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Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 775
Hasan Ayaz
Lukasz Mazur Editors
Advances in
Neuroergonomics and
Cognitive Engineering
Proceedings of the AHFE 2018
International Conference on
Neuroergonomics and Cognitive
Engineering, July 21–25, 2018, Loews
Sapphire Falls Resort at Universal
Studios, Orlando, Florida USA
Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing
Volume 775
Series editor
Janusz Kacprzyk, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
e-mail: kacprzyk@ibspan.waw.pl
The series “Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing” contains publications on theory,
applications, and design methods of Intelligent Systems and Intelligent Computing. Virtually all
disciplines such as engineering, natural sciences, computer and information science, ICT, economics,
business, e-commerce, environment, healthcare, life science are covered. The list of topics spans all the
areas of modern intelligent systems and computing such as: computational intelligence, soft computing
including neural networks, fuzzy systems, evolutionary computing and the fusion of these paradigms,
social intelligence, ambient intelligence, computational neuroscience, artificial life, virtual worlds and
society, cognitive science and systems, Perception and Vision, DNA and immune based systems,
self-organizing and adaptive systems, e-Learning and teaching, human-centered and human-centric
computing, recommender systems, intelligent control, robotics and mechatronics including
human-machine teaming, knowledge-based paradigms, learning paradigms, machine ethics, intelligent
data analysis, knowledge management, intelligent agents, intelligent decision making and support,
intelligent network security, trust management, interactive entertainment, Web intelligence and multimedia.
The publications within “Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing” are primarily proceedings
of important conferences, symposia and congresses. They cover significant recent developments in the
field, both of a foundational and applicable character. An important characteristic feature of the series is
the short publication time and world-wide distribution. This permits a rapid and broad dissemination of
research results.
Advisory Board
Chairman
Nikhil R. Pal, Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata, India
e-mail: nikhil@isical.ac.in
Members
Rafael Bello Perez, Universidad Central “Marta Abreu” de Las Villas, Santa Clara, Cuba
e-mail: rbellop@uclv.edu.cu
Emilio S. Corchado, University of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain
e-mail: escorchado@usal.es
Hani Hagras, University of Essex, Colchester, UK
e-mail: hani@essex.ac.uk
László T. Kóczy, Széchenyi István University, Győr, Hungary
e-mail: koczy@sze.hu
Vladik Kreinovich, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, USA
e-mail: vladik@utep.edu
Chin-Teng Lin, National Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu, Taiwan
e-mail: ctlin@mail.nctu.edu.tw
Jie Lu, University of Technology, Sydney, Australia
e-mail: Jie.Lu@uts.edu.au
Patricia Melin, Tijuana Institute of Technology, Tijuana, Mexico
e-mail: epmelin@hafsamx.org
Nadia Nedjah, State University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
e-mail: nadia@eng.uerj.br
Ngoc Thanh Nguyen, Wroclaw University of Technology, Wroclaw, Poland
e-mail: Ngoc-Thanh.Nguyen@pwr.edu.pl
Jun Wang, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong
e-mail: jwang@mae.cuhk.edu.hk
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/11156

Hasan Ayaz Lukasz Mazur
•
Editors
Advances
in Neuroergonomics
and Cognitive Engineering
Proceedings of the AHFE 2018 International
Conference on Neuroergonomics
and Cognitive Engineering, July 21–25, 2018,
Loews Sapphire Falls Resort at Universal Studios,
Orlando, Florida USA
123
Editors
Hasan Ayaz Lukasz Mazur
Drexel University University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill
Philadelphia, PA, USA Chapel Hill, NC, USA
ISSN 2194-5357 ISSN 2194-5365 (electronic)

Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing
ISBN 978-3-319-94865-2 ISBN 978-3-319-94866-9 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-94866-9
Library of Congress Control Number: 2018947370
© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2019

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Advances in Human Factors
and Ergonomics 2018
AHFE 2018 Series Editors

Tareq Z. Ahram, Florida, USA
Waldemar Karwowski, Florida, USA
9th International Conference on Applied Human Factors and Ergonomics

and the Affiliated Conferences
Proceedings of the AHFE 2018 International Conferences on Neuroergonomics,

Cognitive Engineering, Cognitive Computing and Internet of Things, held on
July 21–25, 2018, in Loews Sapphire Falls Resort at Universal Studios, Orlando,
Florida, USA
Advances in Affective and Pleasurable Design Shuichi Fukuda

Advances in Neuroergonomics Hasan Ayaz and Lukasz Mazur
and Cognitive Engineering
Advances in Design for Inclusion Giuseppe Di Bucchianico
Advances in Ergonomics in Design Francisco Rebelo and Marcelo M.
Soares
Advances in Human Error, Reliability, Resilience, Ronald L. Boring
and Performance
Advances in Human Factors and Ergonomics in Nancy J. Lightner
Healthcare and Medical Devices
Advances in Human Factors in Simulation Daniel N. Cassenti
and Modeling
Advances in Human Factors and Systems Isabel L. Nunes
Interaction
Advances in Human Factors in Cybersecurity Tareq Z. Ahram and Denise Nicholson
Advances in Human Factors, Business Jussi Ilari Kantola, Salman Nazir
Management and Society and Tibor Barath
Advances in Human Factors in Robots Jessie Chen
and Unmanned Systems
Advances in Human Factors in Training, Salman Nazir, Anna-Maria Teperi
Education, and Learning Sciences and Aleksandra Polak-Sopińska
Advances in Human Aspects of Transportation Neville Stanton
(continued)
v
vi Advances in Human Factors and Ergonomics 2018
(continued)
Advances in Artificial Intelligence, Software Tareq Z. Ahram
and Systems Engineering
Advances in Human Factors, Sustainable Urban Jerzy Charytonowicz and Christianne
Planning and Infrastructure Falcão
Advances in Physical Ergonomics & Human Ravindra S. Goonetilleke and Waldemar
Factors Karwowski
Advances in Interdisciplinary Practice in WonJoon Chung and Cliff Sungsoo Shin
Industrial Design
Advances in Safety Management and Human Pedro Miguel Ferreira Martins Arezes
Factors
Advances in Social and Occupational Ergonomics Richard H. M. Goossens
Advances in Manufacturing, Production Waldemar Karwowski, Stefan
Management and Process Control Trzcielinski, Beata Mrugalska, Massimo
Di Nicolantonio and Emilio Rossi
Advances in Usability, User Experience Tareq Z. Ahram and Christianne Falcão
and Assistive Technology
Advances in Human Factors in Wearable Tareq Z. Ahram
Technologies and Game Design
Advances in Human Factors in Communication Amic G. Ho
of Design
Preface
This book brings together a wide-ranging set of contributed articles that address
emerging practices and future trends in cognitive engineering and neuroergonomics
—both aim to harmoniously integrate human operator and computational system,
the former through a tighter cognitive fit and the latter a more effective neural fit
with the system. The chapters in this book uncover novel discoveries and com-
municate new understanding and the most recent advances in the areas of workload
and stress, activity theory, human error and risk, and neuroergonomic measures,
cognitive computing as well as associated applications.
The book is organized into six main sections:
Section 1: Cognition and Performance
Section 2: Neurophysiological Sensing
Section 3: Brain—Computer Interfaces
Section 4: Systemic-Structural Activity Theory
Section 5: Cognitive Computing and Internet of Things
Section 6: Cognitive Design
Collectively, the chapters in this book have an overall goal of developing a
deeper understanding of the couplings between external behavioral and internal
mental actions, which can be used to design harmonious work and play environ-
ments that seamlessly integrate human, technical, and social systems.
Each chapter of this book was either reviewed or contributed by members of the
Cognitive and Neuroergonomics Board. For this, our sincere thanks and appreci-
ation to the board members listed below:
Neuroergonomics, Cognitive Engineering
H. Adeli, USA
Carryl Baldwin, USA
Gregory Bedny, USA
vii
viii Preface
Winston “Wink” Bennett, USA

Alexander Burov, Ukraine
P. Choe, Qatar
M. Cummings, USA
Frederic Dehais, France
X. Fang, USA
Chris Forsythe, USA
Qin Gao, China
Klaus Gramann, Germany
Y. Guo, USA
Peter Hancock, USA
David Kaber, USA
Kentaro Kotani, Japan
Ben Lawson, USA
S.-Y. Lee, Korea
Harry Liao, USA
Y. Liu, USA
Ryan McKendrick, USA
John Murray, USA
A. Ozok, USA
O. Parlangeli, Italy
Stephane Perrey, France
Robert Proctor, USA
A. Savoy, USA
K. Vu, USA
Thomas Waldmann, Ireland
Tomas Ward, Ireland
Brent Winslow, USA
G. Zacharias, USA
L. Zeng, USA
Matthias Ziegler, USA
Cognitive Computing and Internet of Things
Hanan A. Alnizami, USA

Thomas Alexander, Germany
Carryl Baldwin, USA
O. Bouhali, Qatar
Henry Broodney, Israel
Frederic Dehais, France
Klaus Gramann, Germany
Ryan McKendrick, USA
Stephane Perrey, France
Preface ix
Stefan Pickl, Germany

S. Ramakrishnan, USA
Duncan Speight, UK
Martin Stenkilde, Sweden
Ari Visa, Finland
Tomas Ward, Ireland
Matthias Ziegler, USA
It is our hope that professionals, researchers, and students alike find the book to
be an informative and valuable resource—one that helps them to better understand
important concepts, theories, and applications in the areas of cognitive engineering
and neuroergonomics. Beyond basic understanding, the contributions are meant to
inspire critical insights and thought-provoking lines of follow on research that
further establish the fledgling field of neuroergonomics and sharpen the more
seasoned practice of cognitive engineering. While we don’t know where the con-
fluence of these two fields will lead, they are certain to transform the very nature of
human-systems interaction, resulting in yet to be envisioned designs that improve
form, function, efficiency, and the overall user experience for all.
July 2018 Hasan Ayaz

Lukasz Mazur
Contents
Cognition and Performance

Beyond 2020 NextGen Compliance: Human Factors and Cognitive
Loading Issues for Commercial and General Aviation Pilots . . . . . . . . . 3
Mark Miller and Sam Holley
Use of Dry Electrode Electroencephalography (EEG) to Monitor
Pilot Workload and Distraction Based on P300 Responses
to an Auditory Oddball Task . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Zara Gibson, Joseph Butterfield, Matthew Rodger, Brian Murphy,
and Adelaide Marzano
Analysis of Alternatives for Neural Network Training Techniques
in Assessing Cognitive Workload . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Colin Elkin and Vijay Devabhaktuni
Changes in Physiological Condition in Open Versus Closed Eyes . . . . . 38
Kazuya Onishi and Hiroshi Hagiwara
The Effect of Mental Fatigue on Response Processes: An ERP
Study in Go/NoGo Task . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Xiaoli Fan, Chaoyi Zhao, Hong Luo, and Wei Zhang
Cognitive Function Evaluation of Dementia Patients
Using P300 Speller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Ryo Morooka, Hisaya Tanaka, Takahiko Umahara, Akito Tsugawa,
and Haruo Hanyu
Neurophysiological Sensing
The Relationship Between Aesthetic Choices, Ratings,
and Eye-Movements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Elif Celikors and Chris R. Sims
xi
xii Contents
Does Comfort with Technology Affect Use of Wealth Management

Platforms? Usability Testing with fNIRS and Eye-Tracking . . . . . . . . . 83
Siddharth Bhatt, Atahan Agrali, Rajneesh Suri, and Hasan Ayaz
Gaze Strategies Can Reveal the Impact of Source Code Features
on the Cognitive Load of Novice Programmers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Andreas Wulff-Jensen, Kevin Ruder, Evangelia Triantafyllou,
and Luis Emilio Bruni
Computational Methods for Analyzing Functional and Effective
Brain Network Connectivity Using fMRI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Farzad Vasheghani Farahani and Waldemar Karwowski
The Effect of Alcohol-Use and Sleep Deprivation on Quantitative
Changes in EEG for Normal Young Adults During
Multitasking Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Young-A Suh, Jung Hwan Kim, and Man-Sung Yim
Comparison of Machine Learning Approaches for Motor Imagery
Based Optical Brain Computer Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Lei Wang, Adrian Curtin, and Hasan Ayaz
Autonomic Nervous System Approach to Measure Physiological
Arousal and Scenario Difficulty in Simulation-Based
Training Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Sinh Bui, Brian Veitch, and Sarah Power
An Investigation of Human Error Identification Based
on Bio-monitoring System (EEG and ECG Analysis) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Jung Hwan Kim, Young-A Suh, and Man-Sung Yim
Neural Correlates of Math Anxiety of Consumer Choices
on Price Promotions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Amanda Sargent, Atahan Agrali, Siddharth Bhatt, Hongjun Ye,
Kurtulus Izzetoglu, Banu Onaral, Hasan Ayaz, and Rajneesh Suri
Research on Visual Sensing Capability Difference Between
Designers and Non-designers Based on Difference Threshold
Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Sha Liu, Runqi Li, and Jiaxin Dai
Auditory Evoked Potentials and PET-Scan: Early
and Late Mechanisms of Selective Attention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Sergey Lytaev, Mikhail Aleksandrov, Tatjana Popovich,
and Mikhail Lytaev
Contents xiii
Brain-Computer Interfaces
A Proof of Concept that Stroke Patients Can Steer a Robotic
System at Paretic Side with Myo-Electric Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Stijn Verwulgen, Wim Saeys, Lex Biemans, Annelies Goossens,
Gido Grooten, Joris Ketting, Aurélie Van Iseghem, Brecht Vermeesch,
Erik Haring, Kristof Vaes, and Steven Truijen
Implementing the Horizontal Vestibular Ocular Reflex Test While
Using an Eye-Tracker as an Assessment Tool
for Concussions Diagnosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Atefeh Katrahmani and Matthew Romoser
Research on the Brain Mechanism of Visual-Audio Interface
Channel Modes Affecting User Cognition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Wenqing Xi, Lei Zhou, Huijuan Chen, Jian Ma, and Yueting Chen
How Does the Mobile Phone PPI Design Affect the Visual Acuity
with the Change of Viewing Distance? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Yunhong Zhang, Wei Li, Jinhong Ding, Anqi Jiao, Hongqing Cui,
and Yilin Chen
Systemic-Structural Activity Theory

Time Study in Ergonomics and Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Gregory Bedny, Inna Bedny, and Waldemar Karwowski
Decision Support of Mental Model Formation in the Self-regulation
Process of Goal-Directed Decision-Making Under
Risk and Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Alexander Yemelyanov
A Systemic Approach to Implementing Psychological Factors
in Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Fred Voskoboynikov
Approach to Safety Analysis in the Framework
of the Systemic-Structural Activity Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Gregory Bedny and Inna Bedny
Express Decision – Mobile Application for Quick Decisions:
An Overview of Implementations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Alexander Yemelyanov, Simon Baev, and Alla Yemelyanov
Dichotomy of Historicity and Subjective Perception of Complexity
in Individuals’ Activity Goal Formation and Decision Outcomes . . . . . . 265
Mohammed-Aminu Sanda
xiv Contents
Diagnosing a Concussion by Testing Horizontal Saccades Using

an Eye-Tracker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
Atefeh Katrahmani and Matthew Romoser
Cognitive Computing and Internet of Things

Runtime Generation and Delivery of Guidance for Smart
Object Ensembles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Daniel Burmeister and Andreas Schrader
Holistic Scenarios by Using Platform Technologies for
Small Batch-Sized Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
Yübo Wang, Michaela Dittmann, and Reiner Anderl
Internet of Things - New Paradigm of Learning. Challenges
for Business . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
Łukasz Sułkowski and Dominika Kaczorowska-Spychalska
Inferring a User’s Propensity for Elaborative Thinking Based
on Natural Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
Veena Chattaraman, Wi-Suk Kwon, Alexandra Green,
and Juan E. Gilbert
Building Consumer Trust to Improve Internet of Things (IoT)
Technology Adoption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
Areej AlHogail and Mona AlShahrani
Cognitive Design
EEG Technology for UX Evaluation: A Multisensory Perspective . . . . . 337
Marieke Van Camp, Muriel De Boeck, Stijn Verwulgen,
and Guido De Bruyne
Study on the Influence Mechanism Between Ordinal Factors
and Cognitive Resource Consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
Wenqing Xi, Lei Zhou, Xingyuan Ma, Yuqi Liu, and Huijuan Chen
Wellness in Cognitive Workload - A Conceptual Framework . . . . . . . . 353
Eduarda Pereira, Susana Costa, Nelson Costa, and Pedro Arezes
Supervising SSSEP Experiments with a Bluetooth Android Remote
Control Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
José Rouillard, François Cabestaing, Jean-Marc Vannobel,
and Marie-Hélène Bekaert
Machine Usability Effects on Preferences for Hot Drinks . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
Hongjun Ye, Jan Watson, Amanda Sargent, Hasan Ayaz,
and Rajneesh Suri
Contents xv
Cognitive Architecture Based Simulation of Perception

and Behavior Controls for Robot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
Yanfei Liu, Zhiqiang Tian, Yuzhou Liu, Jusong Li, and Feng Fu
Socio-Technical Health and Usage Monitoring Systems (HUMS) . . . . . . 394
Johan de Heer and Paul Porskamp
Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
Cognition and Performance
Beyond 2020 NextGen Compliance: Human
Factors and Cognitive Loading Issues
for Commercial and General Aviation Pilots
Mark Miller and Sam Holley(&)
Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University Worldwide College of Aeronautics,

Daytona Beach, FL, USA
{millmark,Sam.Holley}@erau.edu
Abstract. As previously identified by the authors, digitized flight decks have

realigned SHELL model components and introduced cognitive overload con-
cerns. Considering changes from implementing Next Generation air traffic
management requirements in 2020, the authors assess digitized interfaces
associated with cockpit displays of information integral to performance based
navigation and similar operations. Focus is placed on Automatic Dependent
Surveillance Broadcast, digitized communications, and expanded electronic
flight bags. The ADSB (In) cockpit display will enable pilots to have flight
visual awareness on aircraft, terrain, weather and hazards to flight through live
satellite updates every second. Increased optical demands and cognitive loading
are anticipated for general aviation and commercial pilots, beyond operational
levels for those currently using advanced technologies. With nearly continuous
cognitive processing and embedded information in the enhanced SHELL model
by the authors, potential overload and concerns of situational awareness become
likely candidates for human factors problems. Addressing these concerns, areas
of emphasis for transition to NextGen 2020 operations are delineated, potential
risks among increased cognitive disparities identified, and suggested foci
recommended.
Keywords: SHELL Digitized flight deck Human factors Working memory

Crew resource management
1 Introduction
The next generation of Air Traffic Control (ATC) technological is slowly becoming a
reality for controlling the airspace over the United States (U.S.). NextGen as it is called
will modernize the old ATC system in the U.S. by switching it from land-based
technologies to satellite based technologies. The increased gains in efficiency and
safety have tremendous potential. NextGen aircraft technologies will not be interrupted
by signal intervals like previous equipment, but instead will be constant. Pilots will
now receive continuous output on other aircraft, terrain and weather from the more
accurate satellite fed devices. They will be able to fly more direct and efficient routes by
using Global Positioning Satellite (GPS) data from the satellites and will no longer
have to rely on a ground system of antiquated Navigation Aides to keep them on

H. Ayaz and L. Mazur (Eds.): AHFE 2018, AISC 775, pp. 3–13, 2019.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-94866-9_1
4 M. Miller and S. Holley
highways in the sky. NextGen will also boast of a better way of keeping track of all
aircraft in airspace through ADSB (Out) technology that continuously puts out the
aircrafts position every second through the use of satellites. This will act as a new form
of transponder to let air traffic controllers and pilots know exactly where other aircraft
are. The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has now mandated that all aircraft
flying in the U.S. be equipped with ADSB (Out) equipment by 2020. The goal of this
mandate is make the NextGen system fully functional. In the process of NextGen
becoming fully functional, pilots will have options to use ADSB (In) and Datalink
technologies to enhance their information. ADSB (In) will allow pilots to actually
know where the other participating aircraft are along with being made aware of where
the closest terrain is and how the weather will affect the flight. In addition, Datalink will
allow digitalized text communication in flight. With NextGen imminent starting in
2020, there is currently only an outlook of relief as the skies over the United States are
forecasted to get more crowded over the next 20 years and the current system cannot
handle that forecasted growth. While NextGen is the long awaited ATC infrastructure
for US airspace moving into the future, it is not without some serious questions to be
answered in the area of computer information and automation concerning Nextgen
cockpit technologies. How will these technologies affect both General Aviation and
Commercial pilots flying in the future US airspace?
2 Analyzing the Increase of Computer Usage on Human

Factors and Potential Human Error
The increase of computer information and automation in U.S. Commercial Cockpits

has been well documented over the last 30 years. What started with automated flight
controls, auto throttle and flight management systems designed to gain maximum fuel
efficiency in flight soon shifted to improved flight navigation flight navigation systems
and safety devices like Ground Proximity Warning Systems (GPWS), Traffic Collision
Avoidance Systems (TCAS), and Onboard Weather Radar. All these technologies
related to computer information and automation have greatly increased fuel efficiency,
flight navigation, while at the same time greatly enhancing aviation safety. However,
with the introduction of Electronic Flight Bags along with NextGen specific ADSB
(In) and Datalink communications devices working their way into the cockpit, there has
been a serious shift in how much computer information and automation is now
available to pilots. All this addition of technology sounds good until it can have
potential negative effects on the human performance in flight. Analysis of aviation
accident reports that involved some kind of computer information and automation in
the past 20 years indicates that the effects the computer information and automation on
pilots show potential deficiencies in the four following areas: (1) Complacency in
relying on computers, (2) Confusion and not understanding the computers,
(3) Becoming overly focused on a computer and distracted from flying, and (4) Using
the computer as optical inside only with little outward scanning. In Fig. 1, the SHELL
diagram for human factors analysis was updated in 2017 [1] to take into account the
increase of computer information and automation in the cockpit while including
NextGen technologies. In this SHELL 2017 model, the potential for possible human
Beyond 2020 NextGen Compliance 5
factors issues that could lead to human error can be seen more clearly. The Hardware
(H)-Liveware (L) and the Environment (E)-Liveware (L) linkages show the original
areas of the computer being introduced in the cockpit. The Software (S)-Liveware (L),
the Liveware (L)-Liveware (L) along with the Environment (E)-Liveware (L) show the
new areas that computers have been introduced into the cockpit in the form of EFB,
Datalink digitalized texting and ADSB (In) communications. The first important
observation made clearly visible in this model is that the computer information and
automation have become interfaces between what used to be direct linkages. In the
evolution of flight, the SHELL interfaces were originally direct linkages to the human
(Liveware (L)) at the center of the SHELL. However, in 2017 version of the SHELL,
the evolution of infused computer technologies in aircraft cockpits has created clear
computer interfaces in each linkage. Another important issue that is seen in the SHELL
Model 2017 is that the new computers (EFB and Datalink) added in the Software (S)-
Liveware (L) and Liveware (L)-Liveware (L) interfaces introduced in the last 15 years
have now made every computer interface concatenated so that they can potentially
overlap with one another. The most important observation in the SHELL Model 2017
is that those interface areas that have been newly created computer interfaces will grow
in use in the Software (S)-Liveware (L)-Liveware (L)-Liveware (L) and the Environ-
ment (E)-Liveware (L) as NextGen becomes more functional in 2020 and beyond.
Fig. 1. The SHELL model 2017 and computer/human factors analysis [1]
3 NextGen Cockpit Equipment and the Effect

of the Computer in the Cockpit in 2020 and Beyond
As shown in red in Fig. 1, within the Environment (E)-Liveware (L) linkage, the
ADSB (In) will become a much greater tool for pilots in the cockpit as it will give
constant visual updates to the pilots of the whereabouts of other terrain, other aircraft,
and weather, all on a small screen built into the ADSB- (In) equipment. With that,
navigation equipment will be linked to continuously updated satellite data to fly precise
inputted automated routes that can also fly around updated weather. To support this the
Software (S)-Liveware (L) linkage will continue to grow in use of the EFB. It is
assumed at this juncture of the FAA’s ADSB (Out) mandate by 2020 that the vast
majority of U.S. pilots both Commercial and in General Aviation will switch to the
efficiency gained from carrying an aviation oriented computerized tablet loaded with
pubs, maps and procedures that will update electronically. As this trend continues to
grow, there will also be another trend of EFBs and similar cockpit computer devices
directly hooking up to cockpit displays in 2020 and beyond. Pilots of NextGen will use
ADSB (In) data along with precision satellite navigation automation to fly with maps
and instrument approach plates that are computer generated from their EFB. Where the
NextGen equipment radically departs from normal aviation operations is in the area of
communications. Where once pilots observed gauges together and discussed the
readings with each other and the crew over cockpit radio, they have slowly changed to
observing digital readouts of similar information over the computer screen. Pilots who
once spoke to maintenance personnel or dispatchers via radio can now communicate
with them via a digitized electronic text format. NextGen in 2020 and beyond will also
favor more communications with ATC through a digitized text format called Datalink.
Although there are many pros and cons as to how much and when Datalink will be
ultimately used in the new ATC system, it has certainly already shown great promise
by being used at selected over-crowded airports in the U.S. for Standardized Departures
and Routing along with IFR Departure Clearances. Regardless of how digitalized
communication evolves in flight within the cockpit or with communications from the
cockpit to the ground, it will surely continue to grow. The growing use of computer
information and automation in U.S. cockpits directly related to NextGen will be
enormous in 2020 and beyond, but it is important at this juncture to note that it will
affect the majority of the U.S. Commercial pilots much differently from their General
Aviation counterparts.
4 The Influence of Computer Information and Automation

from Nextgen Cockpit Equipment on U.S. Commercial
Pilots in 2020 and Beyond
From a U.S. Commercial Pilot’s perspective, the advent of NextGen equipment or

related equipment like the EFB is inevitable and in many cases already happening. In
the case of the ADSB (In) technology, it is presumed that all the Major Commercial
Operators will be eventually equipped and gain the extra benefits for pilots that the
ADSB (In) gives in the form of a visual display for the aircraft’s relation to terrain,
other aircraft and updated weather. The human factors ergonomic issue related to this is
that U.S. CFR Part 121 carriers already have these three benefits in their cockpit layouts
in the form of GPWS, TCAS and Onboard Weather Radar. In fact, the integration and
improvement of these technologies over the last 30 years has brought the U.S. Com-
mercial Industry to its highest levels of safe operations in the last decade. The problem
with the addition of ADSB (In) for U.S. Commercial pilots is how to integrate the
ADSB (In) visual display of terrain to work with the GPWS. Similarly, how to inte-
grate the ADSB visual display of other aircraft into using the current TCAS system.
Also important is how to use the ADSB (In) live weather display with the Onboard
Weather Radar system. While the ADSB (In) seems like an immediate great addition of
redundant systems in a visual form to boost safety margins in aviation, at the same time
the three major technologies that ADSB (In) will support take a great deal of training
and crew coordination to use properly. With ADSB (In), new human factors guidelines
will need to be determined for the appropriate use of the ADSB (In) in U.S. commercial
cockpits. In particular how to use ADSB (In) with each system optimally will also need
to be determined. Will a priority still be given to respond to a TCAS alert if there is no
threat observed on the ADSB-in or vice versa? Along with new human factors
guidelines, training will also be imperative to integrate the use of ADSB (In) in sim-
ulators and Crew Resource Management. In the cases of the Software (S)-Liveware
(L) linkage of the SHELL 2017, many companies have already been standardizing and
upgrading their EFB devices for years. Though EFB and its informational software like
maps and approach plates are not FAA mandated NextGen cockpit devices, they are
certainly technologies that have been developing as strong supportive devices for
NextGen flight. As these EFB devices become more powerful and integrate more into
the cockpit displays, they will also call for more standardization and more training from
each U.S. Commercial carrier. The last perspective from Liveware (L)-Liveware
(L) linkage of the SHELL 2017 Model is related to communications and in the increase
use of digitized texting in the cockpit. Many U.S. carriers have already installed
Datalink and have capabilities of digitized texting in the cockpit. For the U.S. Com-
mercial industry this will mean finding a consensus on when and where to use such
digitized texting to communicate safely while at the same time finding where effi-
ciencies and safer operations can be gained without jeopardizing efficient radio com-
munications that already exist. The U.S. Commercial industry and their pilots should be
the benefactor of the NextGen related computer technologies in the cockpit as long as
the appropriate human factors guidelines are set along with the appropriate training for
their integration to avoid human error.
5 The Influence of Computer Information and Automation

from NextGen Cockpit Equipment on U.S. General
Aviation Pilots in 2020 and Beyond
The General Aviator in the U.S. will be affected much differently through the imple-
mentation of NextGen cockpit technologies. Assuming that the ADSB (In) technology
will someday be reasonably affordable, General Aviation enthusiasts will welcome the
safety gains immediately attained by installing the ADSB (In) component in their
cockpit to go with the mandatory ADSB-out component. Unlike their Commercial
Airline counterparts, the vast majority of General Aviation enthusiasts do not have
extra safety equipment in the cockpit to help them with deal with the Environment (E)-
Liveware (L) linkage in the SHELL 2017 Model. In fact, very few General Aviation
aircraft in the United States have GPWS, TCAS or Onboard Weather Radar in their
cockpits. Most General Aviators simply are made aware of the terrain by looking at it
or using maps. They keep separation from other aircraft by scanning more outward,
while sometimes working with ATC. For in flight weather, General Aviators use the
forecast and then are expected to use good judgement should the weather deteriorate.
Coming from a standpoint of having nothing to enhance safety, to now having
something that covers all three of the most dangerous parts of the aviation environment
is certainly a great boost for the General Aviator, but this upwelling of new tools for the
General Aviator could come with a human factors penalty. The penalty stems from the
fact that most General Aviators fly single piloted and are not in team trained crews like
their Commercial counterparts. Suddenly installing a magic video box in the form of
ADSB (in) within a General Aviation cockpit will give pilots the visual tools imme-
diately to help them avoid terrain, see other aircraft and work better with the weather,
but this will come at a cost of looking visually more inside instead of having a primary
scan outside. Experienced pilots with terrific scans could become overly focused while
looking at the smaller ADSB (In) screen and less outside the cockpit where their eyes
belong. Training General Aviators on how to integrate the ADSB (In) information into
their flying properly will be ongoing in 2020 and beyond. In the Software (S)-Hard-
ware (H) linkage in the SHELL 2017, General Aviators are not far behind their
commercial counterparts when it comes to EFBs. In fact, companies like Jeppesen have
come up with excellent EFB equipment for General Aviators that is far superior to the
former method of carrying maps and approach plates. This has been a major
enhancement for General Aviators over the past decade. This technology of cockpit
computer information is a tremendous help as long as the General Aviator is able to
operate the EFB device efficiently and not becoming overly focused on it while flying.
Efficient ways of using such EFBs for General Aviators will be the key if they are also
operating ADSB (In) equipment simultaneously. In the Liveware-Liveware (L) linkage
of the SHELL 2017, the General Aviator will be at a disadvantage of being single
piloted and trying to communicate through digitized text messaging while flying at the
same time. Although some advantages could be gained in the form of using digitalized
texting communications for copying taxi instructions, Standard Departures or copying
IFR clearances, the General Aviator will have to exercise extreme caution while
attempting to communicate digitally while taxing or in flight as the same human factors
that have deemed texting dangerous while driving a car could also be at work in a
single piloted aircraft as well. Although the General Aviation pilot will realize gains in
safety and efficiency through NextGen cockpit equipment, without proper human
factors standards and training, the General Aviator being often single piloted could fall
prey to human error caused by NextGen cockpit equipment.
6 NextGen Computer Technology in the Cockpit Could Lead

to Declines in Situational Awareness
The most important thing any pilot will learn related to situational awareness is to
prioritize to fly the aircraft in safe parameters first, navigate the aircraft second and then
communicate last. Aviate, navigate, communicate is an age old aviation adage that
keeps pilots safe and alive by prioritizing situational awareness while flying. The first
computers in aircraft aimed to increase situational awareness by helping keep that
‘aviate’ a priority by being directly integrated with the flight controls as depicted in the
SHELL Model 2017 under the Liveware (L)-Liveware (L) linkage. Computers were
added to the Liveware (L)-Environment (E) to help pilots improve their situational
awareness to navigate better, avoid terrain, other aircraft and bad weather in the pro-
cess. This was the older paradigm of using computers inflight to enhance efficiency in
the cockpit and increase situational awareness around the “aviate and navigate’ priority.
The new paradigm introduces more efficient ways to communicate through computer
technologies. In the new millennium cockpit, computer technologies have been
introduced: in the Environment (E)-Liveware (L) linkage though ADSB (In) to com-
municate visually to pilots about terrain, other aircraft and weather, in the Software (S)-
Liveware (L) linkage using EFB to communicate information visually to fly with and in
Liveware (L)-Liveware (L) using Datalink and texting to communicate visually with
digitized written language to others. This new paradigm of computers in the cockpit is
about communicating visually with pilots. Referring back to the old adage of ‘Aviate,
Navigate and Communicate’, the prioritizing situational awareness word of ‘Com-
municate’ was deemed the last priority in keeping overall situational awareness, but
now could suddenly become a higher priority with these new NextGen cockpit com-
puter technologies. Is it possible that ‘Aviate and Navigate” could be affected by these
new paradigm visual communication devices? Could these devices cause visual
communications to sometimes interfere and overwhelm the ‘Aviate and Navigate’
situational awareness priorities?
Figure 2 is a simple Risk Assessment Matrix [2] that exposes the potential for
problems with NextGen computer technologies in U.S. cockpits in 2020 and beyond.
Across the top of the Matrix from right to left shows the slow increase of usage of
computer information and automation in cockpits from 1980 to the 2020 FAA NextGen
mandate and beyond. Once 2020 occurs, so begins the common use of all the new
computer communications devices (ADSB (In), EFB and Datalink) in the cockpit. Due
to cost affordability, the fast growth in these NextGen cockpit technologies will not
happen immediately, but these communications computer tools for the cockpit will
increase in usage beyond 2020 and eventually the sheer numbers of this growth will
increase the probability of the occurrence of a loss of situational awareness related to
Aviate, Navigate and Communicate; especially if human factors standards and training
are not addressed. However, even with a herculean effort of human factors training and
safety campaigning by the FAA, the most critical area of ‘Aviate’ (flying the aircraft
safely) related to situational awareness could be left vulnerable on the left ‘Severity’
side of the Risk Assessment Matrix. This is because the lower priority of ‘Commu-
nicate’ in terms of the NextGen equipment could become visually overwhelming. The
main reason why this should be concerning is because we are at a juncture in using all
these new computerized cockpit tools together while having very little understanding of
how they work with the human mind in flight cognitively.
Fig. 2. Risk Assessment Matrix of the loss of situational awareness from the increased use of
computer information and automation in modern cockpits versus (Aviate, Navigate and
Communicate) [2]
7 NextGen 2020 Cognitive Processing Challenges
Previously discussed was the aspect that text information will replace audio, and that
digitized information will require looking down (inviting other issues), including the
tendency to turn off information feeds to reduce confusion and overload. Some
potential deficiencies in cognitive processing that pilots are likely to encounter when
adopting the new technology and procedures include confusion when interpreting the
digital output, distraction and excessive loading in working memory, and reduced
outward scanning for situational awareness. Since ADSB (Out) will be required in
Airspace Classes A, B, C, and E (above 10,000 feet), services like TIS-B (traffic
information) and FIS-B (flight information) will add to the cognitive processing
requirements for pilots, some of whom may not be familiar with these flight demands.
With regard to ADSB requirements now in effect in Europe, and required in 2020
within the U.S., potential cognitive differences may include latency in communications,
alerts, symbology, colors, selection of traffic by crew, and integrating TCAS alert
symbology. Other concerns [3] illuminate variations in electronic charting, e.g., terrain,
airspace, approach paths, and landing systems. With requirements for digitized infor-
mation and display increasingly mandatory in aircraft, the ability to discern similarities
and differences accurately could present a challenge for some general aviation pilots.
With standardization of display information elusive among manufacturers, this could
well present a problem into the foreseeable future.
An earlier convention was that humans process information at a set rate, although
later evidence showed the rate varies based on individual skills and type of information
involved. Limited capacity theory suggests a limit to how much information can be
allocated to performance, influenced by task complexity, and the allocation for primary
and secondary tasks. The serial process is sequential, the parallel process provides for
two or more channels operating simultaneously (although independently), and a hybrid
variant that may process serially and in parallel with convergence, but can produce
bottlenecks. In naturally occurring channels for vision or symbols these flow smoothly
in parallel channels. However, where multiple visual signals are moving in the same
channel, capacity is reached more readily and cognitive slowing may result [4]. This
suggests that working memory might take a parallel processing track as opposed to
sequential, which doubles the neural resources required and accelerates onset of
compromised cognitive processing. As the growth in visualized digital data increases
on the flight deck and in cockpits, the susceptibility for such delay in cognitive pro-
cessing increases.
The term multitasking describes performing multiple tasks at once, although the
evidence does not address adequately the issue of how people designate primary and
secondary tasks. This has prompted a concept of task-switching to explain how mul-
titasking is effective. Wickens [5] has determined that performance decrement rests on
whether more than one task is performed simultaneously calling upon the same per-
ceptual, cognitive, and psychomotor resources. Since most tasks are performed in
stages, resources are adequate for demands made, however, an individual’s load
capacity may be reached where a single, large task becomes paramount. This might be
the case where deconfliction decision making takes precedence with a less experienced
operator in the NextGen 2020 environment.
8 Cognitive Loading and NextGen 2020
Cain [4] defined mental workload as measures that characterize task performance
relative to operator capability. Earlier views that workload was principally additive,
with demands on undifferentiated resources, has been replaced by the perspective that
information processing comprises multiple resources operating differentially according
to task complexities. The inference of cognitive loading initially was measured by
direct observation of performance and use of rating scales and similar instruments to
gauge decrements in task execution. As psychophysiological measures have entered the
literature in greater emphasis, the point has been made that physiological methods do
not measure imposed load, and instead provide information of individual responses to
load. With less experienced operators entering the ADS-B environment, unaccustomed
cognitive loading may tax some pilots and crewmembers.
Variable capacity theory [6] provides for operator intentions in setting task prior-
ities and expanded channel capacity as workload increases, although fixed limits do not
appear to be reliably predictable. Coping and resilience have been suggested as
explanations for variable capacity and, along with several other proposed explanations
for adaptive responses, have opened the investigation into variable capacities subject to
situational relevance and individual states [7]. Fatigue, for instance, has been shown to
reduce speed of output [8]. In high task situations this will be further exacerbated.
A comparison to studies of text messaging brings to bear a directly relevant issue
with digitized cockpit communications. A comparison of heavy truck operation [9] and
aircraft suggests that elevated risk for crash or near-crash increases 2300% over non-
texting operations. Where ADS-B is initiated in single pilot operations, with no second
crew member available, it is prudent to assess the potential for a similar elevated risk
potential. Accompanying elevated risk invites increased anxiety, which increases
attention to threat-related stimuli that can arise from confusion while attempting to
comprehend the ADS-B information for less experienced pilots [10]. Recognition
primed decision making applies where a learned optimal response has been successfully
employed (often in emergencies) and can quickly be evaluated to meet a situation [11].
In such events, very experienced operators who regularly rehearse emergency events
can evaluate a situation more rapidly with coherence and have the benefit of RPD, where
general aviation pilots might be less able to develop a comparable level of skill.
Essentially, the adoption of ADS-B introduces several added degrees of freedom in
cognitive processes as a result of NextGen procedures [12]. When considering
Wickens’ [5] concept for rearrangement of cognitive channels, where variable upper
limits exist, the potential for elasticity is enhanced. In the case of general aviation
pilots, however, not acquiring the associated task selection and sequencing skills
actually reduces the degrees of freedom and invites potentially catastrophic outcomes.
With added ATM and ADS-B requirements, general aviation pilots are more likely to
reach a fixed upper limit of channel capacity and resulting notable decline in perfor-
mance. A further consideration is the difficulty when bifurcation becomes imminent, as
with a critical decision point. The influence of ensuing instability in cognitive processes
suggests that pilots with high or excessive cognitive loading may alter a behavior
pattern that could set into action an undesired sequence of events.
Further study of potential areas for concern in meeting the NextGen 2020 envi-
ronment is needed. Task performance is situationally dependent, however, changes and
response time are normally generalizable. A minus is that analysis may not indicate the
unobserved part of the process. Still unresolved is the issue of whether mental work-
load is a scalar or vector quantity, particularly in regard to predictive modeling. As a
scalar measure, cognitive loading is approached as a one-dimensional measurement
(magnitude) of a single quantity. A vector approach, on the other hand, can have two
measures (e.g., magnitude and direction) associated with a quantity. The relevance to
cognitive workload is in determining relationships among vector measures and sub-
sequent reliability and validity for prediction of cognitive processing and behaviors [4].
The effect is somewhat obvious when considering the added cognitive loading for
NextGen 2020 ADS-B and allied demands for new or less experienced pilots.
Operators with poor understanding of a situation are prone to errors. Where this is
attributable to lack of awareness rather than proficiency failure, a question of cognitive
ability has been investigated. Working memory and spatial memory have been areas of
special interest, along with cognitive style characteristics [13]. With added cognitive
load, this could precipitate earlier onset of fatigue, which is reflected in the CUSP
model, described operationally as a decrement in work capacity over time. With added
cognitive workload associated with NextGen 2020, fatigue occurs earlier and memory
and perception are the first to degrade [14]. This can be illustrated with the com-
plexities the general aviation pilot might encounter when ADSB (In) becomes a
requirement. The U.S. FAA has mapped this system and complexities in Advisory
Circular 172-B.
In summary, the growing optical and cognitive workloads for pilots in a digitized
environment, represented in SHELL Model 2017, will likely be challenged further with
implementation of NextGen 2020 and ADS-B. That, and increasing use of electronic
flight bags, accelerates risk of cognitive overload, confusion, fatigue, and loss of sit-
uational awareness. Regulators, manufacturers, operators, and pilots might take notice
of these impending threats and address them in upgraded training and procedures.
References
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Compliance: Risk Assessment Matrix of Situational Awareness (Cockpit Computer Use
versus Aviate, Navigate, Communicate). Presentation to FAA Aviation Safety Conference,
Honolulu (2017)
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Department of Transportation, Report Number DOT-VNTSC-FAA-10-08, Washington DC
(2010)
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Toronto (Canada) Conference Paper Number RTO-TR-HFM-121-Part II (2007)
5. Wickens, C.D.: Multiple resources and mental workload. Hum. Factors 50, 449–455 (2008)
6. Ralph, J., Gray, W.D., Schoelles, M.J.: Squeezing the balloon: analyzing the unpredictable
effects of cognitive overload. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics
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(2011)
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attentional control theory. Emotion 7(2), 336–353 (2007)
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J. Clinical Nursing 15, 1023–1032 (2006)
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S.J., Koopmans, M., Pincus, D. (eds.) Chaos and Complexity in Psychology: The Theory of
Nonlinear Dynamical Systems, pp. 206–241. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
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Psychol. Sci. 20, 240–245 (2011)
Use of Dry Electrode Electroencephalography
(EEG) to Monitor Pilot Workload
and Distraction Based on P300 Responses
to an Auditory Oddball Task
Zara Gibson1(&), Joseph Butterfield1, Matthew Rodger1,

Brian Murphy1, and Adelaide Marzano2
1
Queen’s University Belfast, University Road, Belfast BT7 1NN,
Northern Ireland
{zgibson01,j.butterfield,m.rodger,
brian.murphy}@qub.ac.uk
2
University of the West of Scotland, 1 County Place,
Paisley PA1 1BN, Scotland
Adelaide.Marzano@uws.ac.uk
Abstract. This study aims to examine whether dry electrode EEG can detect
and show changes in the P300, in a movement and noise polluted flight simu-
lator environment with a view to using it for workload and distraction moni-
toring. Twenty participants completed take-off, cruise and landing flight phases
in a flight simulator alongside an auditory oddball task. Dry EEG sensors
monitored the participants’ brain activity throughout the task and P300
responses were extracted from the resulting data. Results show that dry EEG can
extract P300 responses as participants register oddball tone stimuli. The method
can indicate workload for each condition based on the outputs from the EEG
electrodes; landing (M = 287.5) and take-off (M = 484.6) procedures were
more difficult than cruising (M = 636.6). With the differences between cruising
and landing being statistically significant (p = .001). Outcomes correlate with
participant NASA-TLX scores of workload that report landing to be the most
difficult.
Keywords: P300 Flight simulation Workload Dry EEG Human factors
1 Introduction
1.1 The P300

Electroencephalography (EEG) is an electrophysiological monitoring method which is
used to record electrical activity of the human brain from multiple electrodes/sensors
placed on the scalp [1]. Event-related potentials (ERPs) are often extracted from the
EEG signal. An ERP is a measured brain response that is generated by the brain as a
result of and related to, a specific sensory, cognitive or motor event occurring internally
or externally [2]. ERPs are particularly useful as they can be recorded noninvasively
whilst also providing a range of useful information about cognitive processes such as

H. Ayaz and L. Mazur (Eds.): AHFE 2018, AISC 775, pp. 14–26, 2019.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-94866-9_2
Use of Dry Electrode Electroencephalography (EEG) 15
stimulus detection and attention. When recorded by EEG, the P300 (sometimes referred
to as P3 or P3b in literature) surfaces as a positive deflection in voltage with a latency
of roughly 250 to 500 ms (Fig. 1) [3].
Fig. 1. An image of a P300 response to an unexpected stimuli (image from Waryasz 2017 [4])
The P300 amplitude is sensitive to the amount of attentional resources engaged

during dual-task performance. Normally a primary task varying in cognitive demand is
completed whilst the participant is engaged in a secondary task of mentally counting
visual or auditory oddball stimuli. As the primary task increases in difficulty the P300
amplitude decreases. This is due to the primary task taking up more mental resources,
thereby less are available to devote to the secondary oddball task. Hence, the amplitude
of the P300 decreases to reflect the decrease in attentional resources devoted to the task.
This occurs regardless of the modality of the primary task [5].
1.2 EEG and Flight Simulation

Since EEG emerged in the 20th century, there has been little variation in how EEG is
measured. Currently manufacturers and researchers are moving towards developing
wireless, mobile-based EEG and this has driven the development of alternative elec-
trodes for physiological monitoring. The conventional wet adhesive Ag/AgCl elec-
trodes used almost universally in clinical applications today provide an excellent signal
but are not compatible for mobile use [6]. Technological advances in the area, such as a
new generation of dry electrodes and wireless EEG caps, have opened the way for EEG
to now be used in a much wider range of instances and places even more of a priority
on developing aspects such as usability and signal quality [7]. In their review of the dry
sensor EEG development, Lopez-Gordo et al. [7] suggest that although a broad
diversity of approaches have been evaluated without a consensus in procedures and
methodology, performance is not far from that obtained with wet electrodes. Hence,
dry electrodes can be considered a useful tool in a variety of novel applications. One
area of interest for dry electrode EEG is flight simulation. A wireless and portable EEG
headset allows for more accurate flight-testing as pilots can interact normally without
concern for wiring. A concern of utilising dry EEG however is that the movement of
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nail holes; also putty up any of the grain that may appear too open,
or else rub into the grain some lead mixed up very heavy.
The body, after having received three coats of lead, and been
puttied up, may now stand for two or three days. When it is again
taken in hand, sand-paper off any putty that may be above the level
of the surface; dust off, and brush on a level coat of lead, which must
dry hard and firm. Every coat of lead should be laid on as level as
possible, and made to fill up the grain of the wood as much as
possible. These coats are called “rough stuff.” The body may now
stand for three or four days, when it will be ready for the filling up.
There are two very important things to be studied in coach-
painting. First, to form a surface hard enough to hold out the varnish
and disguise the grain of the wood; and second, to have the first and
intermediate coats of paint sufficiently elastic to adhere and yield to
the natural action of the wood without cracking or flaking off. In
effecting one of these results we are apt to affect the other; and
nothing but the utmost care, on the part both of the manufacturer of
the essential ingredients and of the person who prepares them for
use, can insure durability.
The leather-covered portions are usually primed with two coats of
black Japan, reduced with a little turpentine.
A good stopping material for nail holes, &c., is made of dry lead
and Japan gold size. It is called “hard stopper.”
The rough coatings should dry firmly, possessing only sufficient
elasticity to bind them to the surface. The first coat will bear a trifle
more oil than the remaining ones, and should stand about four days
before the others are put on, which can be done every other day.
Five coats of filling up are next added, composed as follows:—
2 parts filling up stuff.
1 part tub lead.
2 parts turpentine.
1 part Japan gold size.
½ „ bottoms of wearing varnish.
The first coat should cover every portion of the lead surface, be
well brushed in, but not allowed to lie heavy at the corners. The
remaining coats may be applied reasonably heavy, but kept from
lapping over the edges or rounding the sharp corners, and thus
destroying the clean sharp lines of the body-maker.
Any defects noticed while filling in should be puttied or stopped,
ever bearing in mind that the perfection in finish aimed at is only
secured by care at every step taken.
The leather-covered parts generally have three additional coats of
filling in.
The time allowed for each coat to dry may be extended as far as
convenient, but there is nothing to be gained by allowing weeks to
intervene between the coatings. When a coat is hard it is ready for
another; and it is far better to have the body filled and set aside than
to divide the time between the coatings, and probably be compelled
to rub out the body before the last coat is firm. Of course, the time
occupied by the coats of filling in to dry varies according to its
composition. If much oil be used, it will take a longer time for each
coat to dry; but the above composition may be applied one coat
every other day.
The first coat may be applied rather thinner than the others, and is
improved by being mixed with a little more white-lead. It should also
be made more elastic than the succeeding ones, as it will then take a
firmer hold on the “dead” lead coat over which it is placed,
contributing a portion of its elasticity to that coat, and also cling more
firmly to the hard drying coats which follow.
The body having been filled in may be set aside to harden, or if the
smith is ready for it this is the best time for him to take it in hand, as
any dents or burns that he may cause can now easily be remedied
without spoiling the appearance of the vehicle. Later on, this is a
matter of great difficulty, if not impossibility. Any bruises should be
puttied; any parts which may happen to be burned must have the
paint scraped off bare to the wood. Prime the bare spots, and putty
and fill them to bring them forward the same as the general surface.
A material has recently been brought into the English market
called “permanent wood filling,” which is confidently recommended
as effecting a saving in time, expense, and labour, and at the same
time more effectually closing the pores of the wood than the ordinary
filling now in use. This invention is due to a Polish exile named
Piotrowski, who took refuge in America, and there introduced it about
1867, since which date it has found its way into the chief carriage
factories in the United States. It is applied to the bare wood, one coat
being given to bodies and two coats to carriage parts. This closes
the pores, holds the grain immovably in its place, and is so
permanent in its effect that neither exposure to dampness, nor
atmospheric changes, nor the vibrations to which a carriage is so
subject can affect the grain. The satisfaction which this material
appears to give to the Americans, who pride themselves on the
superiority of their carriage-painting, ought to induce our English
coach-builders to inquire after it; for if all that we hear of it be correct,
it must assuredly be a valuable acquisition to the paint shop.
In rubbing down use pumice-stone. It is best to begin on top and
follow on down, so that the filling water may not run down on to any
part that has been finished. Water should not stand for any length of
time on the inside of the body; and when the rubbing is completed
wash off clean outside and in, and dry with a chamois kept for the
purpose.
The body, when dry, receives a staining coat, and is to be carefully
sand-papered over, the corners cleaned out, and put on a coat or
two coats of dark lead colour, made of tub lead, lampblack, raw oil,
and a small quantity of sugar of lead, and reduced to a proper
consistency with Japan gold size and turpentine. When dry scratch
over the lead colour with fine sand-paper, which will make it appear
of a lighter colour; we shall then be able to detect any low or sunk
places by reason of the shadow. Putty up any imperfections with
putty made of lead and varnish, and when dry face down with lump
pumice and water. Follow with fine sand-paper, when the surface will
be in a condition to receive the colour coats. Sometimes, after
cleaning off, another coat of dark lead colour is laid on.
Analysing the foregoing, we find we have used—
1 priming coat of lead (or leather parts, 2 coats of
black varnish instead).
2 thin coats lead colour, and stopped up.
5 coats of filling up (8 coats on leather parts).
1 staining coat, rubbed down and cleaned off.
2 coats dark red colour, stopped up, and carefully rubbed down.
1 coat dark lead colour.
—
12 coats, and ready for colour.
So much for the body parts. To the carriage parts two coats of
priming are laid on, which are worked in the same way as those
applied to the body. All cavities are then stopped with hard stopper,
to which a little turpentine is added in order to make it sand-paper
easily. Two coats of quick-drying lead colour are then applied to the
wood parts. The whole is then well sand-papered down, and the
grain should be found well filled and smooth. A thin coat of oil lead
colour is then laid on, and when dry sand-papered down; any joints
or open places between the tire and felloes of the wheels are
carefully puttied up with oil putty. The carriage parts are then ready
for colour. This time we have applied—
2 coats of lead priming, stopped up.
2 coats of lead, thoroughly sand-papered.
1 coat (thin) of lead colour, sand-papered and puttied up.
—
5 coats, and ready for colour.
The colours are to be ground very fine, kept clean, and spread on
with the proper brushes. If the panels are to be painted different from
the other parts, lay on the black first, for if any black falls on the
panel colour it will occasion some trouble by destroying the purity of
a transparent colour. By repeatedly turning the brush over while
using it, there is less liability to accidents of this kind.
The colouring of the body is finished as follows:—For the upper
quarters and roof grind ivory black in raw oil to a stiff consistency,
add a little sugar of lead finely ground as a drier, and bring to the
required consistency with black Japan and turpentine. Lay on two
coats of this, and then two coats of black Japan, and rub down. Then
face off the moulding, and give a thin coat of dead black, after which
apply another coat of black Japan, and flat again. The whole should
then be varnished with hard drying varnish, flatted down, and
finished with a full coat of wearing body varnish. The varnish should
have at least three days to dry; five or six would be better. The first
coat of rubbing varnish may be applied thinner than the others, in
order to avoid staining the colours.
The pencils used on mouldings should be large enough to take in
the whole width at once, and let the colour run evenly along,
avoiding laps or stoppages, except at the corners, where it cannot be
helped. Avoid the use of turpentine in varnish if possible; but if the
varnish be dark and heavy, sufficient turpentine added to make it
flow evenly will not hurt it. The half elastic and fine bristle brushes
are better for working heavy varnish than the sable or badger.
In varnishing a body begin on the roof, bringing the varnish to
within 2 or 3 inches of the outer edges. Next, the inside of doors, &c.,
then the arch. When these are finished, start on the head rail on one
side, lay the varnish on heavy, and follow quickly to the quarter. The
edge on the roof, which was skipped before, is to be coated and
finished with the outside, thus preventing a heavy edge. Continue
round the body, finishing the boot last.
The frames and other loose pieces about a coach should be
brought forward along with the body, and not left as is often done.
The frames are most conveniently handled by a device similar to a
swinging dressing-glass; a base and two uprights stoutly framed
together, allowing space for the frame to swing. It is held in its
position by two pointed iron pins, one fixed and the other movable.
This is very convenient for varnishing, as the painter can examine
his work by tilting it to any angle, and thus detect any pieces of dirt,
&c.
If the body is to be lake in colour, the lake should be ground in raw
oil, stiff, and reduced with turpentine and hard drying varnish. The
same with dross black and Indian red. Over lakes and greens two
coats of hard drying varnish should be applied, and one coat of
finishing.
If the body is to be blue, mix ultramarine blue with one-half raw oil
and turpentine, and bring it to a workable consistency by thinning
with hard drying body varnish. Give the body two coats, and after
each a slight flatting; then give two more coats of the same with
varnish added.
When Prussian blue is used, two coats are applied, and white is
added, if necessary, to bring it to the required shade. The blues will
dry sufficiently well when merely ground in raw oil, stiff, and reduced
with turpentine, and it is better not to add a drier over blues; only one
coat of hard drying body varnish should be given, and one finishing
coat.
In no case should the painter allow his oil colours to dry with a
gloss. He must always flat them and give them the appearance of
dead colour. This is particularly important, in case rough stuff or
quick-drying colour is to be used over it.
The carriage parts are finished as follows:—Two coats of lead
colour are first laid on, composed in the same way as those for the
body before the colour is applied. Then stop all parts requiring it with
hard stopper, a little reduced with turpentine to sand-paper easily. To
the wood parts apply two coats of quick lead, composed of dry lead
and lampblack ground in gold size and thinned with turpentine.
Sand-paper down thoroughly, and the grain will be found smooth and
well filled up. A thin coat of oil lead colour is then applied, and sand-
papered down when dry; and at this stage any open parts between
the tire and felloe of the wheels, &c., should be again stopped up
with oil putty. A coat of colour varnish follows, then a second, with
more varnish added. The parts are then flatted and striped; another
light coat of clear varnish is given, and after being flatted down the
fine lines are added, and the whole is finished with a good coat of
wearing varnish.
The carriage parts are generally painted one or two tones lighter
than the colour of the panels of the body, except where the panel
colour is of a hue that will not admit of it. Certain shades of green,
blue, and red may be used on panels, but would not, when made a
tint or two lighter, be suitable for a carriage part. Dark brown, claret,
and purple lake would not be open to this objection, because, to the
majority of persons, they are colours which are pleasing to the eye,
both in their deep and medium tones.
When the panels are to be painted green, blue, or red, and the
painter wishes to carry these colours on to the carriage part, it is
better to use them for striping only, and let the ground colour be
black.
A carriage part painted black may be made to harmonise with any
colour used on the body, as the striping colours can be selected so
as to produce any desired effect. Brilliant striping can be brought out
on dark colours only, while, if the ground colour be light, recourse
must be had to dark striping colours to form a contrast. The carriage
part should not detract from the appearance of the body; that is,
there should be sufficient contrast between the two to bring out the
beauties of the body. A plainly finished body will appear to better
advantage on a showy carriage, and a richly painted body on one
that is not very ornate.
In striping the carriage parts, the bright colours should be used
sparingly. A fine line placed on the face of the spokes and naves,
and distributed over the inside carriage, would look far better than
when each side of the spokes, the faces, the naves, and felloes, &c.,
are striped on both sides.
The coatings of varnish contribute largely to the durability as well
as beauty of a carriage part. The ground and striping colours are
shown in their purity only after they are varnished and have a good
surface, and the test of wearing depends on the quantity and quality
of varnish applied.
Every carriage part should have at least two coats of clear varnish.
The first coat of varnish to be applied over the colour and varnish;
the second, a good finishing coat, possessing body, and good
wearing qualities. Ground pumice and water must be used to cut
down the varnish, otherwise the finishing coat will be robbed of its
beauty.
In laying on the finishing coat, avoid the extremes of putting it on
too thick or too thin. Lay on a medium coat. A thin one will appear
gritty and rough; and one too heavy will sink in and grow dim.
From the above description, it will be seen that painting a coach is
a tedious operation, and one which consumes a great deal of time in
its execution; but, if well done, the result will certainly be very
satisfactory. In no case should the painting be hurried, for by
allowing each coat of paint or varnish sufficient time to dry its
durability is insured.
A considerable amount of time is generally spent by the painter in
work which does not really belong to him—that of mixing and
grinding his colours. Where the muller and slab are used, they
occasion a great deal of labour, and the tones of the colours are
liable to be injured by the heat generated in the process; and even
where the hand mills are used, the process is by no means so
cleanly as it ought to be. And under the heading of waste, this must
always be a source of loss to the manufacturer, for the painter, for
fear of not mixing up sufficient colour for his use, generally prepares
too great a quantity, and as a rule, the surplus is waste, for it is no
use to employ stale colours in painting vehicles, however well it may
do in house painting.
What we want is to have the colours ready ground for the painter’s
hand, and against this has been urged the objection, that the
delicate colours would lose their purity, and all colours be more or
less affected by it. That this is utterly fallacious is seen by the fact
that paints and colours ready ground and prepared are the rule in
America. The invention of the machinery, &c., for this purpose, is due
to Mr. J. W. Masury, of New York, and he grinds pigments of the
hardest description to the most impalpable fineness without injuring
the tones of the most delicate; and by a process of his own
preserves them, so that the painter has nothing to do but to reduce
them to the consistency he may require for the work in hand. He
says they effect a saving of from 20 to 50 per cent. both of labour
and material. It is difficult to understand why so valuable an invention
is not more general in this country.
Irregularities in Varnish.
Varnish is subject to various changes after having been applied to

a body or carriage part. It crawls, runs, enamels, pits, blotches,
smokes or clouds over, and in the carriage parts gathers up and
hangs in heavy beads along the centre of the spokes, &c.
These irregularities will happen at times with the very best varnish
and the most skilled workmanship, and surrounded with everything
necessary to insure a perfect job.
The only reason that can be assigned for it is atmospheric
influence. These peculiarities have occupied a large portion of the
time of the trade, and no other solution has been arrived at than the
above.
The defects of varnishes should be divided into two classes: those
which take place while in the workshop and those which show
themselves after the vehicle has left the hands of the maker. The
defects which show themselves in the varnish room are those of
“spotting,” “blooming,” “pin-holing,” “going off silky,” “going in dead.”
Those which take place afterwards are “cracking,” “blooming,” “mud-
spotting,” and loss of surface, sometimes amounting to its almost
total destruction.
The two classes should be considered separately; and assuming
that the workmanship is of the best quality, the latter class of defects,
with the exception of blooming, are in no way attributable to the
varnish; and blooming is caused by the atmosphere being
overcharged with moisture, as would be the case before a storm,
and it is soon remedied. Cracking will arise from too great an
exposure to the sun, just as any other material will be damaged by
unfair treatment. Mud-spotting will arise from using the carriage in
muddy or slushy roads before the varnish is properly dry. The loss of
surface will depend largely on the coachman, who, from ignorance or
negligence, may rub down the panels of a carriage until its glossy
surface entirely disappears; and if the stable is contiguous to the
coach-house this destruction will be assisted by the ammoniacal
vapours arising from the manure, &c.
The other defects belong to the inherent nature of the varnish as
at present manufactured, and admitting the secondary cause to be
atmospheric influence, it is necessary to inquire why it is that varnish
should be subject to such influence. According to the usual way of
making varnishes, we know that various metallic salts and chemical
compounds are used to increase their drying properties. All these will
contain a certain definite amount of water, termed “water of
crystallization.” If deprived of this water they lose their crystalline
form, but they acquire a tendency of again assuming it by attracting
to themselves a proportionate amount of water when it is brought
within their power. Now the heat employed in making varnishes is
sufficient to expel this water; but the presence of the salts is sooner
or later detected, for when the varnish is applied to the work these
salts absorb moisture from the atmosphere, and by becoming
partially crystallized cause what is known as “blooming,” “spotting,”
and “pin-holing.” The tendency to bloom will always remain, even
after the varnish has hardened. But if any of these effects take place
in the varnishing room, while the varnish is drying, it will be fatal to
the appearance of the carriage.
To insure as near perfection as possible we want a substitute for
these objectionable driers, which will not be subject to atmospheric
influence.
CHAPTER XII.
ORNAMENTAL PAINTING.
monograms.
At the present time nearly all possessors of carriages have their
private marks painted on some part of the panels. These take the
form of monograms, initial letters, crests, and heraldic bearings or
coats of arms. The monogram is the commonest. For crests and
coats of arms a duty is levied, from which monograms are free.
A few examples are subjoined. They can be multiplied to any
extent; and designing monograms and initial letters would be
excellent practice for the apprentice.
Fig. 33.—Lay in C with dark blue, light blue,
and chrome yellow, No. 2; lighted with A to be
in Tuscan red, lighted with vermilion and
orange; V with olive green, lighted with a
bright tint of olive green and white. Separate
the letters with a wash of asphaltum.
Fig. 34.—Paint C a tan colour shaded with
burnt sienna, shaded with asphaltum to form
the darkest shades. Put in the high lights with
Fig. 33.—V. A. C.
white toned with burnt sienna. Colour I with
dark and light shades of purple, lighted with
pale orange; N to be lake colour lighted with vermilion. The above
may be varied by painting the upper half of the letters with the
colours named, and the lower portions in dark tints of the same
colour. When this is done, care must be taken
to blend the two shades, otherwise it will look
as if the letters are cut in two.
Fig. 35.—Paint the
upper half of O a light
olive green, and the
lower half a darker
tone of the same
colour; T to be lake,
lighted with vermilion
Fig. 34.—I. N. C.
above the division
made by the letter S,
no high lighting to be used on the bottom
portion of the stem; S to be painted red
Fig. 35.—O. T. S. brown, lighted with orange; or the colours
may be laid on in gold leaf, and the above
colours glazed over it.
Fig. 36.—This combination forms a
pleasing variety, and will afford good
practice in the use of the pencil. Lay in
the letters as indicated by the shading,
the letter V to be darker than A, and T
deeper in tone than either V or A. The
letters may all be laid on with gold leaf,
and afterwards glazed with colours to
suit the painter’s taste. The vine at the
base may be a delicate green tinged
with carmine.
Fig. 37.—This is of French design. Fig. 36.—V. A. T.
The letters furnish an odd yet attractive
style. It will be noticed that the stem of
the letter T covers the centre perpendicularly, and that the outer
lower portions of A and R are drawn to touch on the same line. The
main stems of these letters terminate in twin forms, arranged so as
to cross each other at the centre of the monogram and balance each
other on either side. In the matter of its colouring, it may be
mentioned that the letters in a monogram are
very often painted all in one colour, and
separated at the edges by a streak of white or
high light. Monograms painted in this manner
should be drawn so that the design will not be
confused by ornamentation; that is, the main
outlines of each letter should be distinctly
defined, and the spaces must be so arranged
as not to confuse the outlines. The pattern
here given may be coloured carmine, and the
Fig. 37.—A. R. T.
edges separated by straw colour or blue, and
the letters be defined by canary colour, or a
lighter tint of blue than the bodies of the letters are painted.
Fig. 38.—If the ground colour of the panels
is claret or purple the letters may be painted
with the same colour, lightened up with
vermilion and white, forming three distinct
tints; on brown, coat the letters with lighter
shades of brown; and so on with other
colours.
Fig. 38.—T. O. M.
Initial Letters.
A well painted initial letter is certainly quite equal to a monogram;
but then it must be well painted, because, as it stands alone, it has
only itself to rely upon for any effect, whereas, in a monogram, the
component letters mutually assist each other.
Fig. 39.—This letter possesses all the grace of outline that could
be desired in a single letter. Paint the letter in gold, shaded with
asphaltum and lighted with white. If a colour be used, have one that
agrees in tone with the striping on the carriage part; that is to say, if
blue be used in striping, then use the same kind of blue for the letter,
and so on with other colours.
We may here mention that all this kind of
painting is done on the last rubbing coat of
varnish, so that the letters receive a coat of
varnish when the finishing coat is given.
Fig. 40.—The
natural form of this
letter is graceful,
being composed of
curves bearing in
Fig. 39.—D. opposite directions,
and which blend into
each other, forming a continuous but varied
line. The ornamentation also falls into the
shape of the letter naturally. The upper and
lower ends of the letter terminate in three
stems, covered by three-lobed leafing, and
the main stem of the letter is preserved in Fig. 40.—S.
shape by appearing to grow out naturally from
its outer and inner edges.
Lay in the letter with gold, on which work out the design with
transparent colours. If colours only be employed the panel colour
may be taken as part of the colouring of the letter; for instance, if the
panel be dark brown, lake, blue, or green, mix up lighter tints of
whichever colour it may be, and considering the panel colour as the
darkest shade, lighten up from it.
Fig. 41.—This letter will please by the novelty of its ornamentation.
The body of the letter retains its natural outline almost wholly. From
the upper part of the thin stem springs a scroll, which curves
downward, reaching to the middle of the letter, and from this grows
out a second scroll, serving to ornament the lower portions.
Lay in the colour in harmony with the striping colour, deepening
the tone of the colour on the stem of the letter, as shown by the
shade lines. The leafing should be made out with light, medium, and
dark tints, blended into each other so as to avoid the scratchy
appearance which an opposite method produces.
Fig. 41.—V.
Crests and Heraldic Bearings.

It would be impossible to give anything like a comprehensive
series of these in this, or indeed in a very much larger work, as their
number and variety are so great. The examples subjoined are given
as exercises in colouring; and, if the student desires to extend his
studies in this direction, most stationers will supply him with sheets
of them at a trifling cost, and to them he may apply the principles
enumerated below.
Fig. 42.—This is a small ornament, but it
will disclose to the painter whether he has got
hold of the method of handling the “cutting-up
pencil.” If, in attempting the circular part, the
hand becomes inclined to be unsteady in its
motion, and create a lack of confidence, the
painter should practise until assured that the
hand will obey the will.
The ornamental part to be gold, shaded
Fig. 42.
with asphaltum, and high light with a delicate
pink, composed of flake white and light red.
The wreaths may be painted blue and white. Mix up three lines of
blue, placing the darkest at the bottom or lower part of each band
shown, as shaded in the figure. The white bands should not be of
pure white, but a light grey, made by mixing a little black with the
white colour. For the high light running along the centre of the
wreath, use white tinted with yellow. The space covered with
diagonal lines may either be left plain, showing the panel colour, or
barred across with grey lines made of flake white and black, tinged
with carmine.
Fig. 43.—This is the letter V combined
with a garter. Size in the entire pattern,
and lay the pattern in with gold, and glaze
over the inner part of the garter with a light
blue, the inner and outer edges to remain
gold. The flying ribbon to be pink,
composed of carmine and white, and the
shading to be clear carmine, with carmine
saddened with black for the deeper tones.
The stems of the letter V to be green,
shaded with a reddish brown, and the Fig. 43.
leafing to be the same colours.
Fig. 44.—Paint the cap crimson, the wreath green and grey,
lighted with a delicate pink. The circular part to be gold, shaded with
asphaltum tinted with carmine; the outside border of shield to be gold
also; the upper division of the shield to be red, deep and rich in tone.
The chevron, or white angular band across the shield, to be a grey,
lighted up with pure white. The lower division of the shield to be blue,
and the deep shades to be purple. Paint the leafing at the base with
a colour mixed of burnt umber, yellow, and lake; shade with
asphaltum tinted with carmine, and put in the high lights with orange
or vermilion.
Fig. 45.—This is from a design by Gustave Doré. It is an odd but
still pretty design. Lay in the whole of the pattern in gold; shade the
details with verdigris darkened with asphaltum; put in the high lights
with pink, composed of light red and white. The escutcheon may be
coloured with light brown, carmine, and dark brown. The edges of
the diagonal bar to be dotted minutely with vermilion.
Fig. 45.
Fig. 46.—Outline the garter

with gold; the buckle and slide to
be gold also. Fill in the garter
with light and dark tints of blue,
and put in the high lights with
canary colour. Paint the floral
Fig. 44. gorgons in brown shades, and
light with orange and clear
yellow. A small portion of lake added to
these browns will cause them to bear
out richly when varnished. Let the
medium lights and shades
predominate, and the high lights
added, first carefully considering their
true positions, and then touching them
in with sharp strokes of the pencil,
which will give life and “go” to the
details. The pendent stems with leaves
and berries may be coloured olive
green, and shaded with russet. When
Fig. 46. the painting of this ornament is dry it
will be considerably improved by
glazing.
Fig. 47.—The central pattern is Caduceus, a Roman emblem. On
the rod or centre staff the wings are represented “displayed,” and the
two serpents turning round it signify
power, the wings fleetness, and the
serpents wisdom.
This pattern would look well in
gold, with the dark parts shaded
with black to the depths shown on
the sketch; the lighter tones being
greys, warm in tone. The serpents
may be put in with carmine, as also
the wings and head, and the rod
carmine deepened with black.
Various treatments of colouring
may be applied to this pattern, and
thinking out some of these will be
very good exercise for the ingenuity
of the painter. Fig. 47.
Fig. 48.—
Put the pattern in in gold, separating the parts
where necessary with shadow lines, and
produce the effect of interlacing by a judicious
use of high light lines and deep black lines.
The best pencil suited to this class of
ornament is a “cutting-up” pencil an inch long.
Having traced the pattern on the panel,
commence by painting the crest, and next the
main upper left-hand division of the scroll
part, paying no attention to the leafing or
minor details. It will be noticed that the centre
Fig. 48. line of the heavy leafing is a part of the scroll
line, which passes from the wreath or ribbon
at the top, and is completed at the base; so
that to secure easy curves this line should be laid in through its
whole length, and the leafing or any minor dividing lines be governed
by it. Next lay in the other half of the pattern in the same manner,
and having secured these main curves the subordinate details may
be added.
Where two fine lines cross each other, the effect of one line
passing underneath the other may be produced by simply lighting
one of the lines across the intersection, which by contrast will make
the gold or colour of the other line appear darker, and as though the
lighted line passed over it and cast a shadow.
Paint the wreath blue and white, the crest to be merely lighted with
the colour used for high lighting the other parts.
Fig. 49.—This consists of a species of
dragon, having the head, neck, and wings of
a bird, and the body of a wild beast. He
supports a Norman shield, the “fess” or centre
part displaying a Maltese cross.
In painting this ornament, first get a correct
outline of the whole; then mix up two or three
tints of the colour you design painting it,
having a pencil for each, and a clean pencil Fig. 49.
for blending the edges, so that no hard lines
may appear at the junction of the different
colours. Lay on the shaded portions first, then the half lights, keeping
them subdued in tone, so as to allow for the finishing touches
showing clear and distinct.
On a claret-colour panel the whole may be painted in different
hues of purple and red. On a dark blue panel, varying shades of blue
lighter than the groundwork, and so with other colours. The shaded
portion must be distinct, and gradually connected with the lighter
portions by light tints of the shading colour.
Or the dragon may be painted grey, the high lights with the same
colour warmed up with yellow; the outline of the shield in gold; the
upper division, a light cobalt blue; the lower division, a pale orange;
the cross, brown, shaded with asphaltum; the wreath, blue and
white; and the flying ribbon and leafing in gold.
CHAPTER XIII.
LINING AND TRIMMING.

This is a department which requires great taste as well as skill. The
interior of a carriage should be lined with cloth and silk, or cloth and
morocco, with laces specially manufactured for the purpose. The
colours should correspond to or harmonise with the painting. Light
drab, or fawn colour, used to be a very general colour for the linings
of close carriages, such as broughams, because they at once
afforded relief to and harmonised with any dark colour that might
have been selected for the painting. But a severe simplicity of taste
has prevailed of late years in this country, and the linings of the
carriages have been made mostly dark in colour to correspond to the
colour of the painting. This is often carried to such an extreme as to
present an appearance of sameness and tastelessness. It is no
uncommon thing, for instance, to see a brougham painted dark
green, striped with black lines, and lined with dark green cloth and
morocco, with plain laces to correspond. This to us appears to be
only one degree removed from a mourning coach, and it will be a
great pity if such a taste prevails. On the other hand, violent
contrasts outrage all principles of good taste. Morocco and cloth, or
silk and cloth, of the same colour as the paint may be used for the
linings, but, as the painting should be relieved by lines that
harmonise with it, so should the linings be relieved by the laces and
tufts, which are intended to give life and character to it.
Landau Back, Quarter, and Fall.

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Landau Back, Quarter, and Fall.

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