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Lecture Notes in Electrical Engineering 436

Amik Garg
Akash Kumar Bhoi
Padmanaban Sanjeevikumar
K.K. Kamani
Editors

Advances in
Power Systems
and Energy
Management
ETAEERE-2016
Lecture Notes in Electrical Engineering

Volume 436

Board of Series editors

Leopoldo Angrisani, Napoli, Italy
Marco Arteaga, Coyoacán, México
Samarjit Chakraborty, München, Germany
Jiming Chen, Hangzhou, P.R. China
Tan Kay Chen, Singapore, Singapore
Rüdiger Dillmann, Karlsruhe, Germany
Haibin Duan, Beijing, China
Gianluigi Ferrari, Parma, Italy
Manuel Ferre, Madrid, Spain
Sandra Hirche, München, Germany
Faryar Jabbari, Irvine, USA
Janusz Kacprzyk, Warsaw, Poland
Alaa Khamis, New Cairo City, Egypt
Torsten Kroeger, Stanford, USA
Tan Cher Ming, Singapore, Singapore
Wolfgang Minker, Ulm, Germany
Pradeep Misra, Dayton, USA
Sebastian Möller, Berlin, Germany
Subhas Mukhopadyay, Palmerston, New Zealand
Cun-Zheng Ning, Tempe, USA
Toyoaki Nishida, Sakyo-ku, Japan
Bijaya Ketan Panigrahi, New Delhi, India
Federica Pascucci, Roma, Italy
Tariq Samad, Minneapolis, USA
Gan Woon Seng, Nanyang Avenue, Singapore
Germano Veiga, Porto, Portugal
Haitao Wu, Beijing, China
Junjie James Zhang, Charlotte, USA
About this Series

“Lecture Notes in Electrical Engineering (LNEE)” is a book series which reports

the latest research and developments in Electrical Engineering, namely:
• Communication, Networks, and Information Theory
• Computer Engineering
• Signal, Image, Speech and Information Processing
• Circuits and Systems
• Bioengineering
LNEE publishes authored monographs and contributed volumes which present
cutting edge research information as well as new perspectives on classical fields,
while maintaining Springer’s high standards of academic excellence. Also
considered for publication are lecture materials, proceedings, and other related
materials of exceptionally high quality and interest. The subject matter should be
original and timely, reporting the latest research and developments in all areas of
electrical engineering.
The audience for the books in LNEE consists of advanced level students,
researchers, and industry professionals working at the forefront of their fields. Much
like Springer’s other Lecture Notes series, LNEE will be distributed through
Springer’s print and electronic publishing channels.

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/7818

Amik Garg Akash Kumar Bhoi
•

Padmanaban Sanjeevikumar
K.K. Kamani
Editors

Advances in Power Systems

and Energy Management
ETAEERE-2016

123
Editors
Amik Garg Padmanaban Sanjeevikumar
Sikkim Manipal Institute of Technology Department of Electrical and Electronics
(SMIT) Engineering Science
Rangpo, Sikkim University of Johannesburg
India Johannesburg
South Africa
Akash Kumar Bhoi
Department of Electrical and Electronics K.K. Kamani
Engineering Government of Karnataka
Sikkim Manipal Institute of Technology Chitradurga, Karnataka
(SMIT) India
Rangpo, Sikkim
India

ISSN 1876-1100 ISSN 1876-1119 (electronic)

Lecture Notes in Electrical Engineering
ISBN 978-981-10-4393-2 ISBN 978-981-10-4394-9 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-4394-9
Library of Congress Control Number: 2017937707

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2018

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission
or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar
methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from
the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
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The registered company is Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.
The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore
Preface

Advances in Electronics, Communication and Computing is a collection of research

articles and critical review articles presented at the International Conference on
‘Emerging Trends and Advances in Electrical Engineering and Renewable Energy—
ETAEERE-2016’, organized by the Department of Electrical and Electronics
Engineering (EEE) of Sikkim Manipal Institute of Technology (SMIT), Majhitar,
Sikkim, India during December 17–18, 2016. This was a unique conference which
combined renewable energy, electronics, computing, communication, systems,
controls and automations under one roof. Moreover, it is a matter of honour for SMIT
to learn that Springer was associated with ETAEERE-2016 as a major publication
sponsor for the event. The proceedings of this conference came out with four different
book volume titles under Lecture Notes in Electrical Engineering (LNEE). This book
is a compilation of research work in the interdisciplinary areas of electronics, com-
munication and computing. The chapters of this book cover the different approaches
and techniques for specific applications, such as particle swarm optimization, Otsu’s
function and harmony search optimization algorithm, triple-gatesilicon-on-insulator
(SOI) MOSFET, micro-Raman and Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR)
analysis, high-k dielectric gate oxide, spectrum sensing in cognitive radio, microstrip
antenna, ground-penetrating radar (GPR) with conducting surfaces and digital image
forgery detection.
Eminent speakers like Prof. A Chakrabarti, former vice-chancellor of Jadavpur
University; Prof. A Rajaraman of IIT, Chennai; Prof. Gyoo-Shee Chae of Baekseok
University, South Korea; Prof. Avinash Konkani of University of Virginia, USA;
Prof. Kamani KK, the global economic advisor of Karnataka; Prof. Manjesh of
Bangalore University and Dr. Amitanshu Patnaik of DRDO Delhi shared their
knowledge and experience. The conference attended and presented by participants
from institutes such as IISc, IITs, NITs, NEHU, BIT, VIT, MIT Manipal, IIEST
Kolkata, and abroad deliberated on their research works. In addition, the paper
presentations were accompanied by six keynote addresses from leading academic
and industry researchers around the globe. The paper presentations took place in
three different tracks with 18 parallel sessions. Through the platform of

v
vi Preface

ETAEERE-2016, we got the opportunity to promote the national campaign ‘Make In

India’.
The review committee has done an excellent job in reviewing the articles and
approving the high-quality research articles to be published in the conference
proceedings. The editors are thankful to all of the faculty and students of these
various committees for their dedication in making this a very successful conference
and also to the editing and printing support staff of Springer for making the
compilation possible. We sincerely hope that this volume will inspire researchers.

Majhitar, Sikkim, India Karma Sonam Sherpa

Akash Kumar Bhoi
Mohammed Nasir Ansari
Amit Kumar Singh
Editorial Board

Chief Patron

Prof.(Dr.) Somnath Mishra, Vice-Chancellor, Sikkim Manipal University

Patron

Prof.(Dr.) Ashis Sharma, Registrar, SMU

Prof.(Dr.) Amik Garg, Director, SMIT
Prof.(Dr.) Sadasivan Thekkey Veetil, Joint Director, SMIT

Programme Chair

Dr. Rabindranath Bera, SMIT

Dr. Karma Sonam Sherpa, SMIT
Dr. Kalpana Sharma, SMIT
Dr. H.K.D Sarma, SMIT
Dr. Tejbanta Singh Chingtham, SMIT
Dr. Utpal Deka, Physics, SMIT
Dr. B.B Pradhan, SMIT
Dr. Samarjeet Borah, Dept. of CA, SMIT
Dr. Gobinda Chandra Mishra, SMIT
Prof. Om Prakash Singh, SMIT

vii
viii Editorial Board

Special Session Chairs

Dr. Sabyasachi Sen Gupta, IIT Kharagpur

Dr. Samrat Paul, NEHU, Shillong
Dr. Swagatam Das, ISI, Kolkata
Dr. Abhijit Chakrabarti, IIEST, Shibpur
Prof. Kamani K.K, Dept. of Higher Education, Govt. of Karnataka (Global
Economic Adviser)
Dr. GS Chae, Baekseok University, South Korea
Prof. Natarajan Gajendran, Editor IJST, President (iSee)
Dr. Manjesh, Dept. of Electronic Science, Bangalore University
Dr. Amitanshu Patnaik, DTRL, DRDO

International Advisory Committee

Dr. Avinash Konkani, AHFP, Clinical Engineer, University of Virginia Health

System, USA
Dr. P. Sanjeevikumar, Dept. of EEE, University of Johannesburg, South Africa
Dr. Ahmed Faheem Zobaa, BU, UK
Dr. Akhtar Kalam, VU, Australia
Dr. David YU, UWM, USA
Dr. Atilla Elci, Chairman, Dept. of EEE, Aksaray University, Turkey
Dr. Dmitri Vinnikov, TUT, Estonia
Dr. Hussain Shareef, UKM, Malaysia
Dr. Seshadev Sahoo, Purdue University, USA
Dr. Anil Kavala, Sr. Engineer, Samsung Electronics, Seoul, South Korea
Dr. Kamran Morovati, University of New Brunswick, Canada
Dr. Joseph Olorunfemi Ojo, TTU, USA
Dr. Mohamed A. Zohdy, OU, MI
Dr. Murad Al-Shibli, Head, EMET, Abu Dhabi
Dr. Nesimi Ertugrul, UA, Australia
Dr. Omar Abdel-Baqi, UWM, USA
Dr. Richard Blanchard, LBU, UK
Dr. Shashi Paul, DM, UK

National Advisory Committee

Dr. Sabyasachi Sen Gupta, IIT Kharagpur

Prof. Kamani K.K, Dept. of Higher Education, Govt. of Karnataka (Global
Economic Adviser)
Editorial Board ix

Dr. Manjesh, Dept. of Electronic Science, Bangalore University

Dr. Amitanshu Patnaik, DTRL, DRDO
Dr. Swagatam Das, ISI, Kolkata
Dr. Ajoy Kr. Ray, SMIT
Dr. Ajeya Jha, SMIT
Dr. Rabindranath Bera, SMIT
Dr. Karma Sonam Sherpa, SMIT
Dr. Kalpana Sharma, SMIT
Dr. B.B Pradhan, SMIT
Dr. H.K.D Sarma, SMIT
Dr. Debabrata Pradhan, IIT Kharagpur
Prof. C.J Thomas, SMIT
Dr. Bidita Khandelwal, SMIMS
Dr. Sangeeta Jha, SMIT
Dr. Vinod Kumar Sayal, SMIT
Dr. Arun Baran Samaddar, Director, NIT Sikkim
Dr. Gobinda Chandra Mishra, SMIT
Dr. V K Manhoharr, CEO & MD, TechMaven Private Limited
Dr. Anjan Kumar Ray, NIT Sikkim
Dr. Ashok Kumar Pradhan, IIT Kharagpur
Dr. Bhim Singh, IIT Delhi
Dr. Ganapati Panda, IIT Bhubaneswar
Dr. Debashish Jena, NITK, India
Dr. N.P. Padhy, IIT Roorkee
Dr. C. Subramani, IIT Roorkee
Dr. Patnaik S.K, Anna University
Dr. G. Uma, Anna University
Dr. Avik Bhattacharya, IIT Roorkee
Dr. Smarajit Ghosh, Thapar University
Dr. Sandeep Chakravorty, Baddi University
Dr. Krishnendu Chakraborty, KGEC
Dr. Urmila Kar, NITTTR, Kolkata
Dr. Abhijit Chakrabarti, IIEST, Shibpur
Er. Kunal Munshi, Managing Partner at Sunrator Technologies LLP
Er. Bikash Rai, Assistant Engineering, Power & Energy Department, Govt. of
Sikkim

Reviewer Committee

Dr. Ahmed Faheem Zobaa, Dept. of ECE, BU, UK

Dr. Avinash Konkani, AHFP, Clinical Engineer, University of Virginia Health
System, USA
x Editorial Board

Dr. Atilla Elci, Chairman, EEE, Aksaray University, Turkey

Dr. Kamran Morovati, CS, University of New Brunswick, Canada
Dr. Karma Sonam Sherpa, HOD EEE, SMIT
Dr. Chandrashekar Bhuiyan, CE, SMIT
Dr. Seshadev Sahoo, ME, Purdue University, USA
Dr. Akhtar Kalam, Leader–Smart Energy Research Unit, VU, Australia
Dr. Richard Blanchard, Renewable Energy, LBU, UK
Dr. Utpal Deka, Physics, SMIT
Dr. Nitai Paitya, ECE, SMIT
Dr. N.K. Bhattacharyya, Chemistry, SMIT
Dr. A. Senthil Kumar, EEE, VEC, Chennai
Dr. Samarjeet Borah, Dept. of CA, SMIT

Organizing Committee

(Sikkim Manipal Institute of Technology)

Overall Incharge
Prof. Karma Sonam Sherpa—Convenor
Prof. Akash Kumar Bhoi—Secretary
Prof. Mohammed Nasir Ansari—Convenor
Prof. Amit Kumar Singh—Convenor

Publicity
Prof. Pradeep Kumar Mallick
Prof. Himangshu Pal

Hall and Stage Arrangements

Prof. Shabbiruddin
Prof. Sandip Kumar Gupta

Caterings and Refreshment

Prof. Sunam Saha
Prof. Roshan Pradhan

Transport
Prof. Arunava Tikader
Prof. Arijit Ghosh

Help Desk and Registration

Prof. Chitrangada Roy
Prof. Dibyadeep Bhattacharya
Editorial Board xi

Sponsorship
Prof. Saikat Chatterjee
Prof. Anirban Sengupta

Guest Hospitality
Prof. Moumi Pandit
Prof. Bijay Rai
Prof. Rahul Kumar

Printing
Prof. Pratik Pradhan
Prof. Rajiv Pradhan

Student Organizing Committee

(Sikkim Manipal Institute of Technology)

Yupphung Keimba Limbu

Kunglho Lepcha
Sagar Pradhan
Avinash Gupta
Avinash Pradhan
Tshering Sangmo Sherpa
Sisir Chettri
Deepika Chettri
Suyog Pradhan
Shristi Shresta
Pankaj Kumar
Biswas Pradhan
Ritika Pradhan
Aruna Chettri
Ashish Lamichaney
Neeta Lamichaney
Ashutosh Mukherjee
Amit KR. Singh
Gyan Shree
Dheeraj Kumar
Raval Parth Pradip
Srihari K
Saurabh Bhowmik
Madhura Pardhe
Contents

Non-isolated Sextuple Output Hybrid Triad Converter Configurations

for High Step-Up Renewable Energy Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Padmanaban Sanjeevikumar, Mahajan Sagar Bhaskar, Pranav Dhond,
Frede Blaabjerg and Michael Pecht
Dual-Band Wearable Rectenna for Low-Power RF
Energy Harvesting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
B. Naresh, Vinod Kumar Singh, V. Bhargavi, Amik Garg
and Akash Kumar Bhoi
Reduction of THD in Nine-Phase Induction Motor Drive
with CLC Filter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Manjesh, Nilima Siddhartha Dabhade, Amik Garg and Akash Kumar Bhoi
Comparative Study of Harmonics and Total Harmonic Distortion
of Five-Phase Inverter Drive with Five-Phase Multilevel Inverter
Drive Using Simulink/MATLAB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Manjesh, K. Hasitha, Akash Kumar Bhoi and Amik Garg
Design and Implementation of Two Level and Multilevel Inverter . . . . . 39
Amruta Pattnaik, Shawet Mittal, Vinay Gupta, Basudev Prasad
and Akash Kumar Bhoi
Raman Characterization of Gallium Nitride Nanowires Deposited
by Chemical Vapor Deposition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Umesh Rizal and Bibhu P. Swain
Selection of an Electric Motor for an Equivalent Internal
Combustion Engine by TOPSIS Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
K. Srihari, Parth Raval and Shabbiruddin
Analysis of Medium Voltage BTB System by Using Half Bridge
Modular Multilevel Converter Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Yasmeena and G. Tulasi Ram Das

xiii
xiv Contents

The Need for Uncertainty-Based Analysis in Power

System Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Yoseph Mekonnen Abebe, P. Mallikarjuna Rao and M. Gopichand Naik
Impact of DC Bias on the Magnetic Loading of Three
Phase Three Limb Transformer Based on Finite Element Method . . . . . 97
Saurabh Kohli, S.B. Mahajan, Padmanaban Sanjeevikumar, Viliam Fedák
and Valentin Oleschuk
Cost Optimization of a Ring Frame Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Rathinadurai Louis Helen Catherine, A. Soundarrajan
and Josephine Rathinadurai Louis
Analysis of Power System Harmonics Using PSNR Metric . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Srihari Mandava and Ramesh Varadarajan
Low Power Circularly Polarized Wearable Rectenna for RF Energy
Harvesting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
B. Naresh, Vinod Kumar Singh and V. Bhargavi
Performance Analysis of Series-Passive Filter in 5-Phase PWM
Inverter Drive and Harmonic Study Using Simulink/Matlab . . . . . . . . . 139
A.S. Ananda and Manjesh
Finding the Initial Variables for Affine Arithmetic-Based Power
Flow Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Yoseph Mekonnen Abebe, P. Mallikarjuna Rao and M. Gopichand Naik
Ecology and Energy Dimension in Infrastructural Designs . . . . . . . . . . . 157
A. Rajaraman
Energy-Aware Data Aggregation Techniques in Wireless Sensor
Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
M. Ambigavathi and D. Sridharan
Design and Performance Analysis of Noise Equivalent Model
for Optical Fiber Link . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Manoj Kumar Dutta
Improvement of Efficiency of a Three-Phase Induction Motor
Using Robust Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Anirban Sengupta
Improvement of Electrical Power Quality with Distributed
Power Flow Controller with Fuzzy PWM Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Jyoti Saraswat and Jaydeep Chakravorty
Contents xv

New Sliding Mode Control of a Five-Phase Permanent Magnet

Synchronous Motor Drive in Wide Speed Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Anissa Hosseyni, Ramzi Trabelsi, Med Faouzi Mimouni, Atif Iqbal
and Padmanaban Sanjeevikumar
Novel Sensorless Sliding Mode Observer of a Five-Phase Permanent
Magnet Synchronous Motor Drive in Wide Speed Range . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Anissa Hosseyni, Ramzi Trabelsi, Med Faouzi Mimouni, Atif Iqbal
and Padmanaban Sanjeevikumar
Thermal Analysis of Inverter-Fed Induction Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Sunam Saha and Mohammed Nasir Ansari
Contingency Analysis Reliability Evaluation of Small-Signal
Stability Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
A. Murugan, S. Jayaprakash and R. Raghavan
Finite Element Method Based Determination of Magnetic Loading
of Three-Phase Five-Limb Transformer with Impact of DC Offset . . . . . 241
Saurabh Kohli, S.B. Mahajan, S.M. Badave, Padmanaban Sanjeevikumar
and Atif Iqbal
Sensorless Back Stepping Control for a Five-Phase Permanent Magnet
Synchronous Motor Drive Based on Sliding Mode Observer . . . . . . . . . 251
Anissa Hosseyni, Ramzi Trabelsi, Padmanaban Sanjeevikumar, Atif Iqbal
and Med Faouzi Mimouni
A Compact Dual-Band N-Way Wilkinson Power Divider for GSM . . . . 263
Aijaz M. Zaidi, Syed A. Imam and Binod K. Kanaujia
Comparative Analysis of DC/DC Converters with MPPT
Techniques Based PV System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
S. Saravanan, N. Ramesh Babu and Padmanaban Sanjeevikumar
Single Phase Asymmetric Switched-Inductor Quasi-Z-Source CHB
Multilevel Inverter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
G. Prem Sunder, B. Shanthi, Alamelu Nachiappan, S.P. Natarajan
and Padmanaban Sanjeevikumar
Buck–Boost LED Driver with Dimming Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
R. Gunabalan, D.R. Binu Ben Jose and Padmanaban Sanjeevikumar
S-Parameter Based Evaluation of Cable Losses for Precise Low
Frequency Voltage and Current Calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
Swati Kumari, Sunidhi Luthra, Jyoti Chauhan, Bijendra Pal,
Saood Ahmad, Ravinder Kumar, P.S. Negi and V.N. Ojha
xvi Contents

Buck–Boost Current Converter Using Duality Concept

and Its DC Transformer Modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
S.B. Mahajan, Padmanaban Sanjeevikumar, K.M. Pandav,
R.M. Kulkarni and V.A. Sherke
2.4 kW Three-Phase Inverter for Aircraft Application-Hardware
Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
K.M. Pandav, S.B. Mahajan, Padmanaban Sanjeevikumar,
S.M. Badave and R.M. Pachagade
Control Algorithm Concept for AC Voltage Stabilizer Based
on Hybrid Transformer with a Matrix Converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
Paweł Szcześniak, Jacek Kaniewski and Padmanaban Sanjeevikumar
Design and Analysis of Ultra-Low Power QCA Parity Generator
Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
Trailokya Nath Sasamal, Ashutosh Kumar Singh and Umesh Ghanekar
Modeling of the State Space Vector PWM (SVPWM) Based
STATCOM for Voltage Improvement in the Transmission Line . . . . . . 355
Rubi Kumari and Chitrangada Roy
Common-Mode Voltage Regulation of Three-Phase SVPWM-Based
three-Level NPC Inverter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
Subramaniam Umashankar, Vishnu Kalaiselvan Arun Shankar,
Padmanaban Sanjeevikumar and K. Harini
Survey of Power Quality Discrete Disturbances in an Educational
Institution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
Subramaniam Umashankar, Vishnu Kalaiselvan Arun Shankar,
Shanmugam Paramasivam, Padmanaban Sanjeevikumar
and K. Anil Kumar
Study of AGC in Two-Area Hydro-thermal Power System . . . . . . . . . . . 393
Bibhu Prasad Ganthia, Anita Pritam, Krishna Rout,
Siddhartha Singhsamant and Jayashree Nayak
Wavelet Technique-Based Fault Classification
in Transmission Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
Avagaddi Prasad and J. Belwin Edward
Comparative Analysis of Feed-Forward and Synchronous Reference
Frame Control-Based Dynamic Voltage Restorer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
A. Rini Ann Jerin, K. Palanisamy, S. Umashankar
and Padmanaban Sanjeevikumar
Performance Comparison of Two Real-Time Power System Frequency
Estimation Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
R.B. Sharma, G.M. Dhole and M.B. Tasare
Contents xvii

Brushless DC Electric Motor Speed Control and Power Factor

Correction Using Single-Ended Primary Inductor Converter . . . . . . . . . 431
Shaw Bikash, Sengupta Anwesha, S.B. Mahajan,
Padmanaban Sanjeevikumar and Shaikh Aamer
Naturally Clamped, Isolated, High-Gain DC–DC Converter
with Voltage Doubler for Battery Charging of EVs and PHEVs. . . . . . . 439
Abhinav Bhattacharjee, Sangit Saha, D. Elangovan and G. Arunkumar
An Energy-Efficient and Reliable Depth-Based Routing Protocol
for Underwater Wireless Sensor Network (ER-DBR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
S. Neelavathy Pari, M. Sathish and K. Arumugam
Adaptive PI Control of STATCOM for Stability Improvement
of Power System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
Rubi Kumari and Chitrangada Roy
Defect Detection in Power Electronic Circuits by Artificial
Neural Network Using Discrete Wavelet Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
Dibyendu Khan, Sankhadip Saha, Shiladitya Saha
and Subhrodipto Basu Choudhury
Stability of Two-Dimensional Systems Using Single
Square Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
P. Ramesh and K. Vasudevan
Multidimensional Linear Discrete System Stability Analysis
Using Single Square Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499
P. Ramesh and K. Vasudevan
Detection of Static Air-Gap Eccentricity in Three-Phase Squirrel Cage
Induction Motor Through Stator Current and Vibration Analysis . . . . . 511
S. Bindu and Vinod V. Thomas
Analysis of Three Phase Inverter Using Different PWM Techniques . . . 519
Ayesha Firdous, Mohammed Imran and Mahboob Shaik
A State-of-the-Art Review on Synchrophasor Applications
to Power Network Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531
M.S. Prabhu and Paresh Kumar Nayak
Performance Analysis of Current-Mode Interconnect System
in Presence of Process, Voltage, and Temperature Variations . . . . . . . . . 543
Yash Agrawal, Rutu Parekh and Rajeevan Chandel
LMP Difference Approach for Management of Transmission
Congestion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553
Divya Asija, K.M. Soni, S.K. Sinha and Vinod Kumar Yadav
xviii Contents

Optimal Allocation of DG in the Radial Distribution Network

Using Bat Optimization Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563
T. Yuvaraj, K.R. Devabalaji and K. Ravi
Smart Controlling of Appliances in Power-Line Communication
Using LabVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571
Deepthi P. Kulkarni, H.B. Bhuvaneswari and B. Kalyan Ram
Modelling and Analytical Study of Linear Induction Motor
and Its Air Gap Flux Measurement at Different Slip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585
Prasenjit D. Wakode, Mohd Tariq, T.K. Bhattacharya and C. Bharatiraja
Model Predictive Current Control of Single-Phase 13-Level
Transistor-Clamped H-Bridge Based Cascaded Multilevel
Inverter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597
K. Rameshkumar, V. Indragandhi, Geetha Mani
and Padmanaban Sanjeevikumar
3-to-8 Decoder Implementation Using Single Electron Threshold
Logic (SE-TL) for Low Power Computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 609
Arpita Ghosh and S.K. Sarkar
Parallel Investigation of Different Task Schedulers at Greencloud
for Energy Consumption in Datacenters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617
S. Aarthee and R. Prabakaran
Distributed Energy Generation—Is It the Way of the Future? . . . . . . . . 627
Mujahid Tabassum, Saad Bin Abul Kashem and Kuruvilla Mathew
Impact of Distance on the Harmonic Active Power and Energy
Metering at the Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 637
K.S.V. Phani Kumar and S. Venkateshwarlu
Generation System Reliability Assessment Incorporating
Photovoltaic Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647
K. Shivarama Krishna and K. Sathish Kumar
Design Study for a 5 GW Base Load Power Drawn from Satellite
Solar Power Station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 655
Deepak Kumar and Kalpana Chaudhary
Reduction of Fault Detection Time by Using Fast
S-Transform (FST) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665
P. Mahalakshmi, Ritwik Dhawan, Archit Srivastava and A. Sharmila
Low-Voltage Low-Power FGMOS-Based Current Conveyor III . . . . . . . 673
Charu Rana, Neelofer Afzal, Dinesh Prasad and Anu
Contents xix

Single-Precision Floating Point Matrix Multiplier Using Low-Power

Arithmetic Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 683
Soumya Gargave, Yash Agrawal and Rutu Parekh
Monitoring Real and Reactive Power in a Transmission Network
Using Generalized Unified Power Flow Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 693
Raja Reddy Duvvuru, B. Venkata Prasanth and V. Ganesh
Improvement of Power System Security Under Single Line Critical
Contingency Condition by Optimal Placement of Multiple TCSCs . . . . . 701
Pallavi Choudekar, Sanjay Sinha and Anwar Siddiqui
DXCCII-Based First Order Voltage-Mode All-Pass Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . 709
Ashok Kumar, Ajay Kumar Kushwaha and Sajal K. Paul
Performance Analysis of High Power Brushless DC Motor Drive . . . . . . 719
R. Babu Ashok and B. Mahesh Kumar
Design and Fabrication of Scale-Down Model of 620 MVA, 275 kV
Transmission Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 729
Akash Deep Mukhia, Anwesh Gautam, Suyog Pradhan
and Sandip Kumar Gupta
About the Editors

Prof. (Dr.) Amik Garg received his B.E. (Mechanical) in 1986 from Delhi
College of Engineering (DCE) (now known as Delhi Technological University),
M.Tech. in Industrial Tribology and Maintenance Engineering from Indian Institute
of Technology Delhi (IIT Delhi) in 1996 and subsequently completed his Ph.D. in
the area of multi-echelon repair inventory systems from the Department of
Mechanical Engineering, IIT Delhi in 2010. He is currently the Director of Sikkim
Manipal Institute of Technology (SMIT), Sikkim. He has the practical experience of
serving the defence industry as maintenance engineer at various levels of over thirty
years and has vast exposure in the field of supply chain management, performance
measurements, maintenance management, industrial engineering, etc.
Akash Kumar Bhoi has completed his B.Tech. (Biomedical Engineering) from the
Trident Academy of Technology (TAT), Bhubaneswar and M.Tech. (Biomedical
Instrumentation) from Karunya University, Coimbatore in the years 2009 and 2011,
respectively. He is pursuing his Ph.D. (Biomedical Signal Processing) from Sikkim
Manipal University, India. He is currently working as a research and development
(R&D) Faculty Associate in the R&D Section of Sikkim Manipal Institute of
Technology (SMIT) and Assistant Professor in the Department of Electrical and
Electronics Engineering (EEE), Sikkim Manipal Institute of Technology (SMIT). He
has published book chapters and several papers in national and international journals
and conferences.
Dr. Padmanaban Sanjeevikumar received his B.E. (Electrical and Electronics),
M.Tech. (Electrical Drives and Control), and Ph.D. degrees, respectively, from
Madras University, Pondicherry University, India, and Alma Mater Studiorum
1088AD, University of Bologna, Italy in 2002, 2006, and 2012. He pursued his
doctoral degree with full comprehensive grant successfully obtained from the
Ministry of University Research (MIUR), from the government of Italy (January
2009–December 2011). Professor Sanjeevikumar’s biography is listed along with the
list of professional achievers’ biographies @ MarquisWho’sWho, United States of
America (33rd Edition, 2016).

xxi
xxii About the Editors

Prof. K.K. Kamani received his B.Sc. and M.Sc. degrees in Physics from the
Karnatak University Dharwar in 1987 and 1989. With a Bachelor of Education (B.
Ed.) degree in 1992 he joined the service in 1989 as a lecturer and served for 20
years in various institutions of the Karnataka Government. Currently he is working
as Professor in the Physics postgraduate Department, NAAC Reaccredited A grade
Government Science College Chitradurga, Government of Karnataka. He received
the FESE in 2008. He is presently working as a Global Economic Advisor,
Asia-Pacific CEO Association (APCEO) Senior Expert authorized by the
Asia-Pacific CEO Association [Worldwide].
Non-isolated Sextuple Output Hybrid
Triad Converter Configurations for High
Step-Up Renewable Energy Applications

Padmanaban Sanjeevikumar, Mahajan Sagar Bhaskar,

Pranav Dhond, Frede Blaabjerg and Michael Pecht

Abstract This article presents a new non-isolated DC-DC sextuple output hybrid
triad converter configurations for high step-up renewable energy applications. Total
8 (eight) converters configurations are obtained by combining SEPIC/SI-SEPIC,
Cuk/SI-Cuk, and Boost/SI-Boost which is highly suitable for step-up renewable
applications where DC-DC multi-output converters/choppers are needed; such as a
solar multilevel DC-AC converter (MLI), HVDC, hybrid/electric and electric
vehicles. The most important characteristics of the proposed converter configura-
tions are (i) only one power control semiconductor switch, (ii) offer six different DC
outputs with different conversion ratio, (iii) non-isolated (without transformers)
Converter topologies, (iv) high voltage at the output side without using large duty
cycle and (v) modular DC-DC converter structure. The simulation results are pre-
sented and it validates the practicability, functionality, and the idea of suggested
sextuple output hybrid triad converter configuration.

P. Sanjeevikumar (&)
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, University of South Africa, Auckland
Park, Johannesburg, South Africa
e-mail: sanjeevi_12@yahoo.co.in
P. Sanjeevikumar
Research and Development (R & D), Ohm Technologies, Chennai, India
M.S. Bhaskar
P. Dhond
Department of Electrical and Electronics (EE) Engineeering, Marathwada Institute of
Technology (MIT), Aurangabad, India
e-mail: sagar25.mahajan@gmail.com
P. Dhond
e-mail: dhondpranav11@gmail.com
F. Blaabjerg
Center for Reliable Power Electronics (CORPE), Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg
University, Aalborg, Denmark
e-mail: fbl@et.aau.dk
M. Pecht
Center for Advanced Life Cycle Engineering (CALCE), University of Maryland, College
Park, MD, USA
e-mail: pecht@umd.edu

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2018 1

A. Garg et al. (eds.), Advances in Power Systems and Energy
Management, Lecture Notes in Electrical Engineering 436,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-4394-9_1
2 P. Sanjeevikumar et al.

Keywords Sextuple output Triad converter configurations Non-isolated



Single control switch High step-up Renewable applications

1 Introduction

In recent years, development of low-cost multiport DC-DC power converter

attracted much attention for renewable energy application due to its capability of
interfacing with diverse sources, battery systems, and loads with different voltage
levels [1, 2]. In renewable energy conversion equipment production, DC-DC power
converters represent the largest percentage and are becoming the most important
sector of power electronics. The market of DC-DC converters comprise three sub-
fragments (i) low-power DC-DC converter, (ii) medium-power converter and
(iii) high-power converter [3, 4]. Most of the renewable energy application such as
solar multilevel DC-AC converter, HVDC, hybrid/electric and electric vehicles
requires multiple DC outputs at different voltage levels [4–17]. Multiport DC-DC
converters are a breed of DC-DC converters and are classified into three major
categories: (i) SIMO (Single-Input Multiple-Output) [8–12], (ii) MIMO
(Multiple-Input-Multiple-Output) [13–15] and (iii) MISO (multiple-input
single-output) [18–20]. To design multi-output to a different output voltage level,
several techniques are adopted and developed by using DC-DC isolated (using
transformer) converter/choppers configurations such as Forward Converter, Flyback
Converter, Push–Pull Converter/chopper, DC-DC Half Bridge, and Full Bridge
converter as well as non-isolated (without transformer) DC-DC converter [8–20]. In
flyback and forward converter, only one transformer primary (Input Side) winding is
used, other than in order to obtain multiple outputs separate secondary windings are
employed. This input side (Primary) winding reduces count of the reactive element
in the converter/chopper whereas several secondary winding raise the size, cost,
circuit complexity, and weight of the converter. Non-isolated converters are one of
the cost-effective and viable solutions to overcome the drawback of the flyback and
forward converter. In [8–12], SIMO converter is proposed by using numerous power
controller and semiconductor power devices, thus raises the system cost and com-
plexity. In [23] a new family of Switched DC-DC resonant converter/chopper had
been proposed in which resonance tank is periodically supplied from the power
supply and sequentially releases the energy into the output. But, continuous regu-
lation of load is difficult because discrete manner of load power. In [7, 24]
Single-Inductor Multi-Output voltage sharing DC-DC power converters for trans-
formerless grid connection systems are proposed. These converter configurations are
suitable for renewable energy applications, but require several control switches
which increases the number of gate driver, cost and losses in the converter. In this
article new non-isolated sextupling output hybrid triad converter configurations are
proposed to overcome the above-mentioned drawbacks of recent proposed con-
verters. Figure 1a–j shows (a) traditional Boost (Non-inverting step-up converter
with single inductor), (b) SI-Boost (switched inductor boost converter) [25],
Non-isolated Sextuple Output Hybrid Triad … 3

(c) traditional SEPIC (Single-Ended Primary-Inductor Converter), (d) SI-SEPIC-I

(Single-Ended Primary-Inductor Converter with switched inductor at input side),
(e) SI-SEPIC-II (Single-Ended Primary-Inductor Converter with switched inductor
at output side), (f) SI-SEPIC-III (Single-Ended Primary-Inductor Converter with
switched inductor at input and output side) [26], (g) traditional Cuk (Inverting output
DC-DC converter derived from the combination of boost and buck converter),
(h) SI-Cuk-I (Cuk converter with switched inductor at input side), (i) SI-Cuk-II (Cuk
converter with switched inductor at output side), (j) SI-Cuk-III (Cuk converter with
switched inductor at input and output side).
Table 1 shows the conversion ratio, voltage across switch in off mode and output
type of converter mentioned in Fig. 1. To achieve high gain, several recent con-
verters with minimum switch voltage stress are proposed [27–33]. In this article
total 8 (eight) converters configurations are obtained from combining
SEPIC/SI-SEPIC, Cuk/SI-Cuk and Boost/SI-Boost which are highly suitable for
step-up renewable applications where sextuple output DC-DC converters are nee-
ded, such as a solar multilevel DC-AC Converter (MLI), HVDC, hybrid/electric
and electric vehicles.
The most important characteristics of the proposed converter configurations are
(i) only one power control semiconductor switch, (ii) sextuple output: Provide six
different outputs with different conversion ratio, (iii) Non-isolated topologies (no
use of transformer and coupled inductor), (iv) High voltage at the output side
without using large duty cycle and (v) modular DC-DC converter structure.
The proposed sextuple converters configurations are described in the next sec-
tion. Simulation results are presented in Sect. 2.2 and it validates the practicability,
functionality of suggested sextuple output hybrid triad converter configuration.

2 Sextuple Output Hybrid Triad Converter

Configurations

In Fig. 1a–j shows the various configurations of Boost, SEPIC and Cuk converters.
It is observed that the converters depicted in Fig. 1a, c, e, g, i and in Fig. 1b, d, f, h,
j have an identical front-end structure. The front-end structure consists of supply
voltage, reactive circuit, and single switch. This allows us to combine front-end
structure of three converters (triad configuration) to derive new configurations for
sextuple output, therefore obtains new 8 (eight) topologies which are highly suit-
able for step-up renewable applications.
Figure 2 shows the generalized structure of sextuple output triad converter
configurations. The other main features of the new proposed configurations are
(i) simple structure since converters are designed with only one control power
switch and allows to connect a sextuple load to the converter. (ii) Single driver
circuit and switch also simplifies the control strategies for proposed converter.
4 P. Sanjeevikumar et al.

(a) (b)

D1 L2
L

D L1 D2
+ D
+
RLoad

VO
Vin S CB1 D3 RLoad

VO
Vin S CB1
- -
Front End Structure Front End Structure

(c) (d)
D1 L2
+ - D2 + -
L1 D L1
CS1 D
+ CS1 +
D3
L2 CS2 CS2
VO
L3

VO
Vin S RLoad Vin S RLoad

- -
Front End Structure Front End Structure

(e) (f)
CS1
+ - D1 L2 CS1
L1 D D2 + -
L1
D
L2 D4 + D3
D5 RLoad L3 +
D4
VO

S CS2 D5 RLoad
Vin

VO
- Vin S CS2
D6 L3 D6 L4
-

Front End Structure Front End Structure

(g) (h)
+ - D1 L2
L1 L2 D2
+ -
CC + L1
CC L2
CO D3 +
VO

S D RLoad
Vin CO
VO

S D RLoad
Vin
- -
Front End Structure Front End Structure

(i) (j)
D1 L3 D1 L2 D4 L4
L1 + -
+ - L1 D2 D5
D2 D3 D6
CC + D3 CC +
L2 L3
CO
VO

CO D
VO

S D RLoad S RLoad
Vin Vin
- -
Front End Structure Front End Structure

Fig. 1 a Traditional boost. b SI-Boost. c Traditional SEPIC, d SI-SEPIC-I (SI-SE). e SI-SEPIC-II

(SISE). f SI-SEPIC-III (SI-SISE), g Traditional Cuk, h SI-Cuk-I (SI-CU), i SI-Cuk-II (SICU).
j SI-Cuk-III (SI-SICU)
Non-isolated Sextuple Output Hybrid Triad … 5

Table 1 Conversion ratio, voltage across switch in off state and output type of converters
depicted in Fig. 1
Type of Voltage conversion Switch voltage (OFF Output type
converter ratio state)
Traditional 1/(1 − D) Vin/(1 − D) Non inverting boost
boost
SI-Boost (1 + D)/(1 − D) (1 + D)Vin/(1 − D) Non inverting boost
Traditional D/(1 − D) Vin/(1 − D) Non inverting buck or
SEPIC boost
SI-SEPIC-I (D + D2)/(1 − D) Vin(1 + D)/(1 − D) Non inverting buck or
boost
SI-SEPIC-II 2D/1 − D2 Vin/(1 − D) Non inverting buck or
boost
SI-SEPIC-III 2D/(1 − D) Vin(1 + D)/(1 − D) Non inverting buck or
boost
Traditional −D/(1 − D) Vin/(1 − D) Inverting buck or boost
Cuk
SI-Cuk-I −(D + D2)/(1 − D) (1 + D)Vin/(1 − D) Inverting buck or boost
SI-Cuk-II −2D/1 − D2 Vin/(1 − D) Inverting buck or boost
SI-Cuk-III −2D/(1 − D) (1 + D)Vin/(1 − D) Inverting buck or boost

SEPIC / SI-SEPIC
Converter
Topologies R12 R13

Cuk / SI-Cuk
Converter R1
Topologies R23

Boost / SI-Boost
Vin R2
Converter
Topologies R3

Fig. 2 Generalized structure of sextuple output triad converter configuration

(iii) High efficiency and reduced size, since the high-frequency transformer is not
required to design proposed converter.
Total 8 (eight) sextuple output triad converter structure are derived by combining
identical front-end structure of converters as mentioned in Fig. 1.
Figure 3 shows the various sextuple output triad converters configurations.
Figure 3a–d configurations have identical front end structure with single inductor at
the input side. Figure 3e–h configurations have an identical front structure with
6 P. Sanjeevikumar et al.

(a) (b)
+ +
DS + + + + CS DS + + + +
CS CS1
CS1

VO1-2

VO1-2
LS LS

VO1-3

VO1-3
L1 L1 DC1 LC2

-
+ +

-
LC + + + + + +
CC CC DC2

VO1

VO1
VO2-3

VO2-3
CC1
CC1
LC1 DC3

VO2
VO2
Vin DC Vin DC

-
-
-
DB1 + + DB1 + +

VO3
CB1

VO3
S CB1 S

-
-

-
(c) (d) +
+ DS + + + +
CS DS1
CS DS + + + + LS2 CS1

VO1-2
DS1 LS2 CS1

VO1-3
VO1-2

LS1 DS2
VO1-3

LS1 DS2
L1 DC1 LC2 DS3
DS3 +

-
L1
+
-

DC2 + + +
LC CC LC1

VO1
CC + + +
VO1

VO2-3
DC3
VO2-3

CC1
CC1

VO2
Vin DC
VO2

-
-
Vin DC
-

+ DB1 +
DB1 + +

VO3
VO3

S CB1 S CB1
-

-
-
-

(e) + (f) +
DS + + +
CS DS + + + + CS +
CS1 CS1

VO1-2
LS

VO1-3
VO1-2

LS
VO1-3

DC1 LC2
D1 L2 LS D1 L2 +

-
+
-

+ + + D2 CC + + +
L1 D2 CC L1 DC2

VO1
VO1

VO2-3
CC1
VO2-3

CC1
D3 D3 LC1 DC3
VO2
VO2

Vin DC Vin DC
-
-

-
-

DB1 + + DB1 + +
VO3
VO3

S CB1 S CB1
-

-
-

+
(g) DS + +
(h) +
CS DS1 + + DS + + + +
LS2 CS1 CS DS1 LS2
VO1-2

VO1-3

VO1-2

CS1
VO1-3

LS1 DS2 DS2

LS1
D1 L2 DS3 DS3
+ D1 L2 DC1 LC2
-

+
-

D2 CC LC + + + + + +
L1 D2 DC2
VO1

L1 LC1
VO1

CC
VO2-3

CC1
VO2-3

D3 D3 DC3
CC1
VO2

VO2

Vin DC Vin DC
-

-
-
-

DB1 + + DB1 + +
VO3

VO3

S CB1 S CB1
-

-
-
-

-
-

Fig. 3 Sextuple output triad converter configurations. a SE-CU-BO converter. b SE-SICU-BO

converter. c SISE-CU-BO converter. d SISE-SICU-BO converter. e SI-SE-CU-BO converter.
f SI-SE-SICU-BO converter. g SI-SISE-CU-BO converter. h SI- SISE-SICU-BO converter
Non-isolated Sextuple Output Hybrid Triad … 7

switch inductor at the input side. All the sextuple proposed converters are contin-
uous input current type converters. The voltage gain (Conversion Ratio) of all the
presented converters configurations are analyzed for sextuple load and are given in
Table 2. To explain the mode of operation the proposed converter configurations,
SI-SISE-SICU-BO converter operation modes are discussed in detail in Sect. 2.1.

2.1 SI-SISE-SICU-BO Converter (Switched Inductor

SISE-SICU-BO Converter)

Figure 2h shows the power circuit of switched inductor SISE-SICU-BO converter

(SI-SISE-SICU-BO Converter). It is designed by combining SI-SISE (switched
Inductor SISE), SI-SICU (switched Inductor SICU) and SIBO (switched inductor
boost) converters. The operation of SI-SISE-SICU-BO is divided into two separate
modes: one when power switch is ON and other when power switch is OFF. When
the control switch is ON, the energy fed by the input supply is stored in inductor L1
and L2; inductors LC1, LC2 (output side inductors of Cuk converter) and LS1, LS2
(output side inductors of SEPIC) also stores energy due to the discharge of CC and
CS. Throughout this interval, the power diodes D2, DB1, DC, DS, DC2, and DS2 are
not conducting and the output capacitor (CB1, CC1, and CS1) provides the supply
energy to sextuple loads. Figure 4 shows the equivalent circuit of
SI-SISE-SICU-BO converter in ON state. When the control switch is OFF, all the
capacitors are recharged by inductors through freewheeling diodes and also pro-
vides supply to sextuple load with different output voltage. During the OFF state,
power diode D1, D3, DC1, DC3, DS1, and DS3 are not conducting. Figure 4 shows
the equivalent circuit of SI-SISE-SICU-BO converter in OFF state.

2.2 Simulation Results of SI-SISE-SICU-BO Converter

Sextuple SI-SISE-SICU-BO triad converter configuration (see Fig. 3h) is simulated

in MATLAB with 24 V input supply, 150 W input power and 0.60 Turn ON Time
(duty ratio) and switching frequency 50 kHz provided to switch. Figure 5a–b
shows the sextuple output voltage waveforms of SI-SISE-SICU-BO converter. It is
observed that the SEPIC and Cuk structure of the proposed SI-SISE-SICU-BO
converter provides positive and negative output voltage (V01 = 72 V and
V02 = −72 V) respectively. Boost structure of the proposed converter provides
voltage V03 = 96 V. It is also observed that the voltage across load connected
between Cuk and Boost structure (V02–3) is −168 V. The voltage across load
connected between SEPIC and Cuk Structure (V01–2) is 144. The DC voltage across
load connected between SEPIC and Boost structure (V01–3) is −24 V. The voltage
across power semiconductor switch is shown in Fig. 6a. It is investigated that the
 8

Table 2 Conversion ratio of proposed triad converter configuration for sextuple load
Sextuple converter Voltage conversion ratio
V01/Vin V02/Vin V03/Vin V01–2/Vin V02–3/Vin V01–3/Vin
SE-CU-BO D/(1 − D) −D/(1 − D) 1/(1 − D) 2D/(1 − D) −(1 + D)/(1 − D) −1
SE-SICU-BO D/(1 − D) −2D/1 − D2 1/(1 − D) (3D + D2)/(1 − D2) −(1 + 3D)/(1 − D2) −1
SISE-CU-BO 2D/1 − D2 −D/(1 − D) 1/(1 − D) (3D + D2)/(1 − D2) −(1 + D)/(1 − D) −1/(1 + D)
SISE-SICU-BO 2D/1 − D2 −2D/1 − D2 1/(1 − D) 4/(1 − D2) −(1 + 3D)/(1 − D2) −1/(1 + D)
SI-SE-CU-BO (D + D2)/(1 − D) −(D + D2)/(1 − D) (1 + D)/(1 − D) 2D(1 + D)/(1 − D) −(1 + D)2/(1 − D) −(1 + D)
SI-SE-SICU-BO (D + D2)/(1 − D) −2D/(1 − D) (1 + D)/(1 − D) (3D + D2)/(1 − D) −(1 + 3D)/(1 − D) −(1 + D)
SI-SISE-CU-BO 2D/(1 − D) −(D + D2)/(1 − D) (1 + D)/(1 − D) (3D + D2)/(1 − D) −(1 + D)2/(1 − D) −1
SI-SISE-SICU-BO 2D/(1 − D) −2D/(1 − D) (1 + D)/(1 − D) 4/(1 − D2) −(1 + 3D)/(1 − D) −1
P. Sanjeevikumar et al.
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the dissolution of the lower extremity of the glaciers is effected in the
Arctic world.

In the neighbourhood of Cape Alexander, one of the headlands of

Smith Strait, Dr. Hayes met with a glacier, of which he gives an
interesting description in his narrative of an “Arctic Boat Journey,”
(1854):—
It was the first, protruding into the ocean, which he had had an
opportunity of inspecting closely; and though small, compared with
other similar formations, it had nevertheless all their principal
characteristics. It presented to the sea a convex mural face, seventy
feet in height and about two miles in length, its centre projecting into
the water beyond the general line of the coast to the east and west
of it. The surface rose abruptly to the height of about two hundred
feet, and, sloping thence backward with a gentle inclination, seemed
to be connected with an extensive mer de glace above. Several
fissures or crevasses, apparently of great depth, struck vertically
through its body, and extended far up into its interior; and others,
more shallow, which
seemed to have been formed by the streams of melted snow that
poured in cataracts down into the sea. Dr. Hayes remarks that he
was impressed by its viscous appearance; but we have shown that a
certain amount of viscosity naturally appertains to glacier ice.
 FORCING A PASSAGE THROUGH THE ICE.
Parallel with its convex face ran a succession of indistinctly
marked lines, which gave it the aspect of a semi-fluid mass moving
downward upon an inclined surface; and this idea was confirmed by
its appearance about the rocks on either side. Over these it seemed
to have flowed; and, fitting accurately into all their inequalities, it
gave the effect of a huge moving mass of partially solidified matter
suddenly congealed.

Of still greater interest is the same adventurous explorer’s

description of the great Arctic Mer de Glace which lies inland from
Rensselaer Bay, in about lat. 79° N., and long. 68° W.
Dr. Hayes and his party had set out on an expedition into the
interior, and after passing through a really picturesque landscape,
enriched with beds of moss and turf, patches of purple andromeda,
and the trailing branches of the dwarf-willow, they emerged upon a
broad plain or valley, in the heart of which reposed a frozen lake,
about two miles in length by half a mile in width. They traversed its
transparent surface. On either side of them rose rugged bluffs, that
stretched off into long lines of hills, culminating in series in a broad-
topped mountain-ridge, which, running away to right and left, was cut
by a gap several miles wide that opened directly before them.
Immediately in front was a low hill, around the base of which flowed
on either side the branches of a stream whose course they had
followed. Leaving the river-bed just above the lake, they climbed to
the summit of this hillock; and there a sight burst upon them, grand
and imposing beyond the power of words adequately to describe.
From the rocky bed, only a few miles in advance, a sloping wall of
pure whiteness rose to a broad level plain of ice, which, apparently
without limits, stretched away toward the unknown east. It was the
great mer de glace of the Arctic continent.
Here then was, in reality, the counterpart of the river-systems of
other lands. From behind the granite hills the congealed drainings of
the interior water-sheds, the atmospheric precipitations of ages,
were moving in a mass, which, though solid, was plastic, moving
down through every gap in the mountains, swallowing up the rocks,
filling the valleys, submerging the hills: an onward, irresistible, crystal
tide, swelling to the ocean. The surface was intersected by
numerous vertical crevasses, some of considerable depth, which
had drained off the melted snow.
It was midnight when the explorers approached this colossal
reservoir. The sun was several degrees beneath the horizon, and
afforded a faint twilight-gleam. Stars of the second magnitude were
dimly perceptible in the cold, steel-blue Arctic heavens. When they
were within about half a mile of the icy wall, a brilliant meteor fell
before them, and, by its reflection upon the glassy surface beneath,
greatly increased the magical effect of the scene; while loud reports,
like distant thunder or the roll of artillery, broke at intervals from the
depths of the frozen sea.
On closer inspection it was found that the face of the glacier
ascended at an angle of from 30° to 35°. At its base lay a high bank
of snow, and the wanderers clambered up it about sixty feet; but
beyond this their efforts were defied by the exceeding smoothness of
the ice. The mountains, which stood on either hand like giant-
warders, were overlapped, and to some extent submerged, by the
glacier. From the face of the huge ice-river innumerable little rivulets
ran down the channels their action had gradually excavated, or
gurgled from beneath the ice; forming, on the level lands below, a
sort of marsh, not twenty yards from the icy wall. Here, in strange
contrast, bloomed beds of verdurous moss; and in these, tufts of
dwarf-willows were wreathing their tiny arms and rootlets about the
feebler flower-growths; and there, clustered together, crouching
among the grass, and sheltered by the leaves, and feeding on the
bed of lichens, flourished a tiny, white-blossomed draba and a white
chickweed. Dotting the few feet of green around might be seen the
yellow flowers of the more hardy poppy, the purple potentilla, and
saxifrages yellow, purple, and white.

The great glacier of Sermiatsialik is one of the arms, or outlets, of

this immense reservoir of ice. It occupies the bed of a valley, varying
from three and a half to five miles in width, and attaining at certain
points a depth of upwards of three hundred and seventy feet. This
valley opens upon the fiord of Sermiatsialik, which is separated from
that of Julianshaab by the range of mountains culminating in the
peak of Redkammen.
We owe to Dr. Hayes a lively description of the Sermiatsialik
glacier, which he thinks must at some places be more than seven
hundred and fifty feet in depth, overflowing the borders of the valley
like a swollen torrent. For upwards of four leagues, the icebergs
which throng the fiord, or gulf, are those of the glacier itself, and
terminating in a wedge-like outline, disappear in the vast sea of ice
expanding to right and left above the loftiest summits, and drawing
irresistibly the eye to its rippled surface,—boundless, apparently, like
that of ocean. As the voyager sails up the gulf, he gradually loses
sight of the frozen slope, and then of the white line of the mer de
glace: he finds himself in front of an immense cliff, from one hundred
to two hundred feet in height, diaphanous as the purest crystals, and
reflecting all the hues of heaven.
One almost shudders as one approaches this vast domain of
Winter. Collecting in copious streams, the ice and snow melted on
the surface of the glacier pour over its brink, forming floating clouds
of spray, irradiated by rainbow colours. The din of these cascades
fills the air. At intervals, the loud reports of the internal convulsions of
the glacier are repeated by every echo.
The cliff is entirely vertical; but its face, far from being smooth, is
broken up into an infinite variety of forms: into unfathomable
cavernous hollows, symmetrical spires, ogives, pinnacles, and deep
fissures, where the eye plunges into a transparent blue, which
changes every second its fleeting, opaline tints; tints so soft, and yet
so vivid, that they defy the skill of the artist to reproduce them. The
lustre of the “dark eye of woman” is not more difficult to seize. A
deep dark green, less delicate but not less splendid, colours all the
recesses where the ice overhangs the waters. In the sunlight one
sees the surface of these huge crystals shining with the whiteness of
the purest snow; except, indeed, where recent fractures have taken
place. They suggest to the mind the idea of the gleams and
reflections of a piece of satin; the undulatory lustre and shifting
sparkle being produced by the different angles under which the light
is reflected.

But let us suppose that we have landed; with much difficulty have
ascended the cliffs; and have clambered up the glacier to its very
summit. The scene before us, how shall we convey to the mind of
the reader?
 THE GLACIER OF SERMIATSIALIK, GREENLAND.
Imagine, if you can, the rapids of the Upper Niagara congealed
even to their lowest depths; imagine the falls, and the broad river,
and the great Lake Erie all frozen into solid ice; with bergs above the
cataract towering as high as the lower banks: suppose that you, the
spectator, having taken your stand upon the rapids, with the Erie so
near that you can see its crystallized surface, and you will have a
picture, on a reduced scale, of the sea of ice now spreading far
before us. The rapids will represent the glacier; the Great Fall the
cliff which it projects into the sea (only that the celebrated “horse-
shoe” is here turned outwards); the river which broadens into the
Ontario will be the fiord; and the Ontario, that dark grim ocean into
which the gigantic bergs detached from the mighty ice-cascade are
slowly making their way!
 We must indicate, however, one remarkable dissimilarity, for
which our previous observations on the nature of glaciers will have
prepared the reader. From one bank to the other, the surface of a
river is always horizontal, but that of a glacier is slightly convex.
Through the narrow glen, or ravine, formed by this curvature of
the glacier, a kind of lateral trough or gully, bounded by the
escarpment of the soil, we reach the sea. The descent is not without
its dangers, for at every point crevasses open, separated by slippery
projections. These deep gashes, at some points, are only a few
yards apart; and they incessantly cross each other, and run into one
another, so as to form a perfect labyrinth, in the windings of which
the adventurous traveller is apt to feel bewildered.
The border of the glacier once crossed, the way becomes less
difficult; for a mile and a half the level is almost perfect, and the ice
but little broken up. The frozen desert, however, impresses us with
an almost solemn feeling, and there is something terrible in the
desolation of such a Sahara of snow!
Moreover, the traveller is irresistibly affected by the continual roar
or growling of the enormous mass, which seems to stir and shake
under our very feet. He would not be surprised if a vast chasm
suddenly yawned before him! These harsh deep voices of the
glacier, however, are not the only sounds we hear. On every side
rises the murmur of brooks which trace their furrows across the
crystalline plain. Some of these gradually converge, and, uniting,
form a considerable torrent, which leaps with a clang from icy crag to
icy ledge, until it is lost in a crevasse, or precipitated over the frozen
cliff into the waters of the fiord. The solitude of the scene is
complete, but not the silence. The air is as full of “noises” as ever
was Prospero’s isle.
Such are the principal features of the glacier of Sermiatsialik.

About ninety miles north-east of Rensselaer Bay lies the great

Humboldt Glacier, which seems to serve as a connecting-link
between the Old World and the New.
It lies between the 79th and 80th parallels north, and between the
64th and 65th meridians west, skirting the shore of Peabody Bay,
which is a bold indentation of the east coast of Kane Sea.
It was discovered in Dr. Kane’s expedition, and is probably one of
the grandest spectacles in the Arctic world. Dr. Kane acknowledges
himself unable to do justice to its magnificent aspect. He can speak
only of its “long, ever-shining line of cliff diminished to a well-pointed
wedge in the perspective;” of its “face of glistening ice, sweeping in a
long curve from the low interior, the facets in front intensely
illuminated by the sun.”
This line of cliff rises, like a solid wall of glass, three hundred feet
above the water-level, with an unknown, unfathomable depth below
it; and its curved face, sixty miles in length, disappears into unknown
space at not more than a single day’s railroad-travel from the Pole.
The interior with which it communicates, and from which it issues, is
an unexplored mer de glace, an ice-ocean, of apparently boundless
dimensions.
Such is the “mighty crystal bridge” which connects the two
continents of America and Greenland. We say, continents; for
Greenland, as Dr. Kane remarks, however insulated it may ultimately
prove to be, is in mass strictly continental. Its least possible axis,
measured from Cape Farewell to the line of the Humboldt Glacier, in
the neighbourhood of the 80th parallel, gives a length of upwards of
twelve hundred miles,—not materially less than that of Australia from
its northern to its southern cape.
Imagine the centre of such a continent, says Dr. Kane, occupied
through nearly its whole extent by a deep, unbroken sea of ice, that
gathers perennial increase from the watershed of vast snow-covered
mountains and all the precipitations of the atmosphere upon its own
surface. Imagine this, moving onward like a great glacial river,
seeking outlets at every fiord and valley, rolling icy cataracts into the
Atlantic and Greenland seas; and, having at last reached the
northern limit of the land that has borne it up, pouring out a mighty
frozen torrent into unknown Arctic space.
 “It is thus,” remarks Dr. Kane, “and only thus, that we must form a
just conception of a phenomenon like this great glacier. I had looked
in my own mind for such an appearance, should I ever be fortunate
enough to reach the northern coast of Greenland. But now that it
was before me, I could hardly realize it. I had recognized, in my quiet
library at home, the beautiful analogies which Forbes and Studer
have developed between the glacier and the river; but I could not
comprehend at first this complete substitution of ice for water.
“It was slowly the conviction dawned on me that I was looking
upon the counterpart of the great river-system of Arctic Asia and
America. Yet here were no water-feeders from the south. Every
particle of moisture had its origin within the Polar Circle, and had
been converted into ice. There were no vast alluvions, no forest or
animal traces borne down by liquid torrents. Here was a plastic,
moving, semi-solid mass, obliterating life, swallowing rocks and
islands, and ploughing its way with irresistible march through the
crust of an investing sea.”

When, at a later period, Dr. Kane made a closer examination of

this great natural wonder, he found that previously he had not
realized the full grandeur of the spectacle. He noted that the trend of
the glacier was a few degrees to the west of north; and he remarks,
as the peculiarity of its aspect, that it did not indicate repose, but
activity, energy, movement.
Its surface seemed to follow that of the basis-country over which
it flowed. It was undulating on and about the horizon, but as it
descended towards the sea it represented a broken plain with a
general inclination of some nine degrees, still diminishing toward the
foreground. Crevasses, which in the distance seemed like mere
wrinkles, expanded as they came nearer, and were intersected
almost at right angles by long continuous lines of fracture parallel
with the face of the glacier.
 These lines, too, scarcely perceptible in the far distance, widened
as they approached the sea until they formed a gigantic stairway. It
seemed as though the ice had lost its support below, and that the
mass was let down from above in a series of steps; and such an
action is the necessary result of the heat thrown out by the soil, the
excessive surface-drainage, and the constant abrasion of the sea.
The indication of a great propelling agency seemed to be just
commencing at the time that Dr. Kane visited the great glacier. The
split-off lines of ice were evidently in motion, pressed on by those
behind, but still broadening their fissures, as if the impelling action
grew more and more energetic nearer the water, till at last they
floated away in the form of icebergs. Long files of these detached
masses might be seen, like the ranks of a stately armada, slowly
sailing out into the remote sea, their separation marked by dark
parallel shadows; broad and spacious avenues near the eye, but
narrowed in the perspective to mere furrows. A more impressive
illustration of the forces of nature it would be difficult to conceive.
Dr. Kane’s view of the formation of icebergs differs considerably
from that which most physicists entertain.
He does not believe that the berg falls into the sea, broken by its
weight from the parent glacier; he is of opinion that it rises from the
sea. The process is at once gradual and comparatively quiet. “The
idea of icebergs being discharged, so universal among systematic
writers, seems to me at variance with the regulated and progressive
actions of Nature. Developed by such a process, the thousands of
bergs which throng the Polar seas should keep the air and water in
perpetual commotion, one fearful succession of explosive
detonations and propagated waves. But it is only the lesser masses
falling into deep waters which could justify the popular opinion. The
enormous masses of the great glacier are propelled, step by step
and year by year, until, reaching water capable of supporting them,
they are floated off to be lost in the temperatures of other regions.”
The Humboldt Glacier did not differ in structure from the Alpine
and Norwegian ice-growths; and its face presented nearly all the
characteristic features of the latter. The overflow, or viscous
overlapping of the surface, was very strongly marked. “When close
to the island rocks,” says Kane, “and looking out upon the upper
table of the glacier, I was struck with the homely analogy of the
batter-cake spreading itself out under the ladle of the housewife, the
upper surface less affected by friction, and rolling forward in
consequence.”

The crevasses bore the marks of direct fracture, as well as of the

more gradual action of surface-drainage. The extensive watershed
between their converging planes gave to the icy surface most of the
hydrographic features of a river-system. The ice-born rivers which
divided them were margined occasionally with spires of discoloured
ice, and generally lost themselves in the central areas of the glacier
before reaching its foreground. Occasionally, too, the face of the
glacier was cut by vertical lines, which, as in the Alpine examples,
were evidently outlets for the surface drainage.
The height of this ice-wall at the nearest point was about three
hundred feet, measured from the water’s edge; and the unbroken
right line of its diminishing perspective showed that this might be
regarded as its constant measurement. It seemed, in fact, a great icy
table-land, abutting with a clean precipice against the sea. This,
indeed, is the great characteristic of all those Arctic glaciers which
issue from central reservoirs or mers de glace upon the fiords or
bays, and is strikingly in contrast with the dependent or hanging
glacier of the ravines, where every line and furrow and chasm seem
to indicate the movement of descent and the mechanical
disturbances which have impeded and delayed it.
Dr. Kane named this monster glacier after Alexander Von
Humboldt, to whose labours Physical Science is so largely indebted;
and the cape which flanks it on the Greenland coast after the
distinguished naturalist, whom the world has so recently lost,
Professor Agassiz.
 The point at which the Humboldt Glacier enters the “Land of
Washington” affords even at a distance very clear indications of its
plastic or semi-solid character. The observer finds it impossible to
resist the impression of fluidity conveyed by its peculiar markings. Dr.
Kane very appropriately named it Cape Forbes, in honour of the
illustrious son of Scotia who contributed so largely to our true
knowledge of the structure and mode of progression of glaciers.
As the surface of the glacier, adds its discoverer, receded to the
south, its face seemed broken with piles of earth and rock-stained
rubbish, until far back in the interior it was concealed from view by
the slope of a hill. But even beyond this point its continued extension
was shown by the white glare or ice-blink in the sky above.
Its outline to the northward could not be so easily traced, on
account of the enormous discharges at its base. The talus of its
descent from the interior, looking far off to the east, ranged from 7° to
15°; so interrupted by the crevasses, however, as only in the
distance to produce the effect of an inclined plane. A few black
protuberances rose above the glittering surface of the snow, like
islands in a foamy sea.
It could be seen, from the general inequalities of its surface, how
well the huge mass adapted itself to the inequalities of the basis-
country beneath. The same modifications of hill and dale were
discernible as upon land. Thus grand and various in its imposing
aspect, it stretches to the north until it touches the new Land of
Washington, cementing together by an apparently indissoluble tie
the Greenland of the Norse Vikings and the America of the Anglo-
Saxon colonists.
 CHAPTER V.
THE ARCTIC LANDS—FAUNA—FLORA—GREENLAND—ICELAND—NOVAIA
ZEMLAIA—SIBERIA.

e have already pointed out that in the northernmost regions of

the Arctic lands the year is divided into one prolonged and
bitterly cold night of several months’ duration, and one
glorious summer’s day extending over nine or ten weeks, which
brings the scanty vegetation to a sudden maturity. We have indicated
that even within the limits of perpetual snow the life of Nature is not
altogether crushed out; and in support of this statement we may refer
to the “red snow” which figures so often in the pages of our Arctic
voyagers, though its true character was not at first apprehended.
This so-called “red snow” was found by Sir John Ross, in his first
Arctic expedition in 1808, on a range of cliffs rising about 800 feet
above the sea-level, and extending eight miles in length (lat. 75° N.).
It was also discovered by Sir W. E. Parry in his overland expedition
in 1827. The snow was tinged to the depth of several inches.
Moreover, if the surface of the snow-plain, though previously of its
usual spotless purity, was crushed by the pressure of the sledges
and of the footsteps of the party, blood-like stains instantly arose; the
impressions being sometimes of an orange hue, and sometimes
more like a pale salmon tint.
It has been ascertained that this singular variation of colour is
due to an immense aggregation of minute plants of the species
called Protococcus nivalis; the generic name alluding to the extreme
primitiveness of its organization, and the specific to the peculiar
nature of its habitat. If we place a small quantity of red snow on a
piece of white paper, and allow it to melt and evaporate, there will be
left a residuum of granules sufficient to communicate a faint crimson
tint to the paper. Examine these granules under a microscope, and
they will prove to be spherical purple cells of almost inappreciable
size, not more than the three-thousandth to one-thousandth part of
an inch in diameter. Look more closely, and you will see that each
cell has an opening, surrounded by indented or serrated lines, the
smallest diameter of which measures only the five-thousandth part of
an inch. When perfect, the plant, as Dr. Macmillan observes, bears a
resemblance to a red-currant berry; as it decays, the red colouring
matter fades into a deep orange, which is finally resolved into a
brownish hue. The thickness of the wall of the cell is estimated at the
twenty-thousandth part of an inch, and three hundred to four
hundred of these cells might be grouped together in a smaller space
than a shilling would cover. Yet each cell is a distinct individual plant;
perfectly independent of others with which it may be massed; fully
capable of performing for and by itself all the functions of growth and
reproduction; possessing “a containing membrane which absorbs
liquids and gases from the surrounding matrix or elements, a
contained fluid of peculiar character formed out of these materials,
and a number of excessively minute granules equivalent to spores,
or, as some would say, to cellular buds, which are to become the
germs of new plants.” Dr. Macmillan adds: “That one and the same
primitive cell should thus minister equally to absorption, nutrition, and
reproduction, is an extraordinary illustration of the fact that the
smallest and simplest organized object is in itself, and, for the part it
was created to perform in the operations of nature, as admirably
adapted as the largest and most complicated.”

PROTOCOCCUS NIVALIS.
 The first vegetable forms to make their appearance at the limits
of the snow-line, whether in high latitudes or on mountain-summits,
are lichens; which flourish on rocks, or stones, or trees, or wherever
they can obtain sufficient moisture to support existence. Upwards of
two thousand four hundred species are known. The same kinds
prevail throughout the Arctic Regions, and the species common to
both the Eastern and Western Hemispheres are very numerous.
They lend the beauty of colour to many an Arctic scene which would
otherwise be inexpressibly dreary; the most rugged rock acquiring a
certain air of picturesqueness through their luxuriant display. Their
forms are wonderfully varied; so that they present to the student of
Nature an almost inexhaustible field of inquiry. In their most
rudimentary aspects they seem to consist of nothing more than a
collection of powdery granules, so minute that the figure of each is
scarcely distinguishable, and so dry and so deficient in organization
that we cannot but wonder how they live and maintain life. Now they
are seen like ink-spots on the trunks of fallen trees; now they are
freely sprinkled in white dust over rocks and withered tufts of moss,
others appear in gray filmy patches; others again like knots or
rosettes of various tints; and some are pulpy and gelatinous, like
aërial sea-weeds which the receding tide leaves bare and naked on
inland rocks. A greater complexity of structure, however, is visible in
the higher order of lichens,—and we find them either tufted and
shrubby, like miniature trees; or in clustering cups, which, Hebe-like,
present their “dewy offerings to the sun.”
In the Polar World, and its regions of eternal winter, where snow
and ice, and dark drear waters, huge glacier and colossal berg,
combine to form an awful and impressive picture, the traveller is
thankful for the abundance of these humble and primitive forms,
which communicate the freshness and variety of life to the otherwise
painful and death-like uniformity of the frost-bound Nature. It is true
that here,
“Above, around, below,
On mountain or in glen,
Nor tree, nor shrub, nor plant, nor flower,”
may be found in the lands beyond the line of perpetual snow; it is
true that
“All is rocks at random thrown,
Black waves, bare crags, and banks of stone;
As if were here denied
The summer’s sun, the spring’s sweet dew,
That clothe with many a varied hue
The bleakest mountain-side;”

but vegetation is not absolutely wanting, and the lichens are so

largely developed and so widely distributed as to impart quite a
peculiar and distinctive character to the scenery.
A lichen which is discovered in almost every zone of altitude and
latitude, which ranges from the wild shores of Melville Island in the
Arctic to those of Deception Island in the Antarctic circle,—which
blooms on the crests of the Himalayas, on the lofty peak of
Chimborazo, and was found by Agassiz near the top of Mont Blanc,
—is the Lecidea geographica, a beautiful bright-green lichen, whose
clusters assume almost a kaleidoscopic appearance.
A lichen of great importance in the Arctic world is the well-known
Cladonia rangiferina, or reindeer moss, which forms the staple food
of that animal during the long Arctic winter. In the vast tundras, or
steppes, of Lapland it flourishes in the greatest profusion, completely
covering the ground with its snowy tufts, which look like the silvery
sprays of some magic plant. According to Linnæus, it thrives more
luxuriantly than any other plant in the pine-forests of Lapland, the
surface of the soil being carpeted with it for many miles in extent;
and if the forests are accidentally burned to the ground, it quickly
reappears, and grows with all its original vigour. These plains, which
seem to the traveller smitten with the curse of desolation, the
Laplander regards as fertile pastures; and here vast herds of
reindeer roam at will, thriving where the horse, the elephant, and
even the camel would perish. This useful animal is dependent almost
entirely on a lichen for support. What a deep interest is thus attached
to it! That vast numbers of families, living in pastoral simplicity in the
cheerless and inhospitable Polar Regions, should depend for their
subsistence upon the uncultured and abundant supply of a plant so
low in the scale of organization as this, is, says Dr. Macmillan, a
striking proof of the great importance of even the smallest and
meanest objects in nature.
When the ground is crusted with a hard and frozen snow, which
prevents it from obtaining its usual food, the reindeer turns to
another lichen, called rock-hair (Alectoria jubata), that grows in long
bearded tufts on almost every tree. In winters of extreme rigour, the
Laplanders cut down whole forests of the largest trees, that their
herds may browse freely on the tufts which clothe the higher
branches. Hence it has been justly said that “the vast dreary pine-
forests of Lapland possess a character which is peculiarly their own,
and are perhaps more singular in the eyes of the traveller than any
other feature in the landscapes of that remote and desolate region.
This character they owe to the immense number of lichens with
which they abound. The ground, instead of grass, is carpeted with
dense tufts of the reindeer moss, white as a shower of new fallen
snow; while the trunks and branches of the trees are swollen far
beyond their natural dimensions with huge, dusky, funereal branches
of the rock-hair, hanging down in masses, exhaling a damp earthy
smell, like an old cellar, or stretching from tree to tree in long
festoons, waving with every breath of wind, and creating a perpetual
melancholy sound.”

In regions furthest north are found various species of lichens

belonging to the genera Gyrophora and Umbilicuria, and known in
the records of Arctic travel as rock tripe, or tripe de roche; a name
given to them in consequence of their blistered thallus, which bears
a faint resemblance to the animal substance so called. They afford a
coarse kind of food, and proved of the greatest service to the
expeditions under Sir John Franklin; though their nutritious
properties are not considerable, and, such as they are, are
unfortunately impaired by the presence of a bitter principle which is
apt to induce diarrhœa. In Franklin and Richardson’s terrible
overland journey from the Coppermine River to Fort Enterprise it was
almost the sole support, at one time, of the heroic little company. Dr.
Richardson says they gathered four species of Gyrophora,[9] and
used them all as articles of food; “but not having the means of
extracting the bitter principle from them, they proved nauseous to all,
and noxious to several of the party, producing severe bowel
complaints.” Franklin on one occasion remarks: “This was the sixth
day since we had enjoyed a good meal; the tripe de roche, even
when we got enough, only serving to allay the pangs of hunger for a
short time.” Again, we read: “The want of tripe de roche caused us to
go supperless to bed.”
Dr. Hayes, in the course of his “Arctic Boat Journey,” was
compelled to have recourse to the same unsatisfactory fare. The
rock-lichen, or stone-moss, as he calls it, he describes as about an
inch in diameter at its maximum growth, and of the thickness of a
wafer. It is black externally, but when broken the interior appears
white. When boiled it makes a glutinous fluid, which is slightly
nutritious.
“Although in some places it grows very abundantly,” writes Dr.
Hayes, “yet in one locality it, like the game, was scarce. Most of the
rocks had none upon them; and there were very few from which we
could collect as much as a quart. The difficulty of gathering it was
much augmented by its crispness, and the firmness of its
attachment.
“For this plant, poor though it was, we were compelled to dig. The
rocks in every case were to be cleared from snow, and often our
pains went unrewarded. The first time this food was tried it seemed
to answer well,—it at least filled the stomach, and thus kept off the
horrid sensation of hunger until we got to sleep; but it was found to
produce afterwards a painful diarrhœa. Besides this unpleasant
effect, fragments of gravel, which were mixed with the moss, tried
our teeth. We picked the plants from the rock with our knives, or a
piece of hoop-iron; and we could not avoid breaking off some
particles of the stone.”
 These lichens are black and leather-like, studded with small black
points like “coiled wire buttons,” and attached either by an umbilical
root or by short and tenacious fibres to the rocks. Some of them may
be compared to a piece of shagreen, while others resemble a
fragment of burned skin. They are met with in cold bleak localities,
on Alpine heights of granite or micaceous schist, in almost all parts
of the world,—on the Scottish mountains, on the Andes, on the
Himalayas; but it is in the Polar World that they most abound,
spreading over the surface of every rock a sombre Plutonian
vegetation, that seems to have been scathed by fire and flame, until
all its beauty and richness were shrivelled up.

Some of the lichens in the less remote latitudes—as, for instance,

in Sweden—are far superior in usefulness to any of those we have
hitherto described. The Swedish peasant finds in them his pharmacy,
his dyeing materials, his food. With the various lichens that grow
upon the trees and rocks, says Frederika Bremer, he cures the
virulent diseases which sometimes afflict him, dyes the articles of
clothing which he wears, and poisons the noxious and dangerous
animals which annoy him. The juniper and cranberry give him their
berries, which he brews into drink; he makes a conserve of them,
and mixes their juices with his dry salt-meat, and is healthful and
cheerful with these and with his labour, of which he makes a
pleasure.
The only lichen which has retained its place in modern pharmacy
is the well-known “Iceland moss.” It is still employed as a tonic and
febrifuge in ague; but more largely, when added to soups and
chocolate, as an article of diet for the feeble and consumptive. In
Iceland the Cetraria Islandica is highly valued by the inhabitants.
What barley, rye, and oats are to the Indo-Caucasian races of Asia
and Western Europe; the olive, the fig, and the grape to the
inhabitants of the Mediterranean basin; rice to the Hindu; the tea-
plant to the native of the Flowery Land; and the date palm to the
Arab,—is Iceland moss to the Icelander, the Lapp, and the Eskimo.