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Advances in Food Traceability Techniques
and Technologies
Related titles
New Analytical Approaches for Verifying the Origin of Food
(ISBN 978-0-85709-274-8)
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Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science,
Technology and Nutrition: Number 301

Advances in Food
Traceability Techniques
and Technologies
Improving Quality Throughout the
Food Chain

Edited by

Montserrat Espiñeira
Francisco J. Santaclara

AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • CAMBRIDGE • HEIDELBERG

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Contents

List of Contributors xi
Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology
and Nutrition xv

Part One  Introduction to Food Traceability 1

1 What Is Food Traceability? 3

M. Espiñeira and F.J. Santaclara
1. Introduction3
2. What Is Meant by Traceability in the Food Industry3
3. The Need to Incorporate New Technologies in Traceability
Systems4
4. Regulations and Legislation on Food Traceability5
5. Effective Use of Food Traceability6
6. Future Trends7
References7

2 Defining and Analyzing Traceability Systems in Food Supply Chains 9

H. Scholten, C.N. Verdouw, A. Beulens and J.G.A.J. van der Vorst
1. Introduction9
2. Traceability in Food Supply Chains10
3. Food Supply Chain Mapping17
4. Food Traceability System Architectures21
5. Case Studies23
6. Discussion and Conclusion29
Acknowledgments30
References31

3 Problems and Implementation Hurdles in Food Traceability 35

K.M. Karlsen and P. Olsen
1. Introduction35
2. Principles of Traceability36
3. Chain Traceability39
4. Standardization of Information and Information
Exchange in Various Links in the Chain40
5. Different Drivers of Traceability41
vi Contents

6. Problems and Implementation Hurdles in Food Traceability41

7. Future Trends44
References45

Part Two  Development of Methods, Devices, and

Sensors for Food Traceability 47

4 Alphanumerical and Optical Coding Systems for Food Traceability 49

Zs. Kemény and E. Ilie-Zudor
1. The State of the Art in Food Traceability49
2. Perceived Problems and Demands55
3. Potentials and Pitfalls57
4. Current Trends60
5. Conclusion61
References61

5 Radio-Frequency Identification Usage in Food Traceability 67

F. Dabbene, P. Gay and C. Tortia
1. Introduction67
2. Technology and Equipment for Radio-Frequency Identification68
3. Advantages of Radio-Frequency Identification in Food Traceability72
4. Constraints of Radio-Frequency Usage in Food Traceability77
5. Examples and Applications of RFID in Food Supply Chains80
6. Future Trends84
References86

6 The Use of Molecular Biology Techniques in Food Traceability 91

M. Espiñeira and F.J. Santaclara
1. A Brief Introduction to Molecular Biology Techniques91
2. Fish and Seafood Applications94
3. Meat Applications96
4. Milk Products100
5. Cereals101
6. Fruit and Vegetable Foodstuffs102
7. Wine103
8. Oils104
9. Conclusions and Perspectives105
References106

7 Near Infrared Spectroscopy and Food Authenticity 119

D. Cozzolino
1. Introduction119
2. Traceability and Authenticity119
3. The Tools (Hardware and Software)120
4. Examples and Applications124
5. Concluding Remarks131
References132
Contents vii

8 The Use of ICP-MS in Food Traceability 137

M. Aceto
1. A Brief Introduction to ICP-MS Technique137
2. Classification Studies on Food138
3. Where Do Elements Come From?140
4. The Most Important Food Production Chains:
Description and Case Studies144
5. Conclusions156
Acknowledgments156
References156

9 Future Technology in Tracing Animals on the Food Chain 165

T. Pizzuti and G. Mirabelli
1. General Introduction165
2. Advances in Animal Tracing173
3. Alternative and Future Technologies176
4. Conclusions187
References187

10 Traceability Software for the Food Industry 191

A.K. Evizal, S.K.A. Rahim, T.A. Rahman and S.L. Rosa
1. Introduction191
2. Traceability Software for the Consumer192
3. Traceability Software for Suppliers197
4. Future Trends205
References205

Part Three  Legal Requirements and Regulation in

Food Traceability 207

11 Real-Time Tracking and Remote Monitoring in Food Traceability 209

R. Badia-Melis and L. Ruiz-Garcia
1. Introduction209
2. How Can We Track and Monitor in Real Time?210
3. Applications216
4. Limitations and Challenges218
5. Conclusions and Future Trends220
References221

12 Legal Requirements for Food Traceability in the

European Union 225
M. Borit
1. Introduction225
2. Background226
3. The EU Food Legislation228
4. Traceability in the EU Food Legislation229
viii Contents

5. Consistency of the EU Body of Law Related to

Traceability and Future Trends232
6. Conclusions232
Acknowledgments233
References233

13 Legal Requirements and Regulation for Food Traceability

in the United States 237
L. Zach
1. Introduction237
2. Current Legislation for Food Traceability in the United States241
3. Pending Rules and Guidance252
4. Future Trends and Business Governance in Traceability254
5. Conclusion256
References257

Part Four  Case Studies in Food Traceability 261

14 Effective Use of Food Traceability in Product Recall 263

T.M.L. Diallo, S. Henry and Y. Ouzrout
1. Introduction263
2. Product Recall264
3. Traceability and Product Recall268
4. Minimizing the Size of the Recall Through the
Traceability System by the Reduction of the Dispersion
and Root Cause Analysis269
5. The Need of Internal Traceability in Addition to
External Traceability270
6. Use of Batch Traceability and Unitary Traceability in
Recall Procedure271
7. Conclusion and Perspectives271
References271

15 Analytical Approaches for the Evaluation of Food

Protected Designation of Origin 275
S. Armenta and M. de la Guardia
1. Social and Law Frame of Protected Designation
of Origin Labels275
2. Analytical Methods for Food Protected Designation
Authentication278
3. Multivariate Statistics Applied to the Identification
of Food Origin283
4. Main Applications285
5. Conclusions and Future Trends294
References295
Contents ix

16 Effective Use of Food Traceability in Cereal Grain

Food Supply Chains 303
H. Dong, D. Luo and H. Luo
1. Introduction303
2. Effective Use in Cereal Grain Traceability304
3. Conclusions and Future Prospects316
References317

17 Effective Use of Food Traceability in Meat Supply Chains 321

J.E. Hobbs
1. Introduction321
2. Perspectives on Traceability322
3. Public and Private Sector Approaches to Meat Traceability328
4. Consumer Demand for Meat Traceability331
5. Conclusions332
References333

18 A Closed-Loop Traceability System to Improve Logistics Decisions

in Food Supply Chains: A Case Study on Dairy Products 337
R. Accorsi, E. Ferrari, M. Gamberi, R. Manzini and A. Regattieri
1. Introduction337
2. Closed-Loop Traceability System: Methodology342
3. Data Collection and Analysis344
4. Conclusions and Further Research350
References350

19 Effective Use of Food Traceability in Animal Feed 353

C. Morcia, G. Tumino, R. Ghizzoni and V. Terzi
1. Authentication and Traceability as a Key Factor for
Feed Safety and Quality353
2. Determination of Animal Species in Feed354
3. Botanical Origin and Geographical Origin of Plant Raw Materials355
4. Traceability of Genetically Modified Plants and Ingredients357
5. Mycotoxins and Biological Contaminants in Animal Feed359
6. Conclusions and Perspectives360
Acknowledgments361
References361

Index365
This page intentionally left blank

     
List of Contributors

R. Accorsi Alma Mater Studiorum - University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy

M. Aceto Università degli Studi del Piemonte Orientale, Viale Teresa Michel,
Alessandria, Italy

S. Armenta University of Valencia, Burjassot, Valencia, Spain

R. Badia-Melis Polytechnic University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain

A. Beulens LEI Wageningen UR, Wageningen, The Netherlands

M. Borit University of Tromsø (UiT) – The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø,

Norway

D. Cozzolino Central Queensland University, Rockhampton, QLD, Australia

F. Dabbene IEIIT‐CNR, Politecnico di Torino, Turin, Italy

M. de la Guardia University of Valencia, Burjassot, Valencia, Spain

T.M.L. Diallo University of Lyon, University Lyon 1, Villeurbanne, France

H. Dong Guangzhou Quality Supervision and Testing Institute, Guangzhou,

Guangdong, China

M. Espiñeira ANFACO-CECOPESCA, Vigo, Spain

A.K. Evizal Islamic University of Riau, Pekanbaru, Riau, Indonesia; Universiti

Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru, Malaysia

E. Ferrari Alma Mater Studiorum - University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy

M. Gamberi Alma Mater Studiorum - University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy

P. Gay IEIIT‐CNR, Politecnico di Torino, Turin, Italy; Università degli Studi di

Torino, Grugliasco, Italy
xii List of Contributors

R. Ghizzoni Council for Agricultural Research and Economics, Genomics Research

Center, CREA-GPG, Fiorenzuola d’Arda (PC), Italy

S. Henry University of Lyon, University Lyon 1, Villeurbanne, France

J.E. Hobbs University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada

E. Ilie-Zudor Institute for Computer Science and Control, Hungarian Academy of

Sciences, Budapest, Hungary

K.M. Karlsen Norwegian Institute of Food, Fisheries and Aquaculture Research

(Nofima), Tromsø, Norway

Zs. Kemény Institute for Computer Science and Control, Hungarian Academy of
Sciences, Budapest, Hungary

D. Luo Guangzhou Quality Supervision and Testing Institute, Guangzhou,

Guangdong, China

H. Luo Guangzhou Quality Supervision and Testing Institute, Guangzhou,

Guangdong, China

R. Manzini Alma Mater Studiorum - University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy

G. Mirabelli University of Calabria, Rende, Italy

C. Morcia Council for Agricultural Research and Economics, Genomics Research

Center, CREA-GPG, Fiorenzuola d’Arda (PC), Italy

P. Olsen Norwegian Institute of Food, Fisheries and Aquaculture Research (Nofima),

Tromsø, Norway

Y. Ouzrout University of Lyon, University Lyon 2, Lyon, France

T. Pizzuti University of Calabria, Rende, Italy

S.K.A. Rahim Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru, Malaysia

T.A. Rahman Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru, Malaysia

A. Regattieri Alma Mater Studiorum - University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy

S.L. Rosa Islamic University of Riau, Pekanbaru, Riau, Indonesia

L. Ruiz-Garcia Polytechnic University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain

List of Contributors xiii

F.J. Santaclara IDIS CHUS, Santiago de Compostela, Spain

H. Scholten Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands

V. Terzi Council for Agricultural Research and Economics, Genomics Research Center,
CREA-GPG, Fiorenzuola d’Arda (PC), Italy

C. Tortia Università degli Studi di Torino, Grugliasco, Italy

G. Tumino Council for Agricultural Research and Economics, Genomics Research

Center, CREA-GPG, Fiorenzuola d’Arda (PC), Italy

J.G.A.J. van der Vorst Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands

C.N. Verdouw LEI Wageningen UR, The Netherlands; Wageningen University,

Wageningen, The Netherlands

L. Zach Food System Solutions, Mt Horeb, Wisconsin, WI, United States; Food
System Solutions, Christchurch, New Zealand
This page intentionally left blank

     
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Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition xvii

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xviii Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition

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Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition xix

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126 Brewing: New technologies
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127 Handbook of herbs and spices Volume 3
Edited by K. V. Peter
128 Lawrie’s meat science Seventh edition
R. A. Lawrie in collaboration with D. A. Ledward
129 Modifying lipids for use in food
Edited by F. Gunstone
130 Meat products handbook: Practical science and technology
G. Feiner
131 Food consumption and disease risk: Consumer–pathogen interactions
Edited by M. Potter
132 Acrylamide and other hazardous compounds in heat-treated foods
Edited by K. Skog and J. Alexander
133 Managing allergens in food
Edited by C. Mills, H. Wichers and K. Hoffman-Sommergruber
134 Microbiological analysis of red meat, poultry and eggs
Edited by G. Mead
135 Maximising the value of marine by-products
Edited by F. Shahidi
136 Chemical migration and food contact materials
Edited by K. Barnes, R. Sinclair and D. Watson
137 Understanding consumers of food products
Edited by L. Frewer and H. van Trijp
138 Reducing salt in foods: Practical strategies
Edited by D. Kilcast and F. Angus
139 Modelling microorganisms in food
Edited by S. Brul, S. Van Gerwen and M. Zwietering
Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition xxi

140 Tamime and Robinson’s Yoghurt: Science and technology Third edition
A. Y. Tamime and R. K. Robinson
141 Handbook of waste management and co-product recovery in food processing
Volume 1
Edited by K. W. Waldron
142 Improving the flavour of cheese
Edited by B. Weimer
143 Novel food ingredients for weight control
Edited by C. J. K. Henry
144 Consumer-led food product development
Edited by H. MacFie
145 Functional dairy products Volume 2
Edited by M. Saarela
146 Modifying flavour in food
Edited by A. J. Taylor and J. Hort
147 Cheese problems solved
Edited by P. L. H. McSweeney
148 Handbook of organic food safety and quality
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149 Understanding and controlling the microstructure of complex foods
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150 Novel enzyme technology for food applications
Edited by R. Rastall
151 Food preservation by pulsed electric fields: From research to application
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152 Technology of functional cereal products
Edited by B. R. Hamaker
153 Case studies in food product development
Edited by M. Earle and R. Earle
154 Delivery and controlled release of bioactives in foods and nutraceuticals
Edited by N. Garti
155 Fruit and vegetable flavour: Recent advances and future prospects
Edited by B. Brückner and S. G. Wyllie
156 Food fortification and supplementation: Technological, safety and regulatory
aspects
Edited by P. Berry Ottaway
157 Improving the health-promoting properties of fruit and vegetable products
Edited by F. A. Tomás-Barberán and M. I. Gil
158 Improving seafood products for the consumer
Edited by T. Børresen
159 In-pack processed foods: Improving quality
Edited by P. Richardson
160 Handbook of water and energy management in food processing
Edited by J. Klemeš, R. Smith and J.-K. Kim
161 Environmentally compatible food packaging
Edited by E. Chiellini
162 Improving farmed fish quality and safety
Edited by Ø. Lie
163 Carbohydrate-active enzymes
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xxii Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition

164 Chilled foods: A comprehensive guide Third edition

Edited by M. Brown
165 Food for the ageing population
Edited by M. M. Raats, C. P. G. M. de Groot and W. A. Van Staveren
166 Improving the sensory and nutritional quality of fresh meat
Edited by J. P. Kerry and D. A. Ledward
167 Shellfish safety and quality
Edited by S. E. Shumway and G. E. Rodrick
168 Functional and speciality beverage technology
Edited by P. Paquin
169 Functional foods: Principles and technology
M. Guo
170 Endocrine-disrupting chemicals in food
Edited by I. Shaw
171 Meals in science and practice: Interdisciplinary research and business
applications
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172 Food constituents and oral health: Current status and future prospects
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173 Handbook of hydrocolloids Second edition
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174 Food processing technology: Principles and practice Third edition
P. J. Fellows
175 Science and technology of enrobed and filled chocolate, confectionery and bakery
products
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176 Foodborne pathogens: Hazards, risk analysis and control Second edition
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177 Designing functional foods: Measuring and controlling food structure breakdown
and absorption
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178 New technologies in aquaculture: Improving production efficiency, quality
and environmental management
Edited by G. Burnell and G. Allan
179 More baking problems solved
S. P. Cauvain and L. S. Young
180 Soft drink and fruit juice problems solved
P. Ashurst and R. Hargitt
181 Biofilms in the food and beverage industries
Edited by P. M. Fratamico, B. A. Annous and N. W. Gunther
182 Dairy-derived ingredients: Food and neutraceutical uses
Edited by M. Corredig
183 Handbook of waste management and co-product recovery in food processing
Volume 2
Edited by K. W. Waldron
184 Innovations in food labelling
Edited by J. Albert
185 Delivering performance in food supply chains
Edited by C. Mena and G. Stevens
Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition xxiii

186 Chemical deterioration and physical instability of food and beverages

Edited by L. H. Skibsted, J. Risbo and M. L. Andersen
187 Managing wine quality Volume 1: Viticulture and wine quality
Edited by A. G. Reynolds
188 Improving the safety and quality of milk Volume 1: Milk production and processing
Edited by M. Griffiths
189 Improving the safety and quality of milk Volume 2: Improving quality in milk
products
Edited by M. Griffiths
190 Cereal grains: Assessing and managing quality
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191 Sensory analysis for food and beverage quality control: A practical guide
Edited by D. Kilcast
192 Managing wine quality Volume 2: Oenology and wine quality
Edited by A. G. Reynolds
193 Winemaking problems solved
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194 Environmental assessment and management in the food industry
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195 Consumer-driven innovation in food and personal care products
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196 Tracing pathogens in the food chain
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197 Case studies in novel food processing technologies: Innovations in processing,
packaging, and predictive modelling
Edited by C. J. Doona, K. Kustin and F. E. Feeherry
198 Freeze-drying of pharmaceutical and food products
T.-C. Hua, B.-L. Liu and H. Zhang
199 Oxidation in foods and beverages and antioxidant applications Volume 1:
Understanding mechanisms of oxidation and antioxidant activity
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200 Oxidation in foods and beverages and antioxidant applications Volume 2:
Management in different industry sectors
Edited by E. A. Decker, R. J. Elias and D. J. McClements
201 Protective cultures, antimicrobial metabolites and bacteriophages for food
and beverage biopreservation
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202 Separation, extraction and concentration processes in the food, beverage
and nutraceutical industries
Edited by S. S. H. Rizvi
203 Determining mycotoxins and mycotoxigenic fungi in food and feed
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204 Developing children’s food products
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205 Functional foods: Concept to product Second edition
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206 Postharvest biology and technology of tropical and subtropical fruits Volume 1:
Fundamental issues
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xxiv Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition

207 Postharvest biology and technology of tropical and subtropical fruits Volume 2:
Açai to citrus
Edited by E. M. Yahia
208 Postharvest biology and technology of tropical and subtropical fruits Volume 3:
Cocona to mango
Edited by E. M. Yahia
209 Postharvest biology and technology of tropical and subtropical fruits Volume 4:
Mangosteen to white sapote
Edited by E. M. Yahia
210 Food and beverage stability and shelf life
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211 Processed Meats: Improving safety, nutrition and quality
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212 Food chain integrity: A holistic approach to food traceability, safety,
quality and authenticity
Edited by J. Hoorfar, K. Jordan, F. Butler and R. Prugger
213 Improving the safety and quality of eggs and egg products Volume 1
Edited by Y. Nys, M. Bain and F. Van Immerseel
214 Improving the safety and quality of eggs and egg products Volume 2
Edited by F. Van Immerseel, Y. Nys and M. Bain
215 Animal feed contamination: Effects on livestock and food safety
Edited by J. Fink-Gremmels
216 Hygienic design of food factories
Edited by J. Holah and H. L. M. Lelieveld
217 Manley’s technology of biscuits, crackers and cookies Fourth edition
Edited by D. Manley
218 Nanotechnology in the food, beverage and nutraceutical industries
Edited by Q. Huang
219 Rice quality: A guide to rice properties and analysis
K. R. Bhattacharya
220 Advances in meat, poultry and seafood packaging
Edited by J. P. Kerry
221 Reducing saturated fats in foods
Edited by G. Talbot
222 Handbook of food proteins
Edited by G. O. Phillips and P. A. Williams
223 Lifetime nutritional influences on cognition, behaviour and psychiatric illness
Edited by D. Benton
224 Food machinery for the production of cereal foods, snack foods and confectionery
L.-M. Cheng
225 Alcoholic beverages: Sensory evaluation and consumer research
Edited by J. Piggott
226 Extrusion problems solved: Food, pet food and feed
M. N. Riaz and G. J. Rokey
227 Handbook of herbs and spices Second edition Volume 1
Edited by K. V. Peter
228 Handbook of herbs and spices Second edition Volume 2
Edited by K. V. Peter
229 Breadmaking: Improving quality Second edition
Edited by S. P. Cauvain
Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition xxv

230 Emerging food packaging technologies: Principles and practice

Edited by K. L. Yam and D. S. Lee
231 Infectious disease in aquaculture: Prevention and control
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232 Diet, immunity and inflammation
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233 Natural food additives, ingredients and flavourings
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234 Microbial decontamination in the food industry: Novel methods and applications
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235 Chemical contaminants and residues in foods
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236 Robotics and automation in the food industry: Current and future technologies
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237 Fibre-rich and wholegrain foods: Improving quality
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238 Computer vision technology in the food and beverage industries
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239 Encapsulation technologies and delivery systems for food ingredients and nutra-
ceuticals
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240 Case studies in food safety and authenticity
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241 Heat treatment for insect control: Developments and applications
D. Hammond
242 Advances in aquaculture hatchery technology
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243 Open innovation in the food and beverage industry
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244 Trends in packaging of food, beverages and other fast-moving consumer goods
(FMCG)
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245 New analytical approaches for verifying the origin of food
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246 Microbial production of food ingredients, enzymes and nutraceuticals
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247 Persistent organic pollutants and toxic metals in foods
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248 Cereal grains for the food and beverage industries
E. Arendt and E. Zannini
249 Viruses in food and water: Risks, surveillance and control
Edited by N. Cook
250 Improving the safety and quality of nuts
Edited by L. J. Harris
251 Metabolomics in food and nutrition
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252 Food enrichment with omega-3 fatty acids
Edited by C. Jacobsen, N. S. Nielsen, A. F. Horn and A.-D. M. Sørensen
253 Instrumental assessment of food sensory quality: A practical guide
Edited by D. Kilcast
xxvi Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition

254 Food microstructures: Microscopy, measurement and modelling

Edited by V. J. Morris and K. Groves
255 Handbook of food powders: Processes and properties
Edited by B. R. Bhandari, N. Bansal, M. Zhang and P. Schuck
256 Functional ingredients from algae for foods and nutraceuticals
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257 Satiation, satiety and the control of food intake: Theory and practice
Edited by J. E. Blundell and F. Bellisle
258 Hygiene in food processing: Principles and practice Second edition
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259 Advances in microbial food safety Volume 1
Edited by J. Sofos
260 Global safety of fresh produce: A handbook of best practice, innovative commercial
solutions and case studies
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261 Human milk biochemistry and infant formula manufacturing technology
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262 High throughput screening for food safety assessment: Biosensor technologies,
hyperspectral imaging and practical applications
Edited by A. K. Bhunia, M. S. Kim and C. R. Taitt
263 Foods, nutrients and food ingredients with authorised EU health claims: Volume 1
Edited by M. J. Sadler
264 Handbook of food allergen detection and control
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265 Advances in fermented foods and beverages: Improving quality, technologies
and health benefits
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266 Metabolomics as a tool in nutrition research
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267 Dietary supplements: Safety, efficacy and quality
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268 Grapevine breeding programs for the wine industry
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269 Handbook of antimicrobials for food safety and quality
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270 Managing and preventing obesity: Behavioural factors and dietary interventions
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271 Electron beam pasteurization and complementary food processing technologies
Edited by S. D. Pillai and S. Shayanfar
272 Advances in food and beverage labelling: Information and regulations
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273 Flavour development, analysis and perception in food and beverages
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274 Rapid sensory profiling techniques and related methods: Applications
in new product development and consumer research
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275 Advances in microbial food safety: Volume 2
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276 Handbook of antioxidants for food preservation
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Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition xxvii

277 Lockhart and Wiseman’s crop husbandry including grassland: Ninth edition
H. J. S. Finch, A. M. Samuel and G. P. F. Lane
278 Global legislation for food contact materials
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279 Colour additives for food and beverages
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280 A complete course in canning and related processes 14th Edition: Volume 1
Revised by S. Featherstone
281 A complete course in canning and related processes 14th Edition: Volume 2
Revised by S. Featherstone
282 A complete course in canning and related processes 14th Edition: Volume 3
Revised by S. Featherstone
283 Modifying food texture: Volume 1: Novel ingredients and processing techniques
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284 Modifying food texture: Volume 2: Sensory analysis, consumer requirements
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285 Modeling food processing operations
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286 Foods, nutrients and food ingredients with authorised EU health claims Volume 2
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287 Feed and feeding practices in aquaculture
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288 Foodborne parasites in the food supply web: Occurrence and control
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290 Specialty oils and fats in food and nutrition: Properties, processing and
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291 Improving and tailoring enzymes for food quality and functionality
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292 Emerging Technologies for Promoting Food Security: Overcoming the World
Food Crisis
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293 Innovation and Future Trends in Food Manufacturing and Supply Chain
Technologies
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294 Functional Dietary Lipids: Food Formulation, Consumer Issues and Innovation
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295 Handbook on Natural Pigments in Food and Beverages: Industrial Applications for
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296 Integrating the Packaging and Product Experience in Food and Beverages:
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xxviii Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition

298 Multisensory Flavor Perception: From Fundamental Neuroscience through

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300 Developing Food Products for Consumers with Specific Dietary Needs
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301 Advances in Food Traceability Techniques and Technologies: Improving Quality
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302 Innovative Food Processing Technologies: Extraction, Separation,
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Another random document with
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Fig. 21), the vine (Fig. 47), and the tall reeds and grasses of the
marsh (Fig. 119) are also imitated.[249]

Fig. 119.—Marsh vegetation; from Layard.

We feel that the sculptor wished to reproduce all those
subordinate features of nature by which his eye was amused on the
Assyrian plains; he seems almost to have taken photographs from
nature, and then to have transferred them to the palace walls by the
aid of his patient chisel. Look, for instance, at the reliefs in which the
process of building Sennacherib’s palace is narrated. The sculptor is
not content with retracing, in a spirit of uncompromising reality, all
the operations implied by so great an undertaking; he gives
backgrounds to his pictures in which he introduces, on a smaller
scale, many details that have nothing to do with the main subject of
the relief. Thus we find a passage in which men are shown carting
timber, and another in which they are dragging a winged bull, both
surmounted by a grove of cypresses, while still higher on the slab,
and, therefore, in the intention of the sculptor, on a more distant
horizon, we see a river, upon which boatmen propel their clumsy
vessels, and fishermen, astride on inflated skins, drift with the
stream, while fishes nibble at their baited lines.[250]
Neither boatmen nor fishermen have anything to do with the
building of the great edifice that occupies so many minds and arms
within a stone’s throw of where they labour. They are introduced
merely to amuse the eye of the spectator by the faithful
representation of life; a passage of what we call genre has crept into
an historical picture. Elsewhere it is landscape proper that is thus
introduced. One of the slabs of this same series ends in a row of
precipitous heights covered with cypresses, vines, fig and
pomegranate trees, and a sort of dwarf palm or chamærops.[251]
They thought no doubt that the spectators of such pictures would
be delighted to have the shadowy freshness of the orchards that
bordered the Tigris, the variety of their foliage and the abundant fruit
under which their branches bent to the ground, thus recalled to their
minds. The group of houses that we have figured for the sake of their
domed roofs, forms a part of one of these landscape backgrounds
(Vol. I. Fig. 43).[252]
We might multiply examples if we chose. There is hardly a relief
from Sennacherib’s palace in which some of those details which
excite curiosity by their anecdotic and picturesque character are not
introduced.[253] We find evidence of the same propensity in the
decoration of the long, inclined passage that led from the summit of
the mound down to the banks of the Tigris. There the sculptor has
represented what must have actually taken place in the passage
every day; on the one hand grooms leading their horses to water, on
the other servants carrying up meat, fruit, and drink for the service of
the royal table and for the army of officers and dependants of every
kind that found lodging in the palace.[254]
This active desire to imitate reality as faithfully as possible had
another consequence. It led to the multiplication of figures, and
therefore to the diminution of their scale. No figures like those that
occupy the whole heights of the slabs at Nimroud and Khorsabad
have been found in the palace of Sennacherib. In the latter a slab is
sometimes cut up into seven or eight horizontal divisions.[255] The
same landscape, the same people, the same action is continued
from one division to another over the whole side of a room. The
subjects were not apportioned by slabs, but by horizontal bands;
whence we may conclude that the limestone or alabaster was
chiselled in place and not in the sculptor’s studio.
 We have not engraved one of these reliefs in its entirety; with its
half-dozen compartments one above another and its hundred or
hundred and fifty figures, it would have been necessary to reduce
the latter to such a degree that they could only be seen properly with
a magnifying glass. The originals themselves, or the large plates
given by Layard in his Monuments, must be consulted before the
dangers of this mode of proceeding can be appreciated. The
confusion to which we have pointed as one of the cardinal defects of
Assyrian sculpture, is nowhere more conspicuous than in the battle
pictures from Sennacherib’s palace. It is, however, only to be found
in the historical subjects. When the sculptor has to deal with religious
scenes he returns to the simplicity of composition and the dignity of
pose that we noticed in the reliefs of Assurnazirpal.
This may be seen in the figures carved on the rock of Bavian by
the orders of Sennacherib. The village which has given its name to
this monument lies about five and thirty miles north-north-east of
Mossoul, at the foot of the first Kurdistan hills and at the mouth of a
narrow and picturesque valley, through which flows the rapid and
noisy Gomel on its way to the ancient Bumados, the modern Ghazir,
which in its turn flows southwards into the Zab.
The sculptures consist of several separate groups cut on one of
the lofty walls of the ravine. Some are accompanied by inscriptions,
but the latter speak of canals cut by the king for the irrigation of his
country and of military expeditions, and do not explain why such
elaborate sculptures should have been carried out in a solitary
gorge, through which no important road can ever have passed.[256]
The valley, which is very narrow, is a cul-de-sac. May we
suppose that during the summer heats the king set up his tent in it
and passed his time in hunting? According to Layard’s description
the scene is charming and picturesque. “The place, from its
picturesque beauty and its cool refreshing shade even in the hottest
day of summer, is a grateful retreat, well suited to devotion and to
holy rites. The brawling stream almost fills the bed of the narrow
ravine with its clear and limpid waters. The beetling cliffs rise
abruptly on each side and above them tower the wooded declivities
of the Kurdish hills. As the valley opens into the plain the sides of the
limestone mountains are broken into a series of distinct strata, and
resemble a vast flight of steps leading up to the high lands of central
Asia. The banks of the torrent are clothed with shrubs and dwarf
trees, among which are the green myrtle and the gay oleander
bending under the weight of its rosy blossoms.”[257] Such a gorge
left no room for a palace and its mound,[258] but a subterranean
temple may have been cut in the limestone rock for one of the great
Assyrian deities, and its entrance may now be hidden, or even its
chambers filled up and obliterated, by landslips and falling rocks, and
two huge masses of stone that now obstruct the flow of the torrent
may be fragments from its decoration. They bear the figures of two
winged bulls, standing back to back and separated by the genius
who is called the lion-strangler.[259]
 Fig. 120.—The great bas-relief at Bavian; from Layard.
The principal relief fills up a frame 30 feet 4 inches wide and 29
feet high (see Fig. 120). The bed has been cut away by the chisel to
a depth of about 8 inches. Sheltered by the raised edge thus left
standing the figures would have been in excellent condition but for
the unhappy idea that struck some one in later years, of opening
chambers in the rock at the back and cutting entrances to them
actually through the figures. These hypogea do not seem to have
been tombs. They contain no receptacles for bodies, but only
benches. They were, in all probability, cells for Christian hermits, cut
at the time when monastic life was first developed and placed where
we see them with the idea of at once desecrating pagan idols and
sanctifying a site which they had polluted. In Phrygia and
Cappadocia we found many rock-cut chambers in which evidence of
the presence of these pious hermits was still to be gathered. In
some, for instance, we found the remains of religious paintings. As
examples we may mention the royal tombs of Amasia, which were
thus converted into oratories.[260]
The composition contains four figures. Two in the middle face
each other and seem to be supported by animals resembling dogs in
their general outlines. They are crowned with tiaras, cylindrical in
shape and surrounded with horns. One of these figures has its right
hand raised and its left lowered; his companion’s gesture is the
same, but reversed. The general attitudes, too, are similar, but the
head of one figure has disappeared, so that we can not tell whether
it was bearded like its companion or not. They each carry a sceptre
ending in a palmette and with a ring attached to it at about the
middle of the staff. In the centre of this ring a small standing figure
may be distinguished. Behind each of these two chief personages,
and near the frame of the relief, two subordinate figures appear. In
attitude and costume they are the repetition of each other. Their right
hands are raised in worship, while in their left they hold short, ball-
headed sceptres.
The two figures in the centre must represent gods. The king is
never placed on the backs of living animals in this singular fashion;
but we can understand how, by an easily-followed sequence of
ideas, such a method of suggesting the omnipotence of the deity
was arrived at. Neither did the kings of the period we are considering
wear this cylindrical tiara. In the palaces of the Sargonids it is
reserved for the winged bulls. It is larger than the royal tiara, from
which it is also distinguished by its embracing horns. Finally, the
ringed sceptre is identical with the one held by Samas, in the
Sippara tablet (Vol. I. Fig. 71). No one will hesitate as to the real
character of these two personages; the only point doubtful is as to
whether the one on the left is a god or a goddess. The mantle worn
by the right hand figure is wanting; but the question cannot be
decided, because the head has been completely destroyed. In any
case, the difference of costume proves that two separate deities,
between whom there was some relation that escapes our grasp,
were here represented.
As for the two figures placed behind the gods, they would have
been quite similar had they been in equally good condition. They
represent Sennacherib himself, with the head-dress and robes that
he wears in the sculptures of his palace at Nineveh. He caused his
image to be carved on both sides of the relief, not for the sake of
symmetry, but in order to show that his worship was addressed no
less to one than the other of the two deities.
This rock-cut picture is not the only evidence of Sennacherib’s
desire to leave a tangible witness of his piety and glory in this narrow
valley. In another frame we find some more colossal figures, only
one of which is fairly well preserved; it is that of a cavalier who, with
his lance at rest, seems to be in act to charge an enemy. His attitude
and movement recall those of a mediæval knight at a tournament.
[261]

Layard counted eleven smaller reliefs sprinkled over the face of

the rock. Some are easily accessible, while others are situated so
high up that they can hardly be distinguished from below. Each of
these has an arched top like that of the royal steles (see Fig. 116)
and incloses a figure of the king about five feet six inches high.
Above his head symbols like those on the Babylonian landmarks
(see Figs. 43 and 111) and the Assyrian steles (Fig. 116) are
introduced.[262] Three of these reliefs had inscriptions, and to copy
them Layard caused himself to be let down by ropes from the top of
the cliff, the ropes being held by Kurds who could hardly have had
much experience of such employment. The illustration we have
borrowed from his pages shows the adventurous explorer swinging
between sky and earth (Fig. 120).
As a last example of these works cut in the rock, we may here
mention a fountain that was cleared and for the moment restored to
its original state by Mr. Layard (Fig. 121). By means of conduits cut
in the living rock, they had managed to lead the water of the stream
to a series of basins cut one below the other. The sketch we
reproduce shows the lowest basin, which is close to the path. The
face of the rock above it is smoothed and carved into a not inelegant
relief. The water seems to pour from the neck of a large vase, seen
in greatly foreshortened perspective. Two lions, symmetrically
arranged, lean with their fore-feet upon the edge of the vase.[263]
The work is interesting, as it is the only thing left to show how the
Assyrians decorated a fountain.

Fig. 121.—Fountain; from Layard.

 The Assyrians thus found, in the very neighbourhood of their
capital, great surfaces of rock almost smooth and irresistibly inviting
to the chisel. Their unceasing expeditions led them into countries
where, on every hand, they were tempted by similar facilities for
wedding the likenesses of their princes to the very substance of the
soil, for confiding the record of their victories to those walls of living
rock that would seem, to them, unassailable by time or weather.
Their confidence was often misplaced. In some places the water has
poured down the face of the rock and worn away the figures; in
others, landslips have carried the cliff and its sculptures bodily into
the valley. In some instances, no doubt, the accumulations cover
figures still in excellent condition, but several of these fallen
sculptures have already been cleared.
 Fig. 122.—Assyrian bas-relief in the Nahr-el-Kelb.
Drawn by P. Sellier.

We have already spoken of the bas-relief of Korkhar;[264] it is

about three hundred miles from Nineveh, but the Assyrian
conquerors left traces of their passage even farther from the capital
than that, in the famous pass of the Lycos, for instance, near modern
Beyrout, and now called Nahr-el-Kelb, or river of the dog. A rock-cut
road passes through it, which has been followed from the remotest
times by armies advancing from the north upon Egypt, or from the
latter country towards Damascus and the fords of the Euphrates.
Following the Pharaohs of the nineteenth dynasty, Esarhaddon
caused his own image and royal titles to be cut in this defile; they
may still be seen there, on rocks whose feet stand in the bed of the
torrent (Fig. 122).[265]
Without going so far as northern Syria we might find, if we may
believe the natives of the country, plenty of sculptures in the valleys
that open upon the Assyrian plain if they were carefully explored.
Near Ghunduk, a village about forty-five miles north-west of
Mossoul, Layard noticed two reliefs of the kind, one representing a
hunt, the other a religious sacrifice.[266] But after Bavian the most
important of all these remains yet discovered is that at Malthaï. This
village is about seventy-five miles north of Mossoul, in a valley
forming one of the natural gateways of Kurdistan. The road by which
the traveller reaches Armenia and Lake Van runs through the valley.
[267] There, in the fertile stretch of country that lies between two
spurs standing out from the main chain, stands a tell, or mound,
which seems to have been raised by the hand of man. Place opened
trenches in it without result, but he himself confesses that his
explorations were not carried far enough, and, the beauty of the site
and other things being considered, he persists in believing that the
kings of Assyria must have had a palace, or at least a country lodge,
in the valley. However this may be, the bas-reliefs, of which Place
was the first to make an exact copy, suffice to prove that this site
attracted particular attention from the Assyrians (see Fig. 123). They
are to be found on the mountain side, at about two-thirds of its total
height, or some thousand feet above the level of the valley. In former
days they must have been inaccessible without artificial aids. It is
only by successive falls of rock that the rough zig-zag path by which
we can now approach them has been formed. The figures, larger
than nature, are arranged in a long row and in a single plane. Place
was obliged, by the size and shape of his page, to give them in two
instalments in the plate of which our Fig. 123 is a copy. In the
absence of a protecting edge they have suffered more than the
figures at Bavian. They have, indeed, a slight projection or cornice
above, but its salience is hardly greater than that of the figures
themselves.
 Fig. 123.—The bas-reliefs of Malthaï; from Place. About one forty-fifth of actual
size.
The composition contains three groups, or rather one group
repeated three times without sensible differences. The middle group,
which is divided between the upper and lower parts in our woodcut,
has been more seriously injured by the weather than those on each
side of it; three of its figures have almost disappeared. The first
group to the right in the upper division has part of its surface cut
away by a door giving access to a rock-cut chamber behind the
relief, like those at Bavian. It is, then, in the left-hand group that the
subject and treatment can now be most clearly grasped.
In the first place, we may see at a glance that the theme is
practically the same as at Bavian; it is a king adoring the great
national gods. But the latter are now seven in number instead of two;
instead of being face to face they are all turned in one direction,
towards the king; but the latter is none the less repeated behind
each group. There are some other differences. Among the animals
who serve to raise the gods above the level of mere humanity we
may distinguish the dog, the lion, the horse, and the winged bull. The
gods are in the same attitude as at Bavian; their insignia are the
same, those sceptres with a ring in the middle, which we never find
except in the hands of deities. The sixth in the row also grasps the
triple-pointed object that we have already recognised as the
prototype of the Greek thunderbolt.[268] Finally, each god has the
short Assyrian sword upon his thigh. To this there is one exception,
in the second figure of each group. This figure is seated upon a
richly-decorated throne, and has no beard, so that we may look upon
it as representing a goddess. The last of the seven deities is also
beardless, and, in spite of the sword and the standing attitude, may
also be taken to represent a goddess. The tiaras, which are like
those of Bavian in shape, each bear a star, the Assyrian ideogram
for God.[269]
There is no inscription, but both Place and Layard agree that the
proportions of the figures, and their execution, and the costume of
the king, declare the work to have been carried out in the time of the
Sargonids, probably under Sennacherib, but if not, during the reign
either of his father, his son, or his grandson.
We have been led to give a reproduction and detailed description
of these reliefs, chiefly because they acted as a school for the
people about them. We find this habit of cutting great sculpturesque
compositions on cliff-faces followed, on the one hand by the natives
of Iran, on the other by those of Cappadocia, and in the works they
produced there are points of likeness to the Assyrian reliefs that can
by no means be accidental. When the proper time comes we shall,
we believe, be able to show that there was direct and deliberate
imitation.

It was not only on these rock-cut sculptures that the gods

appeared thus perched on the backs of animals; the motive was
carried far afield by small and easily-portable objects, on which it
very often occurs. It is to be found on many of the cylinders; we
reproduce two as examples. Each of these shows us an individual in
an attitude of worship before a god standing on a bull’s back. The
main difference between the two is one of style. The cylinder
engraved in Fig. 124 dates from the early Chaldæan monarchy,
while its companion (Fig. 125) is ascribed by M. Ménant to the
Assyrian dynasty of Calah.[270]
By their simplicity of arrangement and the nudity of their field, the
sculptures of Bavian and Malthaï belong in some sense to the
archaic period, but their figures are designed with that finer sense of
proportion that distinguished Assyrian art from the reign of
Sennacherib onwards. It was, however, in the palaces that the new
tendency towards grace and slenderness chiefly made itself felt. We
have no sculptures to speak of from the time of Esarhaddon, but no
monarch has left us monuments more numerous or in better
preservation than his son Assurbanipal. A visit to London is
necessary, however, for their proper examination, as they have not
yet been made the subject of any such publication as that devoted
by Mr. Layard to remains from the time of Sennacherib and
Assurnazirpal. Some idea of them may be formed, however, from the
numerous fragments figured in these pages (Vol. I., Figs. 5, 27, 28;
below, Figs. 162, 172, 174, 177–180, 188).
Fig. 124.—Chaldæan Cylinder. Hematite.[271]
 Fig. 125.—Assyrian Cylinder.[272]
Speaking generally, the sculptors of Assurbanipal were the pupils
of those of Sennacherib, with, perhaps, a larger endowment of taste
and skill. Under them Assyrian art aimed higher than ever before. It
was fascinated by movement, and endeavoured to render its
accidents and unforeseen turns. From this point of view we must
draw particular attention to the pictures representing the campaign of
Assurbanipal against the Elamites. In these the figures are more
numerous and more closely packed than anywhere else, and the
chisel has attacked episodes more complicated and more difficult to
treat. Here, for instance, is a chariot upset upon the battle-field; it is
turned completely over, while the struggling horses pull different
ways, and the occupants are thrown out head foremost. There are
many technical defects and mistakes of drawing, but the attempt is
none the less interesting.
Some of the reliefs show the same confused accumulation of
figures as in the time of Sennacherib. Now and then we find as many
as six horizontal divisions, each from ten to fourteen inches high. But
their height obeys no regular or constant rule. The central division,
with the king in his chariot, is two feet high. No attempt is made to
distinguish planes by varying the size of the figures, to mark the
successive moments of the action by dividing the groups, or to give
prominence to the main incidents; the confusion is unbroken. Here,
as in all the battle pieces, a very singular convention may be noticed.
There are no dead or beaten Assyrians. If we may believe the artist,
the kings of Nineveh won all their battles without losing a man!
The hunting scenes are arranged with more judgment. In certain
respects we might place them in the same class as the great reliefs
from Nimroud. By right of their dignity and breadth, the latter must be
considered the masterpieces of Assyrian sculpture, but these later
works can boast an amount of energy and vitality and a truthfulness
of handling that are worthy of no stinted praise. The master by whom
the conception was thought out abandoned the overloaded
backgrounds that his immediate predecessors had brought into
vogue. He concentrated his attention on the figures, to which he
gave all the value he could. They stand out with singular force
against a field whose unbroken surfaces happily suggest the
immensity of the naked plains on which the hunts took place. We
have already shown how well the distinctive features and
movements of the dog, the lion, and the wild ass are rendered; in our
Fig. 126 we give another example of the same kind. A sentiment of
real interest is stirred in us on behalf of these wild goats with their
young, who run and feed on the steppe while horsemen and beaters
prepare to drive them into the treacherous nets.
Fig. 126.—Wild goats. British Museum. Drawn by Wallet.
 Fig. 127.—The feast of Assurbanipal. British Museum. Drawn
by Saint-Elme Gautier.
Elsewhere, on the other hand, the sculptor has furnished the
beds of his reliefs with certain vegetable and floral forms chiselled
with the greatest care. We may give, as an example, the kind of
royal park or garden in which we saw a pair of tame lions (see
above, Fig. 77). Behind the animals, to the right, there is a tree round
which a vine clings and mounts. It is heavy with clusters of ripe fruit,
and even the curling tendrils with which its branches end are not
forgotten. On the left there is a palm tree, or, at least, its trunk.
Between the vine and the palm tall flowering stems rear their heads.
The artist has wished us to understand that fruits, sweet-smelling
flowers, and umbrageous leafage, combined to make these gardens
the most agreeable of retreats for a king fatigued with war against
human enemies or the beasts of the desert. The same intention is
traceable on the famous slab already figured (Vol. I. Figs. 27 and
28), which shows the king and queen at table in one of these royal
gardens. We reproduce the chief group on a larger scale in order
that the beauty of the execution may have a chance of making itself
felt (Fig. 127). Notice the treatment of the vine that bends over the
heads of the royal couple. The heads themselves have suffered, but
all the rest of the plaque is in excellent condition. Notice the pattern
on the royal robes, and the details of the furniture. The latter may be
recognized as truthful renderings of the magnificent chairs and
tables of bronze, inlaid with ivory and lapis-lazuli, of which so many
fragments have been found in the Assyrian palaces. Every detail that
the chisel could render has been faithfully copied. Except in colour
and material, the objects themselves are before us. The fringed
coverlet thrown over the king’s knees, the cushion on which he
leans, the garland thrown over the arm of his couch, the system of
metal uprights and cross pieces of which the queen’s throne, the
king’s bed, and the small table placed between them consist, might
all be restored without difficulty. The chiselled feet of all these objects
resemble fir-cones in shape. In the case of the table they are
connected with its body by lion’s paws. On the lower bar of the
queen’s chair there is a small couchant lion.