childhood. In S. J. Wood, N. B. Allen, & C. Pantelis (Eds.), The neuropsychology of
mental illness (pp. 285–299). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Van De Voorde, S., Roeyers, H., Verte, S., & Wiersema, J. R. (2010). Working memory, response
inhibition, and within-subject variability in children with ADHD or reading disorder. Journal
of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 32, 366–379.
van der Lely, H. K. J. (1994). Canonical linking rules: Forward versus reverse linking in normally
developing and specifically language-impaired children. Cognition, 51, 29–72.
van der Lely, H. K. J. (1996). Specifically language impaired and normally developing children:
Verbal passive vs. adjectival passive sentence interpretation. Lingua, 98, 243–272.
van Emmerik-van Oortmerssen, K., van de Glind, G., van den Brink, W., Smit, F., Crunelle, C. L.,
Swets, M., & Schoevers, R. A. (2012). Prevalence of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder
in substance use disorder patients: A meta-analysis and meta-regression analysis. Drug and
Alcohol Dependence, 122, 11–19.
Weismer, S. E., Tomblin, J. B., Zhang, X., Buckwalter, P., Chynoweth, J. G., & Jones, M. (2000).
Nonword repetition performance in school age children with and without language impair-
ment. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 43, 865–878.
Wender, P. (1995). Attention deficit hyperactive disorder in adults. New York: Oxford University
Press.
Willcutt, E. G., Doyle, A. E., Nigg, J. T., Faraone, S. V., & Pennington, B. F. (2005). Validity of the
executive function theory of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A meta-analytic review.
Biological Psychiatry, 57, 1336–1346.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
"Yes, faith, I shall creep down."
They left Huntingdon together, Jacob walking by Winter's horse for two
miles. They parted, then, in the gracious glow of evening, and the elder sat
upon a shelf of rock and waited. Far beneath him the sun fires lingered over
the pavilions of a larch grove and warmed the young green to gold. The
untiring cuckoo called a while, then grew silent as twilight stole delicately
over all things and detail died.
He saw Auna at last—slim and swift, ascending on quick feet. And then
she had come, put her arms round his neck, kissed him, and looked into his
eyes with the warmth of her steadfast worship.
"Is your soul quiet now, dear father?" she asked; and he replied:
"Yes, faith, it's quiet now, my dinky maid."
She sighed with satisfaction.
So they went up together, hand in hand, through the cool curtain of

dusk; with fret of light and shadow all vanished for that day. They went up
speaking very few words into the deepening bloom of night, while on the
sky glimmered the stars again, and in the grass a glow-worm. From his
stony place among the fern, churn-owl throbbed a lullaby for the whole,
drowsy earth; and he touched their human hearts, old and young, with the
mystery of his music—the mystery of all living songs that waken when the
rest of the world is going to sleep. The two notes whirred on, rising and
falling, fainting and trembling out again.
Then the white face of Huntingdon looked upon them.
"It shan't be your home much longer—I promise that," he whispered;

but as yet Auna knew no other love than love of him.
"Where you are is my home, father," she said.

PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN BY WOODS & SONS, LTD., LONDON, N.1
*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHILDREN OF
MEN ***
Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will
be renamed.
Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S.

copyright law means that no one owns a United States copyright in
these works, so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it
in the United States without permission and without paying copyright
royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part of
this license, apply to copying and distributing Project Gutenberg™
electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG™ concept
and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and
may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following the
terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use of
the Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything for
copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is very
easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as
creation of derivative works, reports, performances and research.
Project Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and printed and given
away—you may do practically ANYTHING in the United States with
eBooks not protected by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject
to the trademark license, especially commercial redistribution.
START: FULL LICENSE

THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
To protect the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting the free

distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work (or
any other work associated in any way with the phrase “Project
Gutenberg”), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full
Project Gutenberg™ License available with this file or online at
www.gutenberg.org/license.
Section 1. General Terms of Use and

Redistributing Project Gutenberg™
electronic works
1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg™
electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree
to and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all
the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or
destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in your
possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a
Project Gutenberg™ electronic work and you do not agree to be
bound by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from
the person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in
paragraph 1.E.8.
1.B. “Project Gutenberg” is a registered trademark. It may only be

used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people
who agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a
few things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg™ electronic
works even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.
See paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with
Project Gutenberg™ electronic works if you follow the terms of this
agreement and help preserve free future access to Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.
1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation (“the
Foundation” or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the
collection of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works. Nearly all the
individual works in the collection are in the public domain in the
United States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in
the United States and you are located in the United States, we do
not claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing,
performing, displaying or creating derivative works based on the
work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of
course, we hope that you will support the Project Gutenberg™
mission of promoting free access to electronic works by freely
sharing Project Gutenberg™ works in compliance with the terms of
this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg™ name
associated with the work. You can easily comply with the terms of
this agreement by keeping this work in the same format with its
attached full Project Gutenberg™ License when you share it without
charge with others.
1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also
govern what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most
countries are in a constant state of change. If you are outside the
United States, check the laws of your country in addition to the terms
of this agreement before downloading, copying, displaying,
performing, distributing or creating derivative works based on this
work or any other Project Gutenberg™ work. The Foundation makes
no representations concerning the copyright status of any work in
any country other than the United States.
1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other

immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg™ License must
appear prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg™
work (any work on which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” appears, or
with which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” is associated) is
accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, copied or distributed:
This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United
States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away
or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License
included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you
are not located in the United States, you will have to check the
laws of the country where you are located before using this
eBook.
1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is derived

from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not contain a
notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the copyright
holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in the
United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are
redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase “Project
Gutenberg” associated with or appearing on the work, you must
comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through
1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project
Gutenberg™ trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is posted

with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any
additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms
will be linked to the Project Gutenberg™ License for all works posted
with the permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of
this work.
1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project

Gutenberg™ License terms from this work, or any files containing a
part of this work or any other work associated with Project
Gutenberg™.
1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this

electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
Gutenberg™ License.
1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form,
including any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you
provide access to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg™ work
in a format other than “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other format used in
the official version posted on the official Project Gutenberg™ website
(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense
to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means
of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original “Plain
Vanilla ASCII” or other form. Any alternate format must include the
full Project Gutenberg™ License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,

performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg™ works
unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing

access to or distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works
provided that:
• You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
the use of Project Gutenberg™ works calculated using the
method you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The
fee is owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark,
but he has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to
the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty
payments must be paid within 60 days following each date on
which you prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your
periodic tax returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked
as such and sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation at the address specified in Section 4, “Information
about donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation.”
• You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who

notifies you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that
s/he does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg™
License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all
copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and
discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of Project
Gutenberg™ works.
• You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of

any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in
the electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90
days of receipt of the work.
• You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
distribution of Project Gutenberg™ works.
1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg™

electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of
the Project Gutenberg™ trademark. Contact the Foundation as set
forth in Section 3 below.
1.F.
1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend

considerable effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe
and proofread works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating
the Project Gutenberg™ collection. Despite these efforts, Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works, and the medium on which they may
be stored, may contain “Defects,” such as, but not limited to,
incomplete, inaccurate or corrupt data, transcription errors, a
copyright or other intellectual property infringement, a defective or
damaged disk or other medium, a computer virus, or computer
codes that damage or cannot be read by your equipment.
1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except

for the “Right of Replacement or Refund” described in paragraph
1.F.3, the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner
of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark, and any other party
distributing a Project Gutenberg™ electronic work under this
agreement, disclaim all liability to you for damages, costs and
expenses, including legal fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO
REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT LIABILITY, BREACH OF
WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE
FOUNDATION, THE TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY
DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE LIABLE
TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL,
PUNITIVE OR INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE
NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.
1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you

discover a defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it,
you can receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by
sending a written explanation to the person you received the work
from. If you received the work on a physical medium, you must
return the medium with your written explanation. The person or entity
that provided you with the defective work may elect to provide a
replacement copy in lieu of a refund. If you received the work
electronically, the person or entity providing it to you may choose to
give you a second opportunity to receive the work electronically in
lieu of a refund. If the second copy is also defective, you may
demand a refund in writing without further opportunities to fix the
problem.
1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth in
paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you ‘AS-IS’, WITH NO
OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED,
INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF
MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied

warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted
by the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any
provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the
Foundation, the trademark owner, any agent or employee of the
Foundation, anyone providing copies of Project Gutenberg™
electronic works in accordance with this agreement, and any
volunteers associated with the production, promotion and distribution
of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works, harmless from all liability,
costs and expenses, including legal fees, that arise directly or
indirectly from any of the following which you do or cause to occur:
(a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg™ work, (b)
alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any Project
Gutenberg™ work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
Section 2. Information about the Mission of

Project Gutenberg™
Project Gutenberg™ is synonymous with the free distribution of
electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of
computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.
It exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and
donations from people in all walks of life.
Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the

assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg™’s
goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg™ collection will
remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a
secure and permanent future for Project Gutenberg™ and future
generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help,
see Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at
www.gutenberg.org.
Section 3. Information about the Project

Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit
501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
Revenue Service. The Foundation’s EIN or federal tax identification
number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state’s laws.
The Foundation’s business office is located at 809 North 1500 West,

Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up
to date contact information can be found at the Foundation’s website
and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact
Section 4. Information about Donations to

the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation
Project Gutenberg™ depends upon and cannot survive without
widespread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can
be freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the
widest array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small
donations ($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax
exempt status with the IRS.
The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating

charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and
keep up with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in
locations where we have not received written confirmation of
compliance. To SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of
compliance for any particular state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate.
While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where

we have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no
prohibition against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in
such states who approach us with offers to donate.
International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make

any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation
methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of
other ways including checks, online payments and credit card
donations. To donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate.
Section 5. General Information About Project

Gutenberg™ electronic works
Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project
Gutenberg™ concept of a library of electronic works that could be
freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and
distributed Project Gutenberg™ eBooks with only a loose network of
volunteer support.
Project Gutenberg™ eBooks are often created from several printed

editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in
the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not
necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper
edition.
Most people start at our website which has the main PG search
facility: www.gutenberg.org.
This website includes information about Project Gutenberg™,

including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how
to subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.

Textbook Adhd Stress and Development Petr Bob Ebook All Chapter PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Textbook Adhd Stress and Development Petr Bob Ebook All Chapter PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

ADHD Stress and Development Petr

Parental Stress and Early Child Development Adaptive

Care Ethics, Democratic Citizenship and the State Petr

ADHD in the schools assessment and intervention

ADHD For Dummies (2nd Edition) Jeff Strong

Metamathematics of First Order Arithmetic 1st Edition

A New Hypothesis on the Anisotropic Reynolds Stress

Priming-Mediated Stress and Cross-Stress Tolerance in

Yoga for Stress Magbook

Petr Bob · Jana Konicarova

ADHD, Stress, and

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/10143

ISSN 2192-8363 ISSN 2192-8371 (electronic)

Library of Congress Control Number: 2018950403

Attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), a lot of movements, feelings

In this context, the purpose of this approach to ADHD development is to show

1 Definition, Diagnosis and Epidemiology of Attention Deficit

© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer International 1

Fig. 1.1 Destiny of many

course of schizophrenia or another psychotic disorder and may not be better

ence of stimulant medication on children’s behavior, mainly by the use of benze-

The term “minimal brain dysfunction” was in 1968 replaced by conceptualiza-

dict future conduct problems in young children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.

Current conceptualization and definition of ADHD is a result of long term history of

2.1 Brain and Cognition in ADHD

ADHD represents historically heterogenous concept of long term clinical research

© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer International 11

2.2  ttentional, Affective and Executive Dysfunctions

Altogether these findings suggest the so-called “dual-pathway” concept of the

2.3 Relationship Between ADHD and Dyslexia

Another dysfunction that has been observed in ADHD is impaired phonological

retrieval and related mental imagination in working memory processing (Ullman

"Yes, faith, it's quiet now, my dinky maid."

She sighed with satisfaction.

So they went up together, hand in hand, through the cool curtain of

Then the white face of Huntingdon looked upon them.

"It shan't be your home much longer—I promise that," he whispered;

"Where you are is my home, father," she said.

Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S.

START: FULL LICENSE

To protect the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting the free

Section 1. General Terms of Use and

1.B. “Project Gutenberg” is a registered trademark. It may only be

1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:

1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other

1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is derived

1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is posted

1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project

1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this

1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,

1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing

• You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who

• You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of

1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg™

1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend

1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except

1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you

1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied

Section 2. Information about the Mission of

Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the

Section 3. Information about the Project

The Foundation’s business office is located at 809 North 1500 West,

Section 4. Information about Donations to

1 Definition, Diagnosis and Epidemiology of Attention Deficit

2.1 Brain and Cognition in ADHD

2.2 ttentional, Affective and Executive Dysfunctions

2.3 Relationship Between ADHD and Dyslexia