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PALGRAVE STUDIES IN
ALTERNATIVE EDUCATION
Series Editors: Helen Lees and Michael Reiss
ALTERNATIVE
SCHOOLING AND
NEW EDUCATION
European Concepts
and Theories
Ralf Koerrenz
Annika Blichmann
Sebastian Engelmann
Palgrave Studies in Alternative Education
Series Editors
Helen Lees
Education
Newman University
Birmingham, UK
Michael Reiss
UCL Institute of Education
University of London
London, UK
This series emerges out of a recent global rise of interest in and actual
educational practices done with voice, choice, freedoms and interper-
sonal thoughtfulness. From subversion to introversion, including alterna-
tive settings of the state to alternative pathways of the private, the series
embraces a diverse range of voices.
Common to books in the series is a vision of education already
in existence and knowledge of education possible here and now.
Theoretical ideas with potential to be enacted or influential in lived prac-
tice are also a part of what we offer with the books.
This series repositions what we deem as valuable educationally by
accepting the power of many different forces such as silence, love, joy,
despair, confusion, curiosity, failure, attachments as all potentially viable,
interesting, useful elements in educational stories. Nothing is rejected if it
has history or record as being of worth to people educationally, nor does
this series doubt or distrust compelling ideas of difference as relevant.
We wish to allow mainstream and marginal practices to meet here
without prejudice as Other but also with a view to ensuring platforms for
the Other to find community and understanding with others.
The following are the primary aims of the series:
• To publish new work on education with a distinctive voice.
• To enable alternative education to find a mainstream profile.
• To publish research that draws with interdisciplinary expertise on
pertinent materials for interpersonal change or adjustments of
approach towards greater voice.
• To show education as without borders or boundaries placed on
what is possible to think and do.
If you would like to submit a proposal or discuss a project in more detail
please contact:
Helen Lees and Michael Reiss h.lees@newman.ac.uk & m.reiss@ucl.
ac.uk or Eleanor Christie Eleanor.Christie@palgrave.com.
The series will include both monographs and edited collections and
Palgrave Pivot formats.
More information about this series at

http://www.springer.com/series/15489
Ralf Koerrenz · Annika Blichmann
Sebastian Engelmann
Alternative Schooling
and New Education
European Concepts and Theories
Ralf Koerrenz Sebastian Engelmann
Institut für Bildung und Kultur Institut für Bildung und Kultur
Universität Jena Universität Jena
Jena, Germany Jena, Germany
Annika Blichmann
Institut für Bildung und Kultur
Universität Jena
Jena, Germany
Palgrave Studies in Alternative Education

ISBN 978-3-319-67863-4 ISBN 978-3-319-67864-1 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-67864-1
Library of Congress Control Number: 2017952836
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2018

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the
Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights
of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction
on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and
retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are
exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and
information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication.
Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied,
with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have
been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published
maps and institutional affiliations.
Cover illustration: © Stephen Bonk/Fotolia.co.uk
Printed on acid-free paper
This Palgrave Pivot imprint is published by Springer Nature

The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Acknowledgements
We would like to offer our sincere thanks to Dr. Hazel Slinn, coordinator
for English at the Language Centre of the Friedrich Schiller University of
Jena, for her linguistic corrections of this publication and her valuable
comments. We would also like to thank Andreas Weishaupt for his sup-
port as well as Helen E. Lees and Michael Reiss for the admission of our
book in their series Palgrave Studies in Alternative Education.
v
Contents
1 Introduction 1
2 Hermann Lietz and the German Country

Boarding Schools 17
3 Georg Kerschensteiner and the Industrial School 33
4 Ovide Decroly and the Ecole pour la vie 49
5 Pavel Petrovich Blonsky and the Labor School 69
6 Peter Petersen and the Jena Plan School 87
7 Célestin Freinet and the Ecole moderne française 105
Index 121
vii
CHAPTER 1
Introduction
Abstract This chapter sets out the structure and methodological

approach of the book. It addresses the most important issues of history
of education. It discusses how a history of education can be written in
postmodern times. Additionally, the Introduction briefly presents the six
cases discussed in the book. It also gives a short summary of relevant sci-
entific literature.
Keywords Alternative schooling · History of education · New

education
1.1 History of Education: A Methodological

Introduction
The history of education can be metaphorically understood as an invita-
tion to a journey in a different country. Before departing, however, one
should prepare at least the most basic essentials to take along on this
journey. Before starting our journey in this book, we would like to offer
some general information about our attitudes to the history of education
and discuss our methodological approach. With this backdrop, the selec-
tion of the six concepts discussed in this book will be understandable.
Exploring any history takes us to places and times far away. History
can therefore be understood as a form of science fiction, albeit in reverse.
Such an exploration allows us to make contact with the unknown while
© The Author(s) 2018 1

R. Koerrenz et al., Alternative Schooling and New
Education, Palgrave Studies in Alternative Education,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-67864-1_1
2 R. Koerrenz et al.
drawing on our own images of what is good and right. History—we

argue—shows us what we are now by contrasting this with what we were
in the past. So examining the history of education helps us to realize
what we understand as pedagogical normality nowadays. It helps to iden-
tify our pedagogical prejudices and matters we take for granted, such as
the system of schooling. In this way, these familiar things become open
to question. History shows us that everything could be different. Our
current normality is not our destiny; it is not the only possible way things
could have developed. What we see as normality is a developed normal-
ity and it can be changed. Furthermore, we can learn from history how
our normality became the way it is now. However, this is important only
if we accept that history is an ongoing process. Even though we do not
have any manuals for a different future, an understanding of history can
open new possibilities for this future. Therefore, the history of education
can help us to realize that both contemporary education and the disci-
pline of Education Studies are products of individual decisions that could
have been different. These decisions might be explained by reference to
historical circumstances; however, they are ultimately contingent.
All in all, history can be understood as a means of exploring ourselves
as students, teachers and scholars.1 This helps us to understand that con-
structs and practices that often seem to be pre-determined are not, in
fact, immutable.
Thus, we must consider how history should be written to support the
ideas stated above. It is obvious that it is impossible to write a history of
everything, even everything to do with education; history is never com-
plete, as this would mean writing down everything that ever happened—
including writing down what we are currently writing down. Besides,
the infinite text that would be the result of such a project, history which
understands itself as universal, often obscures its own purpose. As already
mentioned, Education Studies is present only in a historical form. This is
also true for the sub-disciplines: philosophy of education and history of
education. Even the history of education taught at universities nowadays
is something that developed throughout history. It is only one perspec-
tive on the history of education. The quintessence of this insight is that
we must be aware that we are writing only one specific history of educa-
tion, one that is valid only for the societal and research period in which
1 For the sake of simplicity, the masculine form is used throughout this document, but
should be understood as a reference to persons of both genders.

1 INTRODUCTION 3
we are currently integrated. Every period, therefore, has its own peda-
gogy and thus its own history of education. This becomes evident in the
large variety of introductions to the history of education or books called
simply, History of Education. In the German-speaking context there are
many such volumes. They differ in terms of complexity, topics presented
and emphasis on specific parts of the history of education. Altogether,
they might help to create a picture of the history of education, but this
picture can never be complete due to the subjective perspectives of both
writers and readers.
The fundamental approach to writing a history of education consists
of three dimensions. (1) The decision as to what to recognize as history
and, consequently, which texts, objects or events are selected for pres-
entation; (2) the normative interpretations of the selected materials that
become manifest in language. Language itself is never objective, it has
its own expression, which frames the perspective of history and events;
(3) the way a text is presented and constructed, which represents the
understanding of how a text works and transfers its message. Besides
these three dimensions, which apply to all books that deal with history, a
fourth dimension becomes visible in this text; (4) the individuality of the
three authors who wrote it. We decided not to identify who wrote which
part of the book; however, there are nuances and differences in the use
of language and style, just as there are different ways to write a text or to
understand the history of education.
Because different perspectives cannot be avoided, we would like to
explain how we dealt with the various dimensions. The issue of having
multiple authors strikes us as being a plus point rather than a problem.
It serves to remind us of the different views different people might have
on how to write histories of education. The second point, which refers
to normativity is less easy to encapsulate simply. First, we have tried to
present history without evaluating it. We have aimed at a general intro-
duction to the concepts. At the same time, we are aware that this is an
idealized view of the research process. We all carry our own prejudices
and world views that influence the debates within the texts. Pointing this
out more clearly was not possible—and not necessary—for this book.
It was not possible because positions drawn from philosophy might be
too abstract. It was, additionally, not necessary, because those positions
themselves would distract the reader from the main purpose of the text.
Therefore, we would like to invite the reader to consider the ideas in this
book carefully in order to identify possible problems and positions that
were not explicitly noted but which, nevertheless, influence the interpre-
tation of the texts.
The most important of the four points mentioned above is, of course,
the first: what do we recognize as history? It represents the general dis-
cussion about perspective: the specific view of history that points back
to the ways selection has been carried out—that is, our selection of the
six concepts that will be introduced in the following chapters. Thus, we
would like to point out what guided our selection of material.
No text on the history of education works without an explanation of
what is understood as pedagogy or pedagogical. However, many texts
just assume that it is obvious what they mean when they write about
education or pedagogy. We argue that without clarification we would be
unable to see anything when we look back at history.
If one wants to see more, the search for words is not sufficient. The
scholar has to look for concepts of pedagogical action that help to iden-
tify practices, even in texts that are not written in his or her native lan-
guage. It is our view that pedagogy happens where learning is guided
with intent, meaning that it is initiated and instruction take place. This
can happen face to face in personal interaction or in contact with media
or other structures, such as intentionally constructed classrooms. These
notions can be found in social practices and in texts that describe social
practices or ideas. In this sense, the history of education does not work
without a shared reference point. Such an approach focuses an informed
look back into history and thereby allows us to see more clearly the
things that are in line with the understanding of pedagogy elaborated
above. However, these criteria do not help us to reduce the complexity
of history to the six concepts of this book. The decision to select these
examples is derived from other thoughts.2
All in all, the cases presented in this book are a response to three
concerns. First of all, we would like to give an overview of what might
be understood as exemplary works, enabling the reader to understand
what alternative schooling means and how the world can be viewed
from the perspective of pedagogy. Second, we understand it as essen-
tial to show how a specific historical context frames a specific under-
standing of schooling and of the human being, its potential and ways
of development. The cases can be understood as representative of the
2 For further information about the methodological approach see Koerrenz et al. (2017).
1 INTRODUCTION 5
socio-historical context of that time in Europe. This interconnection

between social anthropology and pedagogy can be understood as the
theoretical framework of our text; it mirrors the contemporary ideas of
the time. Third, we would like to show that pedagogical thinking and
practice is always situated in a cultural context, and developments that
influence society and culture also influence pedagogy. Again, the cases
selected represent this context and development.
Of course, we are able to offer little more than some highlights of the
positions presented and discussed in this book; further, we are not able
to ignore entirely our own perspectives. To make one decision always
means to opt out of taking other possible paths. Maybe some readers
might argue that the book lacks the classics that are canonically cited in
the discussions they are familiar with. This is, of course, true; however,
it also emphasizes our own understanding of a normality, which is, after
all, only our normality. Before we started this project, we had in-depth
discussions about which concepts we would include in the text; there
are always more concepts to mention. To leave some of them behind
through a deliberative process was—to put it lightly—a learning expe-
rience. Therefore, this book reflects the general—and often unmen-
tioned—process of writing history: every history must be understood as
a selection and every selection that leaves out a certain part should be
understood as an invitation to discover what was left out.
1.2 Alternative Schools: European Concepts of New

Education
After this general introduction, let us move on to the object of our dis-
cussion: alternative concepts for schooling in Europe with a focus on the
late eighteenth and early nineteenth century. Even though we refer to
the historical roots of the concepts, one always has to bear in mind that
the thinking—in light of the methodological statements made above—
still influences our discussion today. It is not only history but the core of
our pedagogical thinking that we are trying to make clear in this book.
Thinking about school normally raises images of a multi-level insti-
tution, populated by teachers and students, united by a curriculum.
Additionally, there are school buildings that have to be kept in order.
The curriculum is constructed by important agents of decision-making;
its contents and structures are influenced by researchers and politicians.
The curriculum is evaluated and reconstructed on a regular basis. In

most countries, there is not only a right to attend school, but attend-
ing school is mandated by law and achieved—even enforced—by state
authorities.
Schooling is widely understood as being about guiding one’s life
course in an optimal way and, ultimately, about earning money after
obtaining the necessary qualifications.3 Schooling is also about keeping
pupils in touch with the dominant culture, technical developments and
communication; additionally, in modernity, schooling introduces learn-
ers to the world of capitalist market logic. It is also about learning to
cope with the challenges of life in general, the challenges of one’s indi-
vidual life, and the crises of personality development in a time of second
modernity or even postmodernity. From the societal point of view, the
task of schooling is to discipline pupils in such a way that the transfer of
knowledge, values and patterns of action that maintain a society become
possible. This kind of disciplining introduces and emphasizes values such
as mutual recognition and respect for others as the other. Coping with
otherness in a specific, community-strengthening way is the invisible goal
of the so-called hidden curriculum.
We all know that this goal is not often achieved. Particularly with
regard to the ever increasing gap between the rich and the poor, school-
ing still has a long way to go. Freedom and equality seem to be siblings:
inextricably intertwined, yet always arguing. Reconciliation seems to be
theoretically and practically impossible. This intractability of freedom and
equality must be borne in mind when discussing the normative implica-
tions of schooling.
The aim of this introduction is to make one point as clearly as pos-
sible: while thinking about school or schooling, we always have our own
ideas and images in mind. Schooling is tied to culturally constructed
and culturally specific visions of society and to the nature of the human
being. Even though all ideas of schooling can be alternate, this book—
and especially this introduction—deals with the one following question:
what is the alternative element of alternative schooling?
On a formal level, alternative refers to a difference—an alternative
is alternate to something else. Following this formal understanding,
we understand alternative schools as projects that have the ambition to
3 For further information see Koerrenz (2003).

1 INTRODUCTION 7
change (1) schooling in general and (2) the impact of schooling on soci-
ety. But there is more: alternative schooling is not only about making
a difference in a formal way. An alternative structure will always differ
from the prevalent structure, but alternative schooling is not only about
doing something different, it is also about doing something better.
Consequently, alternative schooling is unavoidably tied to the ambition
to improve school. We argue that, since the Enlightenment of the seven-
teenth and eighteenth century, pedagogical thinking in general has been
energized by this idea (see Koerrenz 2004, pp. 9–26; 2014).
Therefore, we should keep in mind that the very idea of an alternative
itself incorporates two differences. With regard to alternative schools,
these differences are:
• the difference between institutional frameworks and daily life,

• the difference between daily life in the institution itself and instruc-
tion via teaching.
Let us look at the first difference. Today, when most of us talk about
school, we imagine a specific building, a set of teaching staff, a separate
social area, a constructed and didactically reduced curriculum. We think
of an institution that specifically addresses children and young people,
introducing different age-sensitive levels of teaching as well as skill-sen-
sitive and highly selective modes of schooling. At the same time, some of
us use the term school of life. Children are brought up in different envi-
ronments. These environments comprise places, people, toys, animals
and plants, social rules, and the rituals of daily life. This school of life also
contributes to the process of becoming an adult; children are instructed
by this environment. This process is normally understood as socializa-
tion. However, socialization is conjoined with schooling in an intensely
complex way.
The institution of school as part of the school of life functions as a
mirror. Conversely, life forms part of the content of the curriculum in
the separate space of school, highly influencing schooling in the institu-
tion of school. Thus, schooling in a separate place, with specialized pro-
fessional teachers and a reflected curriculum, is part of school; the school
of life is something totally different. From this, the question arises of
how school, as an institution, can relate to life as a school. Alternatives
to the relationship between institutionalized schooling and the school of
life can be imagined. Thinking about this relationship has always been
a crucial element in the discussion about alternative schools. Alternative

schools can therefore be understood as a way—the alternative, so to
speak—of relating the institution school to everyday life, to the cultural
context, in either a positive or a negative manner.
The second difference is one that is inherent to the separate space of
school; the distinction between teaching and instruction, and daily life
inside the institution of school. With this perspective in mind, we can
understand the institution as a changeable framework with the potential
to be open to creative influence, in which space and time can be used
in different ways. This framework has always been divided into differ-
ent dimensions—both from the perspective of teachers and learners.
With regard to the societal context, the purpose of schooling was always
clear: schooling was always about designing the learning of the next gen-
eration in a way that would be effective and successful. Teachers were
introduced to present the curriculum in specific periods called lessons.
From the learner’s perspective, the primary message of schooling seems
to be that school itself exists so they may receive and perceive informa-
tion. Schooling seems to be all about accumulating large quantities of
supposedly useful knowledge. The institutional rules seem to be clear—
even though, sometimes, they are not as understandable as they might
first appear. This is partly due to a second factor, which is that the first
and foremost message of schooling is overshadowed by a very trivial fact:
going to school forms a large part of children’s and young people’s eve-
ryday lives. It is, so to say, their job to go to school.
Acquiring knowledge is the easy part of this job. The more difficult
part is to find out how to survive within the institution. Daily life in the
institution, school, has its own curriculum. In the time and space of the
institution, children experience the following:
• they meet their friends and peers (and their enemies),

• they have contact with their environment and are confronted with
its social roles and rules,
• they experience and practice roles that they take on when dealing
with older people, younger people, and people their own age, hav-
ing no way to escape this obligation,
• they encounter the world of adults, as they are confronted with
didactic material and content that was constructed by adults. At the
same time, they are confronted with the institution itself, which,
too, is mostly constructed by adults.
1 INTRODUCTION 9
The most crucial and, at the same time, most problematic aspect is the
way in which life happens within the institution of school. This kind of
life is constructed and guided by different interest groups or individu-
als with specific interests. The social rules for daily interaction, the mate-
rial arrangements that represent the essence of the school building and
the classrooms, the composition of the pupils, the organization of the
building and the students into classes or groups, the differentiation of
the whole system of schooling—all these are the result of individual deci-
sions. School, as a living environment and a small ecosystem, guides the
learning processes of children and young people through its presence as
an intentionally constructed environment. It is as much an expression of
intentionality as conceptualization and actualization of instruction is in
class. To put it in a nutshell: school is a social product.
Precisely because school is a product of intentional actions, it becomes
clear that it does not have to stay the way it is now. Today’s school is not
eternal or unchangeable; it is nothing that is ontologically imprinted on
reality. If school is a social product of intentional processes of construc-
tion, the alternative of alternative schools can be identified as a certain
arrangement, or intention, to re-design and re-evaluate the relationship
of instruction, in a stricter sense, to learning in daily life.
On the one hand, the alternative aspect of alternative schools can be
understood with regard to the relationship between the institution and
culture. On the other hand, it can also be understood with regard to the
relationship between instruction and life in the institution. People who
want to change schooling aim for it to be better than the status quo. It
must be better for the children and young people who are the pupils, it
must be better for the teachers, and—most importantly—it must be bet-
ter for the overall development of society.
These ambitions to change schooling were particularly prominent at
the turn of the nineteenth to the twentieth century. At that time, pos-
sibly more than ever before, schooling was discussed enthusiastically
(Koerrenz 2014, p. 71f.). With the ever-changing industrial and techni-
cal developments on the one hand and increasing individualization and
contingency of the future on the other, established models for schooling
were up for discussion.
In the Anglo-American context, it was first and foremost John
Dewey who theorized the key elements of “progressive education” and
explored its practical implementation. Dewey’s oeuvre and the work of
fellow researchers who were involved with progressive education should
be understood as an alternative to schooling in the American context.

Dewey’s conceptualization focuses on the experiences of children and
young people as much as it elaborates on the question of how the struc-
ture of schooling must be changed to foster democracy and democratic
participation. The internal structure of school, according to Dewey,
needed be changed to help school become a part of society. This tra-
dition of progressive education is still very present in the English-
speaking world and many publications deal with it and related ideas. As
research is always culturally and contextually sensitive, it is somewhat
natural that the English-speaking literature mostly refers to its own dis-
course. Parallel developments in Continental European movements
during this period—discussed as Reformpädagogik—were rarely intro-
duced into this discourse. However, there are also publications that refer
to Reformpädagogik and its connection to progressive education (see
Koerrenz 2014; Oelkers 2005).
Fueling the debate on alternative education in general, The Palgrave
International Handbook for Alternative Education, edited by Lees and
Noddings, introduces, among other topics, various alternative education
concepts and also refers to alternative schooling (Lees and Noddings
2016). The handbook focuses on current concepts for schooling, such
as holistic education in Brazil (Singer 2016) or new concepts for educa-
tion in Japan (Nagata 2016). Additionally, the handbook re-opens the
discussion about questions of ethics, psychoanalysis, and the relationship
between student and teacher. All in all, the handbook seems to be the
starting point for gaining insight into contemporary educational debates.
Additionally, the International Handbook on Progressive Education,
edited by Eryaman and Bruce, combines studies on pedagogical concepts
and well-known educators with discussions about alternative institutions
(Eryaman and Bruce 2015). Furthermore, the Critical Introduction by
John Howlett deserves mention (Howlett 2013). In it, Howlett collects
and introduces various ideas from the history of education and sum-
marizes them under the umbrella term of progressive education, even
expanding this term to the progressive ideas of Jean-Jacques Rousseau.
Thus, with a look at the most recent publications, we see that there is
yet another line of discussion taking off. However, the discussion about
alternative education—its concepts, pioneers, or the whole movement—
is not restricted to the past. Many educators and educational scholars of
the twentieth century were labeled alternative—this supports our sys-
temic understanding of alternative education.
1 INTRODUCTION 11
When it comes to influential institutions throughout the history of

alternative education, one must also bear in mind the New Education
Fellowship (NEF). This network was a melting pot for educational
thought and served as an important multiplier and stimulator for edu-
cational thought at the beginning of the twentieth century (Brehony
2004; Clews 2009). Many of those involved frequently discussed ideas
about alternative schooling, such as, for example, those of Peter Petersen
and Ovide Decroly. In Petersen’s case, his ideas even developed in the
context of the NEF. While in hindsight this seems to be a very clearly
laid-out field of research, there was a variety of approaches, mostly con-
nected to various individuals or tied to movements such as the theosophy
movement.
When talking about alternative education, many thinkers came up
with their own alternatives to the established systems of schooling and
education. Palmer (2001) gives an overview of the basic ideas of this
multitude of educators; portraying scholars such as Friedrich Wilhelm
Fröbel (Walsh et al. 2001), Jane Addams (Noddings 2001), Rudolf
Steiner (Oelkers 2001) or Maria Montessori (Martin 2001) in detail.
These contributions—and many others—function as stepping stones
forming a pathway from which to enter the discussion about those think-
ers who are not part of this volume.
One of the most important comparative contributions to this debate
is the volume on Progressive Education across the Continents, edited by
Hermann Röhrs and Volker Lenhart (1995). This handbook evalu-
ates the international development of alternative concepts of educa-
tion in general, and schooling in particular, taking a global perspective.
Its contribution ties in with the hermeneutical perspective of Röhrs and
Lenhart. Following the systemic understanding of the notion of alterna-
tive as sketched above, our book aims at introducing concepts that have
not yet received much attention.
During the last few centuries—at least from the sixteenth century
on—various alternatives for the theoretical understanding and practical
change of pedagogy in general, and schooling in particular, have been
formulated. Each approach has a specific cultural background and is a
reaction to different stimuli from its respective context. This suggests
that the alternatives were constructed to match the needs of a specific
cultural constellation (Koerrenz 2014, p. 53).
This book elaborates on six different concepts for alternative school-
ing. These examples are used to sketch out ways of thinking of schooling
in ways that are different to mainstream understandings. All six models

depicted offer individual answers, showing that both the relationship
between institution and daily life, and the relationship between instruc-
tion and life in the institution can be understood and constructed in dif-
ferent ways.
The interesting feature of each of the six models is their distinctive-
ness. With regard to the two outlined differences, they offer individual
actualizations. For example, there are different answers to the question
of how the institution school should relate to overall societal develop-
ment, differing in terms of their ideas about society. This also accounts
for the consequences, which are derived from the understandings of cul-
ture and society that are referenced when legitimizing the intentional
construction of the learning environment in schools.
Each of the six chapters offers a different interpretation of a key edu-
cational theorist whose respective theories are based on different mod-
els of understanding culture and society. Each chapter follows the same
structure. After a short biographical summary, the question of what is
alternative in the model for schooling introduced in the chapter is dis-
cussed. This section is followed by a historical contextualization, which
points out the historical circumstances which fostered the emergence of
such a concept. Subsequently, each chapter closes with a critique of the
concept and its implications for present-day debates. The chapter struc-
ture follows the central idea that the models are not only of historical
interest; they can also be used as mirrors to reflect today’s developments
and models for schooling. Additionally, they can fuel the discussion
about alternative schools that are often limited by repeating unexamined
commonplaces.
The book deals with six different models. The chapter on Hermann
Lietz introduces the concept of the Landerziehungsheim, a special
German boarding school. Far away from the misfortunes of culture, Lietz
created small pedagogical islands and, thereby, educational milieus that
still exist today. Hermann Lietz can be understood as one of the innova-
tors of boarding schools in Germany.
The chapter about Georg Kerschensteiner introduces one of the key
figures in vocational education. Kerschensteiner is often depicted as the
father of vocational education. He emphasizes goal-oriented and self-
directed manual work in school to reach both a higher level of morality
and personal gains via schooling.
1 INTRODUCTION 13
The chapter on Belgian educational researcher, physician, and psy-

chologist Ovide Decroly traces his development from doctor to educa-
tional researcher. The chapter discusses Decroly’s psychological approach
to education and discusses his significance in modern education; his
schools still exist.
The chapter about Pavel Petrovich Blonsky introduces a Russian con-
cept for schooling. Blonsky developed his idea of a Labor School in light
of the ideas of Dewey, Kerschensteiner, and other protagonists in the
discussion about alternative schooling. He argues that only a strict inte-
gration into the world of industrial labor helps to fulfill both the aim of
general education and the aim of education for societal development.
The chapter about Peter Petersen, who is known for his conceptualiza-
tion for schooling called the Jena Plan, deals with Petersen’s theoretical
and practical reflections on schooling. Using different methods of com-
munity building, Petersen’s ideal school offers an alternative to a society
that is dominated by the logic of production and the mere accumulation
of knowledge by restructuring daily life in schools.
The chapter on Célestin Freinet elaborates on his ideas, which can be
summarized under the term Ecole moderne française. The basic idea of
this type of school was to integrate children from all social strata into
society. Additionally, the chapter introduces different pedagogical activi-
ties that were developed by Freinet, such as printing newspapers in
schools and different kinds of materials he developed that are still used
today.
At first sight, the similarity of these models—and the systematic cri-
terion for their inclusion—is largely negative. They all share the critical
idea that the dominant form of school as an institution is insufficient
and problematic. They offer different solutions to the problem of how
schooling can be designed in a better way. When contrasting European
concepts with the ideas of John Dewey, we will see similarities but also
differences. These differences mainly become evident in the relation-
ship between the institution and daily life, but also in the relationship
between instruction and daily life in the school. However, this is the core
element of the quest for alternative schools. School is understood as flex-
ible, as an open construct.
Finally, alternative schools offer an important counterweight to the
narrow understanding of schooling as something that can be meas-
ured. When discussing alternative schools, one might find hints of an
understanding of school that is more than the mere output of classes.
School remains a flexible institution. It is constructed by human beings.

Human beings are responsible for the actions carried out in it. In an
optimal school, the perspective and the personal rights of children and
young people are both recognized and respected. Schooling, then, might
become more than the mere exercise of pre-constructed classes that
aim at transferring knowledge. It might become an important factor in
achieving a humane way of life for all students in the institution itself.
References
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the Conferences of the New Education Fellowship to the Disciplinary Field of
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Clews, C. J. (2009). The New Education Fellowship and the Reconstruction of
Education: 1945–1966. Ph.D. thesis.
Eryman, M. Y., & Bruce, B. C. (Eds.). (2015). International Handbook of
Progressive Education. New York: Peter Lang US.
Howlett, J. (2013). Progressive Education: A Critical Introduction. London:
A&C Black.
Koerrenz, R. (2003). Evangelium und Schule. Studien zur strukturellen
Religionspädagogik. Leipzig: Evangelische Verlagsanstalt.
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der Pädagogik. Paderborn: Schöningh.
Lees, H. E., & Noddings, N. (Eds.). (2016). The Palgrave International
Handbook for Alternative Education. London: Palgrave.
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Fifty Major Thinkers of Education. From Confucius to Dewey (pp. 245–249).
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Communities of “Children’s Dream Park” and “Free Space En” in Japan. In
H. E. Lees & N. Noddings (Eds.), The Palgrave International Handbook for
Alternative Education (pp. 241–256). London: Palgrave.
Noddings, N. (2001). Jane Addams, 1860–1935. In J. A. Palmer (Ed.), Fifty
Major Thinkers of Education. From Confucius to Dewey (pp. 199–203).
London and New York: Routledge.
1 INTRODUCTION 15
Oelkers, J. (2001). Rudolf Steiner, 1861–1925. In J. A. Palmer (Ed.), Fifty

Major Thinkers of Education. From Confucius to Dewey (pp. 98–102). London
and New York: Routledge.
Oelkers, J. (2005). Reformpädagogik: Eine kritische Dogmengeschichte. Weinheim:
Beltz.
Palmer, J. A. (Ed.). (2001). Fifty Major Thinkers of Education. From Confucius to
Dewey. London and New York: Routledge.
Röhrs, H., & Lenhart, V. (Eds.). (1995). Progressive Education Across the
Continents: A Handbook. Frankfurt/M.: Peter Lang.
Singer, H. (2016). Innovative Experiences in Holistic Education Inspiring a
New Movement in Brazil. In H. E. Lees & N. Noddings (Eds.), The Palgrave
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Walsh, D. J., Chung, S., & Tufekci, A. P. (2001). Friedrich Wilhelm Froebel,
1782–1852. In J. A. Palmer (Ed.), Fifty Major Thinkers of Education. From
Confucius to Dewey (pp. 103–108). London and New York: Routledge.
CHAPTER 2
Hermann Lietz and the German Country

Boarding Schools
Abstract This chapter introduces the ideas of the German educator and
theologian Hermann Lietz. Lietz is well known for his idea of the so-
called Country Boarding Schools, founded in Germany in the early twen-
tieth century. The chapter discusses Lietz’s biographical background,
the most important pedagogical aspects of his work, the historical back-
ground, and the possible contributions for today’s discussion. In par-
ticular, the Country Boarding Schools continue to exist in Germany and
offer an interesting alternative to normal schools.
Keywords Country Boarding Schools · Hermann Lietz · New education
2.1 Hermann Lietz—A Biographical Summary

Hermann Lietz was born in 1868 in the small town of Dumgewitz on
the island of Rügen, which is located in the German part of the Baltic
Sea. The island is still characterized by a very rural, agricultural envi-
ronment. Lietz’s childhood years were strongly shaped by the rural
surroundings. For the rest of his life, he would remain convinced that
a natural environment was the best one for children and adolescents to
grow up in. Since Dumgewitz was very small (even today, it can hardly
be found on most maps of modern Germany), there was no school, so
that at age 10, Lietz was sent to school in the next biggest town on the
© The Author(s) 2018 17

R. Koerrenz et al., Alternative Schooling and New
Education, Palgrave Studies in Alternative Education,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-67864-1_2
mainland. This proved to be a defining turning point in his biography,

with the remainder of his youth characterized by harsh contrast: positive
memories of his childhood in a familiar, familial, and rural context, and a
rather depressing youth and school years in an urban environment. This
contrast, clearly determined by the experiences of his youth, went on to
permeate Lietz’s entire practice and aims.
Hermann Lietz described his school years as very upsetting. Everyday
life was characterized by beatings and pointless rote memorization.
Learning and growing through experiences gained in a natural environ-
ment, as had been the case in Dumgewitz, was replaced by the dry, life-
less study of school books. These experiences surely had a huge impact
on Lietz when he came to found his progressive school concept. The fol-
lowing quote by Lietz is meant as an admonition: “May the educator
never forget the sufferings of their own childhood”1 (Lietz 1922, p. 35).
After finishing (high) school, Lietz decided to dedicate his life to
achieving a social reform of society. At the universities of Halle and Jena,
he studied Protestant theology, and obtained his doctorate under Nobel
literature laureate Rudolf Eucken. His dissertation dealt with French
sociologist Auguste Comte. In 1892, Lietz graduated as a senior school
teacher for the subjects of philosophy, German, religion and Hebrew.
Two factors turned out to have a major influence on the develop-
ment of Lietz’s own pedagogy; the first being the teachings of Wilhelm
Rein, another scholar in Jena. Rein, whose own pedagogy was based on
Johann Friedrich Herbart’s, worked in Jena as a world-renowned peda-
gogist around 1900. Many educators and scholars from other countries
such as the UK and the USA traveled to Jena for Rein’s summer courses
to learn about Herbart’s pedagogy. Rein also led a training school in
Jena, where Lietz gained hands-on experience in pedagogy. Rein had
proclaimed the programmatic goal of an Erziehungsschule (social educa-
tion school); the main question he tried to answer was how the claim of
educating pupils towards a moral, ethical life could be fulfilled within the
greater context of school, and how this claim could take shape in a con-
cept of schooling.
The second influence was Lietz’s stay at the progressive Abbotsholme
School in Derbyshire, England, founded by Cecil Reddie (1858–1932)
in 1889. Apart from regular school lessons and a typical boarding school
1 “Der Erzieher sollte doch nie die Leiden der eigenen Kindheit vergessen” (Lietz 1922,
S. 35). All translations into English are by the authors.

2 HERMANN LIETZ AND THE GERMAN COUNTRY BOARDING SCHOOLS 19
education, it featured a complex structuring of daily life. For example,

the program included physical exercise, manual labor, recreation, and
arts. A non-confessional religious studies class, modern language stud-
ies, and sciences were also part of the curriculum. Looking for an associ-
ate in the tradition of Herbartianism, Reddie had asked Wilhelm Rein if
he knew anyone who might be able to help him develop his ideas fur-
ther. Rein recommended his student Lietz, who then came to live in
Abbotsholme for one year. Lietz would later process his experiences of
boarding school life in the English progressive school in a literary way in
his programmatic educational novel Emlohstobba (1897).
Once back in Germany, Lietz set out the educational principles for the
foundation of his first school: this, the first German Country Boarding
School (Landerziehungsheim), was then founded in Ilsenburg in the Harz
mountains in 1898, followed by a second school in Haubinda/Thuringia
in 1901, and a third at Schloss Bieberstein near Fulda/Hesse) in 1904.
The fourth and most significant school was the Landweisenheim
(Country Orphanage) Veckenstedt, built in 1914. It would also be the
last school founded by Lietz, although his successors would go on to
open further Country Boarding Schools.
In 1919, Lietz died from the consequences of an injury sustained
in the First World War. His plan, formulated in 1911, to transform all
his schools into a trust, could only be implemented by his successors in
1920. This trust, the Stiftung Deutsche Landerziehungsheime, still exists
today, coordinating and supporting the current Hermann-Lietz-Schulen.
The basic idea of the Country Boarding Schools was picked up by
several other German educators, such as Kurt Hahn (1886–1974).
Hahn’s well-known theoretical model resulted in the foundation of
Schloss Salem in Germany and the British Salem School in Gordonstoun
in 1934. There, Hahn developed outward bound, a concept of adventure
and experiential learning. These and other German Country Boarding
Schools paved the way for the development of the United World
Colleges (UWC) and acted as models for similar schools in Switzerland,
France, and Japan. The Japanese educator Kuniyoshi Obara (1889–
1977), famous for founding his own progressive school Tamagawa
Gakuen, which was inspired by the German model, even said: “I want
to be Lietz in Japan”2 (Ito 2007, p. 111). Obara’s philosophy focused
on the education of the “whole person,” an idea taken from the tradition
2 “Ich will Lietz in Japan werden” (Ito 2007, S. 111).

of Japanese juku pedagogy, inspired by the progressive leitmotif of an

alternative schooling culture and student-oriented didactics modeled
after Lietz. Today, Tamagawa Gakuen, located in what is now a suburb
of Tokyo, has grown into an integrated pedagogical system, providing
education for all age levels, from kindergarten to a fully accredited uni-
versity. This example illustrates how influential and remarkable Lietz and
his ideas have been even in the international context.
2.2 German Country Boarding Schools

Lietz‘s school concept can be summed up in the following formula: If
you want to change school (meaning the way that schooling is done), you
need to establish a new school. In other words: a new, alternative idea of
school as an institution is needed. Lietz wanted to establish his own, new
school structure, based on a new philosophy of education. This philoso-
phy was very much oriented towards sociological principles. One of its
central tenets was that an analysis of the structural conditions of educa-
tion and classes makes the new of a new school obvious. The main the-
sis of the following thoughts is that Country Boarding Schools offer an
educational context which is first and foremost different from all other
schools.
What distinguishes this concept from others? First, Lietz calls for
a changed relationship between teacher and pupil(s), demanding that
teachers not only take on the task of conducting classes well but also
that a teacher should be a good example and role model for their pupils.
However, this role model function requires a specific context, in which
it (the function) and the new teacher–student relationship can unfold.
Therefore, Lietz’s schools had to be boarding schools in a rural, secluded
environment, far from any influences of town and city life. Furthermore,
the boarding schools were grouped into so-called families, comprising a
group of students assigned to a teacher or a married couple of teachers.
Lessons in the morning were only one aspect of the whole educational
scheme. Practical work in the afternoons, community events such as the
Kapellen (chapels) in the evenings, and the overall layout of the organi-
zation as a group of families played equally important parts in the daily
routine. Lietz described this concept of daily routine as follows:
Classes are given in the morning hours; in such a way that one class unit
does not exceed the duration of 45 minutes Two lengthier breaks of
15minutes each are made before and after class units. One of these breaks
will be used to do an endurance run, which is especially beneficial for the

development of the lungs. During the first part of the afternoon, between
2 and 4 pm, students carry out practical or artistic tasks in workshops, the
gardens, lawns, on the estate or in the drawing room, or they work in the
laboratory or do musical exercises and play games. Only in the late after-
noon, […] a second study unit takes place: the independent rehearsal of
the content that had earlier been discussed with the teachers (German:
Arbeitsstunde). (Lietz 1906, p. 294ff.)3
Let us take a closer look at Lietz’s program. A useful approach is to ana-

lyze the labeling of his schools. Why did he call them Land-Erziehungs-
Heim (country education home)? Lietz wrote: “With this name, the
founder wanted to sum up in one word what matters most to him, that
is, to create spaces,
• where young people are educated, not only instructed

• where young people may grow up in the countryside in God’s free,
beautiful nature
• where pupils live together with their educators, as in an extended
family, as in a country home, in a second home (Heimat), where
real German ways and customs may be cultivated” (Lietz 1906,
p. 290).4
Thus, the name says it all. This can best be explained by looking at the respec-
tive contrasting points to the signal terms included in the schools’ name.
3 “Der Unterricht wird auf die Vormittagsstunden verlegt und zwar so, dass eine
Lehrstunde nicht die Zeit von 45 Minuten überschreitet und dass zwei längere
Unterbrechungen von je 15 Minuten zwischen den Lehrstunden liegen. Die eine Pause
wird zu einem Dauerlauf verwendet, der besonders günstig für die Entwicklung de Lungen
ist. Im ersten Teile des Nachmittags, von 2–4 Uhr, findet praktische oder künstlerische
Tätigkeit in Werkstätten, Garten, auf dem Landgut oder im Zeichensaal statt, oder Arbeit
im Laboratorium oder musikalische Übungen oder Spiel. Erst am Spätnachmittag (…)
erfolgt eine weitere Lerntätigkeit, die selbständige Durcharbeitung des mit den Lehrern
durchgesprochenen Stoffes (Arbeitsstunde)” (Lietz 1906, S. 294ff.).
4 “Mit dem Namen wollte der Gründer in einem Wort sagen, worauf es ihm ankommt:
Orte zu schaffen,
in denen‚ erzogen‘ und nicht bloß unterrichtet wird;
in denen die Jugend auf dem Lande in der freien, schönen Gottesnatur aufwachse,
in denen sie wie in einem Familienheim, einer zweiten Heimat, mit ihren Erziehern wie
eine erweiterte Familie zusammenlebt, in denen echte deutsche Art und Sitte gepflegt
werde” (Lietz 1906, S. 290).
2.2.1 In the Countryside, Not in the City—Where Should the Ideal

School Be Located?
Like his teacher Wilhelm Rein, Lietz, too, perceived large towns and
cities foremost as a potential threat to the desired goal of education.
To Rein, the emerging metropoles were simply a “folly” (Rein 1919,
p. 71),5 because: “The masses demoralize. They pollute the air, the
house, the food, the clothes, and most of all, the mindset” (Rein 1919,
p. 72).6 Lietz builds on this opinion and reaches his pedagogical conclu-
sion that city life offers only negative influences for adolescents, such as
alcohol, nicotine, and prostitution.
Towns and cities are a dangerous, endangering environment in which to

grow up; the protective and alternative context of experience thus being
the seclusion of the countryside. In this seclusion, one is totally empow-
ered and in control of bringing that what is desired and necessary to the
child, and to keep what is detrimental away from them. (Lietz 1924,
p. 91)7
With this view, Lietz takes the ideal of rural seclusion and isolation,
drawn from his own biography, and raises it to be the benchmark of his
pedagogical aims and practices.
To him, this is not just about a sentiment for nature, merely comple-
menting urban and city culture, but rather the loving and close relation-
ship with nature as a radical pedagogical benchmark. In Lietz’s concept,
the mere act of experiencing nature within urban areas is by no means
sufficient to meet the necessary conditions for a Country Boarding
School, thereby differing from concepts such as Ovide Decroly’s. What
matters to Lietz is the complete isolation from harmful urban influ-
ences. “The countryside cannot be substituted by a few trees, lawns, and
flower beds. Wherever there is no opportunity to romp about without
5 “Narrheit“ (Rein 1919, S. 71).

6 “Die Masse demoralisiert. Sie verdirbt die Luft, die Wohnung, das Essen, die Kleidung,
vor allem aber die Gesinnung” (Rein 1919, S. 72).
7 “Die Stadt ist danach ein gefährlicher, weil gefährdender Ort des Aufwachsens. Der alter-
native, weil schützende Erlebniskontext ist dagegen die Abgeschlossenheit des Landes (…),
in der man es völlig in seiner Macht hat, das Wünschenswerte und Notwendige an das Kind
heranzubringen, das unbedingt Schädliche von diesem fernzuhalten” (Lietz 1924, S. 91).
hindrance, to work on the soil, to work as a farmer, that is not where

conditions seem to be most advantageous” (Lietz 1924, p. 93).8
At this point, his biography becomes a romanticized ideology of pre-
modern desires as he links his ideal of the countryside with his socio-
political goals of reform: “[a] brave and uncompromising fight against
the worst threats to the people: alcohol, nicotine, excess, homelessness,
lack of connection to the land, greed—that is what we must destroy”
(Lietz 1917, p. 200).9 Lietz attempted to achieve this by making his
desired goals the social rules in the Country Boarding Schools. Teachers
were to give a positive example through their way of life, and students
were to be taught the dangers awaiting them in urban life:
Students need to know the dangers of alcoholism and sex; they need to
know how and to what extent physical exercise will benefit their bodies;
they need to know how to evade the disadvantageous (harmful) conse-
quences of working in factories and study rooms, and much more of that
sort. (Lietz 1911, p. 26)10
In his biography of Lietz, Erich Meissner speaks of “[the] ascetic reduc-

tion of experience” when talking about the pedagogical value of rural
seclusion; ascetic here meaning both the self-denial of luxury and con-
stant entertainment, and devotion to creating “lasting foundations [for
life]” (Meissner 1965, p. 38).11 In the contrast between urban and
rural life, only the latter provides an appropriate environment for this
asceticism.
8 “Einige Bäume, Rasenstücke und Blumenbeete machen noch nicht das Land aus. Wo
nicht weiteste Gelegenheit zum ungehinderten Umhertummeln, zur Arbeit am Boden, zur
bäuerlichen Berufstätigkeit ist, da ist auch nicht der Schauplatz, der uns als der günstigste
erscheint” (Lietz 1924, S. 93).
9 “mutiger und rücksichtsloser Kampf gegen die schlimmsten Volksschädigungen:
Alkohol, Nikotin, Ausschweifungen, Wohnungselend, Mangel an eigener Scholle, Geldgier,

das ist es, was wir durchsetzen müssen” (Lietz 1917, S. 200).
10 “Der Schüler muß z.B. die Gefahren kennen, die ihm durch Alkoholismus und
Sexismus drohen; muß wissen, wie weit und in welcher Weise Sport für seinen Körper
zuträglich ist; was er tun kann, um den nachteiligen Wirkungen der Arbeit in der Fabrik
und Studierstube zu entgehen, und noch vieles derartige” (Lietz 1911, S. 26).
11 “bleibenden Gegebenheiten” (Meissner 1965, S. 38).
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
she was buried near the door of the same church, and a tomb was
erected over her sepulchre, from whence this record is taken.
XVIII.
The following account of reanimation is extracted

from the first volume of the Causes Célebres, and
was the subject of a serious law suit in Paris.
Two men in trade, who lived in the street, St. Honoré, in Paris,
nearly equal in circumstances, both following the same profession,
and united in the closest friendship, had each of them a child, much
about the same age. These children were brought up together, and
conceived a mutual attachment, which ripening with years into a
stronger and more lively sentiment, was approved by the parents on
both sides. This young couple was upon the point of being made
happy, by a more solid union, when a rich financier, conceiving a
passion for the young maiden, unfortunately crossed their
inclinations, by demanding her in marriage. The allurements of a
more brilliant fortune, seduced her father and mother,
notwithstanding their daughter’s repugnance to consent to the
change. To their entreaties, however, she was obliged to yield, and
sacrificed her affections, by becoming the wife of the financier. Like a
woman of virtue, she forbad her earlier lover the house. A fit of
melancholy, the consequence of this violence done to her
inclinations, by entering into an engagement of interest, brought on
her a malady, which so far benumbed her faculties, that she was
thought by all her friends to be dead, and was accordingly consigned
to the grave. The former lover conceiving, and hoping what he had
heard of her death, might only prove a syncope, or fit of lethargy, (as
she had been before subject to those complaints) bribed the grave-
digger, to convey the body to his house in the night time. He then
used every means recommended for restoring suspended animation;
and at length was overjoyed at finding his efforts prove effectual.
It is not easy to conceive the surprise the young woman was in on
her resuscitation, when she found herself in a strange house, and as
it were in the arms of her lover, who informed her of what had taken
place, and the risk he had run on her account. She then
comprehended the extent of her obligation to her deliverer, and love,
more pathetic than all his persuasions to unite their destinies,
determined her, on her recovery to escape with him into England:
where they lived for some years in the closest union.
At the end of ten years, they conceived the natural wish of
revisiting their own country, and at length returned to Paris, where
they took no precaution whatever, of concealing themselves, being
persuaded that no suspicion would attend their arrival. It happened
however by chance, that the financier met his wife in one of the
public walks. The sight of her, made so strong an impression on him,
that the persuasion of her death could not efface it. He contrived it so
as to join her, and notwithstanding, the language which she used to
impose upon him, he left her with the conviction that he was not
deceived.
The strangeness of this event, gave more charms to the woman in
the eyes of her former husband, than she had for him before. He
acted with such address, that he discovered her abode,
notwithstanding all her precautions, and reclaimed her with all the
regular formalities of justice.
It was in vain that the lover maintained the right which his cares for
his mistress gave him to the possession of her: that he represented
her inevitable death, but for him: that he ought even to be accused of
homicide, for want of having taken proper precautions to assure
himself of her death, and a thousand other ingenious reasons which
love suggested to him, but without the desired effect. He found that
the judicial ear was against him, and not thinking it expedient to wait
the result of a definitive judgment, he fled with his mistress into a
foreign country, where they passed the remainder of their days,
without further molestation.
We have before observed that several persons reputed dead, had
exhibited signs of life under the blade of the Anatomist, and had
consequently deceived the judgment of the surgeon who regarded
them as defunct. Hence it follows, that apparent death often carries
with it the exterior characters of real death; that men of the faculty
may be deceived, and much more so those who are less instructed;
hence it follows likewise that for the good of humanity it is
indispensible that a regulation should be adopted, which would save
us from the dreadful horrors of so cruel an event.
XIX.
It is well known what happened to the celebrated Vesabe,
successive physician to Charles V. and to Philip II. of Spain, his son.
Being persuaded that a Spanish Nobleman whom he attended was
really dead, he asked the permission of opening him, which was
granted. But he had scarcely plunged the instrument into the body of
the unfortunate man, when he remarked some signs of returning life.
In effect, he found, on opening his bosom, the heart still palpitating.
The relations of the deceased, informed of the accident, were not
satisfied with pursuing him as a murderer; they dragged him, as a
man guilty of sacrilege, before the tribunal of the Inquisition.
As the fault was notorious, the judges of this tribunal were for
condemning him to the punishment attached to the impiety. But
fortunately for him, the King of Spain, by his authority and entreaties,
delivered him from this certain danger, on condition of his expiating
his crime by a voyage to the holy-land. But the unfortunate Vesabe
did not long enjoy the pardon which he thus obtained. The Venetian
senate having sent for him to fill the place of Falloppe, a violent
tempest overtook him on his passage, and cast him on the island of
Zante, where after wandering about for several days in the deserts,
and suffering all the rigours of hunger, he ended his life deplorably in
1564, at the age of fifty eight.
XX.
We are informed in a treatise by Terilli, that a lady of distinction in
Spain, being attacked with hysteric suffocations, was regarded as
dead. Her relations applied to a celebrated Anatomist to open her,
and acquaint himself more particularly with the cause of her death.
At the second stroke of his knife she revived, and gave evident signs
of life, by the cries that were forced from her by this fatal instrument.
The dreadful spectacle excited such astonishment and horror in
those present, that this physician, who had hitherto enjoyed the
fairest reputation, abhorred now, and detested by every one, was
compelled to quit not only the city, where this tragedy was acted, but
even the very province itself, in order to withdraw himself from the
effects of public indignation.
XXI.
Acilius Aviola was (according to Pliny) concluded dead, both by his
domestics and physicians; he was accordingly laid out upon the
ground for some time, and then carried forth to his funeral pile: but
as soon as the flames began to catch his body, he cried out that he
was alive, imploring the assistance of his schoolmaster, who was the
only person that had tarried by him: but it was too late; for
encompassed with flames, he was dead before he could be
succoured.
XXII.
Plato tells us of Erus Armenius being slain in battle, among many
others; when they came to take up the dead bodies upon the tenth
day after, they found, that though all the other carcases were putrid,
this of his was entire and uncorrupted; they therefore carried it home,
that it might have the just and due funeral rites performed to it. Two
days they kept it at home in that state, and on the twelfth day, he
was carried out to the funeral pile; and being ready to be laid upon it,
he returned to life, to the admiration of all that were present. He
declared several strange and prodigious things, which he had seen
and known, during all that time that he had remained in the state of
the dead.
XXIII.
One of the noble family of the Tatoreidi, being seized with the
plague in Burgundy, was supposed to die thereof, and was put into a
coffin to be carried to the sepulchres of his ancestor, which were
distant from that place some four German miles. Night coming on,
the corpse was disposed in a barn, and there attended by some
rustics. These perceived a great quantity of fresh blood to drain
through the chinks of the coffin; whereupon they opened it, and
found that the body was wounded by a nail that was driven into the
shoulder through the coffin; and that the wound was much torn by
the jogging of the chariot he was carried in; but withal, they
discovered that the natural heat had not left his breast. They took
him out, and laid him before the fire: he recovered as out of a deep
sleep, ignorant of all that had passed. He afterwards married a wife,
by whom he had a daughter; married afterwards to Huldericus a
Psirt; from his daughter came Sigismundus a Psirt, chief Pastor of
St. Mary’s Church in Basil.
XXIV.
In the year 1650 Anne Green was tried at Oxford, before Serjeant
Umpton Croke, for the murder of her bastard child, and by him
sentenced to be hanged; which sentence was accordingly executed
on the fourteenth day of December, in the Castle-Yard, Oxford,
where she hung about half an hour, being pulled by the legs, and,
after all, had several strokes given her on the stomach with the butt
end of a musket. Being cut down, she was put into a coffin, and
carried to a house to be dissected; where when they opened the
coffin, notwithstanding the rope remained fast jammed round her
neck, they perceived her breast to rise: whereupon one Mason, a
tailor, intending an act of humanity, stamped on her breast and belly;
and one Oran, a soldier, struck her with the butt end of his musket.
After all this, when Sir William Patty, Dr. Willis, and Mr. Clarke, came
to prepare the body for dissection, they perceived some small rattling
in her throat, which induced them to desist from their original design,
and began to use means for her recovery; in which they were so
successful, that within fourteen hours she began to speak, and the
next day talked and prayed very heartily. Nor did the humanity of the
Doctors stop, till by obtaining a pardon for her, they secured that life,
which their skill had restored. She was afterwards married, had three
children, lived in good repute among her neighbours, at Steeple-
Barton, and died in 1659. What was very remarkable, and
distinguished the hand of Providence in her recovery, she was found
to be innocent of the crime for which she suffered; and it appeared
the child had never been alive, but came from her spontaneously,
four months after conception.
XXV.
In the year 1658, Elizabeth, the servant of one Mrs. Cope, of
Magdalen parish, Oxford, was convicted of killing her bastard child,
and was according hanged at Green-ditch, where she hung so long,
that one of the by-standers said, if she was not dead, he would be
hanged for her. When cut down, the gallows being very high, she fell
with such violence to the ground, that seemed sufficient of itself to
have killed her. After this, she was put in a coffin, and carried to the
George Inn, in Magdalen parish; where signs of life being observed
in her, she was blooded, and put to bed to a young woman; by which
means she came to herself, and, to all appearance, might have lived
many years: but the next night, she was, by the order of one Mallony,
a bailiff of the city, barbarously dragged to Gloucester Green, and
there was hanged upon a tree, till she was dead.
XXVI.
In the year 1797, a fine boy, about nine years old, son of Mr.
Baldock, Surgeon and Apothecary, at Burwash, in Sussex, had the
misfortune to fall into a pond of water, about twenty roods from his
father’s house, wherein he soon sunk to the bottom, and there
remained at least a quarter of an hour, before any one went to his
assistance. By the time he was taken out, the father had arrived at
the spot, where he found his son to all appearance dead, his face
having turned quite black, and his pulsation totally left him; he,
however, took up the body, and carried it home, losing no time in
stripping off the wet cloaths, and getting it into a warm bed. He next
proceeded to wipe the skin quite dry with napkins, and afterwards to
rub the body well with hot cloths. Mr. and Mrs. B. continued the
stimulating process for a full hour, without the smallest prospect of
success; they nevertheless persevered, and soon afterwards had the
happiness to discover some small symptoms of returning life, from
the emission of a very feeble groan. This encouraged them to
redouble their exertions; and though they proved wholly ineffectual
for more than another hour; during which time the body appeared as
a corpse before them, they did not relax in their efforts; and, at the
expiration of two hours and an half, they brought the vital functions
into more visible action, which first appeared by a sort of convulsive
motion in one hand. The next favourable symptoms discovered,
were a little motion in one foot, an inward crying, and a very languid
pulse. The return of animation was now more rapid, and apparently
very painful; for the poor boy first cried low, and presently after very
loud; his eyes, which were naturally prominent, on a sudden burst
wide open, and appeared very red and full of terror. After this, he
was taken out of bed, and put breast high, into water blood warm, in
which situation he appeared calm for about ten minutes, when he
again cried, but not so strong as before. Being taken out of the bath,
(where the friction was still kept up with the hand) wiped dry, and put
again into a warm bed, he was soon after perceived to breathe,
though very quick and feeble. Having in some degree recovered his
senses, he spoke a few words imperfectly; but his speech soon
became more perfect; and having swallowed a trifling potion his
father administered to him, he complained of great pain in his
stomach and bowels, which was soon relieved by an embrocation,
volatile, oily, and anodyne. The next night he got rest by the help of a
cordial anodyne; but it was a fortnight before he wholly recovered.
We have been particular in stating the above facts, from an idea
that the knowledge of them may prove useful in similar accidents,
and indeed in all cases of suspended animation.
XXVII.
Doctor Tissot mentions an instance of a girl who was restored to
life, after she had been taken out of the water, swelled, bloated, and
to all appearance dead, by laying her naked body upon hot ashes,
covering her with others equally hot, putting a bonnet round her
head, and a stocking round her neck, stuffed with the same, and
heaping coverings over all. After she had remained half an hour in
this situation, her pulse returned, she recovered her speech, and
cried out, I freeze, I freeze; a little cherry brandy was given her, and
she remained buried, as it were, under the ashes for eight hours.
Afterwards she was taken out, without any other complaint, except
that of lassitude or weariness, which went off in a few days. The
Doctor mentions likewise an instance of a man who was restored to
life, after he had remained six hours under water, by the heat of a
dung-hill.
XXVIII.
Doctor Alexander mentions an instance of a man, who was to all
appearance killed by a blow on the breast, but recovered on being
immersed for some time in warm water. These, and many other
instances of a similar nature, amount to a full proof of this fact, that
many of those unhappy persons who lose their lives, by falls, blows,
and other accidents, might be saved by the use of proper means
duly persisted in.
XXIX.
Mr. Tossach, Surgeon at Alloa, relates the case of a man
suffocated by the steam of burning coal, who he recovered by
blowing his breath into the patient’s mouth, bleeding him in the arm,
and causing him to be well rubbed and tossed about.
And Doctor Frewen, of Sussex, mentions the case of a young man
who was stupified by the smoke of sea coal, but was recovered by
being plunged into cold water, and afterwards laid in a warm bed.
XXX.
Even in old age, when life seems to have been gradually drawing
to a close, the appearances of death are often fallacious.
A Lady in Cornwall, more than eighty years of age, who had been
a considerable time declining, took to her bed, and in a few days
seemingly expired in the morning. As she had often desired not to be
buried till she had been two days dead, her request was to have
been regularly complied with by her relations. All that saw her looked
upon her as dead, and the report was current through the whole
place; nay, a gentleman of the town actually wrote to his friend in the
island of Scilly, that she was deceased. But one of those who were
paying the last kind office of humanity to her remains, perceived
some warmth about the middle of the back; and acquainting her
friends with it, they applied a mirror to her mouth; but, after repeated
trials, could not observe it in the least stained; her under jaw was
likewise fallen, as the common phrase is; and, in short, she had the
appearance of a dead person. All this time she had not been
stripped or dressed; but the windows were opened as is usual in the
chambers of the deceased. In the evening the heat seemed to
increase, and at length she was perceived to breathe.
XXXI.
Monsieur Janin, of the Royal College of Surgery at Paris, relates,
that a Nurse having had the misfortune to overlay a child, he was
called in, and found the infant without any signs of life; no pulsation
in the arteries, no respiration, the face livid, the eyes open, dull, and
tarnished, the nose full of snivel, the mouth gaping, in short, it was
almost cold. Whilst some linen clothes and a parcel of ashes were
warming, he had the boy unswathed, and laid him in a warm bed,
and on the right side. He was there rubbed all over with fine linen, for
fear of fretting his tender and delicate skin. As soon as the ashes
had received their due degree of heat, Mr. Janin buried him in them,
except the face, placed him on the side opposite to that on which he
had been at first laid, and covered him with a blanket. He had a
bottle of Eau de luce in his pocket, which he presented to his nose
from time to time; and between whiles some puffs of tobacco were
blown up his nostrils: to these succeeded the blowing into his mouth,
and squeezing tight his nose. Animal heat began thus to be excited
gradually: the pulsations of the temporal artery were soon felt, the
breathing became more frequent and free, and the eyes closed and
opened alternately. At length the child fetched some cries expressive
of his want of the breast, which being applied to his mouth, he
catched at it with avidity, and sucked, as if nothing had happened to
him. Though the pulsations of the arteries were by this time very well
re-established, and it was hot weather, yet Monsieur Janin thought it
adviseable to leave his little patient three quarters of an hour longer
under the ashes. He was afterwards taken out, cleaned and dressed
as usual; to which a gentle sleep succeeded, and he continued
perfectly well.
XXXII.
Mr. Glover, Surgeon in Doctor’s Commons, London, relates the
case of a person who was restored to life after twenty nine minutes
hanging, and continued in good health for many years after.
The principal means used to restore this man to life were opening
the temporal artery and the external jugular; rubbing the back,
mouth, and neck, with a quantity of volatile spirits and oil;
administering the tobacco clyster by means of lighted pipes, and
strong frictions of the legs and arms. This course had been
continued for about four hours, when an incission was made into the
wind pipe, and air blown strongly through a canula into the lungs.
About twenty minutes after this the blood at the artery began to run
down the face, and a slow pulse was just perceptible at the wrist.
The frictions were continued for some time longer; his pulse became
more frequent, and his mouth and nose being irritated with spirit of
salammoniac, he opened his eyes. Warm cordials were then
administered to him, and in two days he was so well as to be able to
walk eight miles.
XXXIII.
In the parish of St. Clements in Colchester, a child of six months
old, lying upon its mother’s lap, having had the breast, was seized
with a strong convulsion fit, which lasted so long, and ended with so
total a privation of motion in the body, lungs, and pulse, that it was
deemed absolutely dead. It was accordingly stripped, laid out, the
passing bell, ordered to be tolled, and a coffin to be made; but a
neighbouring gentlewoman who used to admire the child, hearing of
its sudden death, hastened to the house, and upon examining the
child, found it not cold, its joints limber, and fancied that a glass she
held to its mouth and nose was a little damped with the breath; upon
which, she took the child in her lap, sat down before the fire, rubbed
it, and kept it in gentle agitation. In a quarter of an hour she felt the
heart begin to beat faintly; she then put a little of the mother’s milk
into its mouth, continued to rub its palms and soles; found the child
begin to move, and the milk was swallowed; and in another quarter
of an hour, she had the satisfaction of restoring to its disconsolate
mother the babe quite recovered, eager to lay hold of the breast, and
able to suck again. The child throve, had no more fits, is grown up,
and at present alive, i. e. 1803.
These means, which are certainly in the power of every person,
were sufficient to restore to life an infant to all appearance dead, and
who in all probability, but for the use of these simple endeavours
would have remained so. There are however, many other things
which might be done in case the above should not succeed; as
rubbing the body with strong spirits, covering it with warm ashes or
salt, blowing air into the lungs, throwing up warm stimulating
clysters, or the smoke of tobacco into the intestines, and such like.
When children are dead born, or expire soon after the birth, the
same means ought to be used for their recovery, as if they had
expired in circumstances similar to those mentioned above.
These directions may likewise be extended to adults, attention
being always paid to the age and other circumstances.
The foregoing cases and observations afford sufficient proof of the

success which may attend the endeavours of persons totally
ignorant of medicine, in assisting those who are suddenly deprived
of life by any accident or disease. Many facts of a similar nature
might be adduced, were it necessary, but these, it is hoped, will be
sufficient to call up the attention of the public, and to excite the
humane and benevolent to exert their utmost endeavour for the
preservation of their fellow creatures.
In short, not only the ordinary signs are very uncertain, but we may
say the same of the stiffness of the limbs, which may be convulsive;
of the dilation of the pupil of the eye, which may proceed from the
same cause; of putrefaction, which may equally attack some parts of
a living body, and of several others. Haller, convinced of the
uncertainty of all these signs, proposes a new one, which he
considers as infallible.—“If the person (says he) be still in life, the
mouth will immediately shut of itself, because the contraction of the
muscles of the jaw will awaken their irritability.” The jaw however,
may be deprived of its irritability though a man may not be dead. Life
is preserved a long time in the passage of the intestines. The sign
pointed out by Dr. Fothergill appears to deserve more attention.—“If
the air blown into the mouth, (says this physician) passes freely
through all the alimentary channels, it affords a strong presumption,
that the irritability of the internal sphincters is destroyed, and
consequently that life is at an end.”—These signs, which deserve to
be confirmed by new experiments, are doubtless not known to
Undertakers.
The difficulty of distinguishing a person apparently dead from one
who is really so, has, in all countries where bodies have been
interred too precipitately, rendered it necessary for the law to assist
humanity. Of several regulations made on this subject, we shall
quote only a few of the most recent; such as those of Arras, in 1772;
of Mantua, in 1774; of the Grand Duke of Tuscany, in 1775; of the
Senuhausée of Sivrai, in Poitore, in 1777; and of the Parliament of
Metz in the same year. To give an idea of the rest, it will be sufficient
to relate only that of Tuscany. By this edict, the Grand Duke forbids
the precipitate interment of persons who dies suddenly. He orders
the magistrates of health to be informed, that physicians and
surgeons may examine the body; that they may use every
endeavour to recal it to life, if possible, or to discover the cause of its
death; and that they shall make a report of their procedure to a
certain tribunal. On this occasion, the magistrate of health orders the
dead not to be covered until the moment they are about to be buried,
except so far as decency requires; observing always, that the body
be not closely confined, and that nothing may compress the jugular
veins and the carotid arteries. He forbids people to be interred
according to the ancient method; and requires that the arms, and the
hands, should be left extended, and that they should not be folded or
placed cross-wise upon the breast. He forbids, above all, to press
the jaws one against the other; or to fill the mouth and nostrils with
cotton, or other stuffing. And lastly, he recommends not to cover the
visage with any kind of cloth, until the body is deposited in its coffin.
We shall conclude this article by subjoining, from Dr. Hawes’s
Address to the Public on this subject, a few of the cases in which this
fallacious appearance of death is most likely to happen, together
with the respective modes of treatment which he recommends.
In apoplectic and fainting fits, and in those arising from any violent
agitation of mind, and also when opium or spirituous liquors have
been taken in too great a quantity, there is reason to believe that the
appearance of death has been frequently mistaken for the reality. In
these cases, the means recommended by the Humane Society for
the recovery of drowned persons, should be persevered in for
several hours; and bleeding, which in similar circumstances has
sometimes proved pernicious, should be used with great caution. In
the two latter instances, it will be highly expedient, with a view of
counteracting the soporific effects of opium and spirits, to convey
into the stomach, by a proper tube, a solution of tartar emetic, and by
various other means, to excite vomiting.
From the number of children carried off by convulsions, and the
certainty arising from undoubted facts, that some who have in
appearance died from that cause have been recovered; there is the
greatest reason for concluding, that many, in consequence of this
disease, have been prematurely numbered among the dead; and
that the fond parent, by neglecting the means of recalling life, has
often been the guiltless executioner of her own offspring. To prevent
the commission of such dreadful mistakes, no child, whose life has
been apparently extinguished by convulsions, should be consigned
to the grave, till the means of recovery above recommended in
apoplexies, &c. have been tried; and, if possible, under the direction
of some skilful practitioner of medicine, who may vary them as
circumstances shall require.
When fevers arise in weak habits, or when the cure of them has
been principally attempted by means of depletion, the consequent
debility is often very great, and the patient sometimes, sinks into a
state which bears so close an affinity to that of death, that there is
reason to suspect it has too often deceived the by-standers, and
induced them to send for the undertaker, when they should have had
recourse to medicine. In such cases, volatiles, eau de luce for
example, should be applied to the nose, rubbed on the temples, and
sprinkled often about the bed; hot flannels, moistened with a strong
solution of camphorated spirit may likewise be applied over the
breast, and renewed every quarter of an hour; and as soon as the
patient is able to swallow, a tea spoonful of the strongest cordial
should be given every five minutes.
The same methods may also be used with propriety, in the small
pox, when the pustules sink, and death apparently ensues; and
likewise in any other acute disease, when the vital functions are
suspended from a similar cause.
ACCOUNT
Of the various
MODES OF BURYING THE DEAD,
ADOPTED BY DIFFERENT NATIONS.
The primitive Christians buried their dead after the manner of the
Jews. They first washed, then embalmed them, spending, (says
Tertullian,) more perfumes, and aromatic gums, upon such
occasions, than the heathens did in their sacrifices. They wrapt the
corpse in fine linen, or silk, and sometimes put them on rich habits.
They then laid them forth for the space of three days, during which
they constantly attended the dead body, and passed the time in
watching and praying by it. Then they carried it to the grave, with
torches and flambeaus, singing psalms and hymns to the praise of
God, and in testimony of their hopes of the resurrection. They
recommended the dead likewise in their prayers, received the
communion, and made their Agapæ, or love feasts, with the
distribution of other charities for the poor.
At the end of the year, they made a fresh commemoration for
them, and so from year to year; beside the standing commemoration
for the dead, always joined with the eucharist, they frequently put
into the grave several things, as marks of honour to the deceased, or
to preserve his memory; such as the badges of his dignity, the
instruments and acts of his martyrdom, an epitaph, or at least his
name: and sometimes they threw in medals, laurel leaves, some
crosses, and the gospel. And whereas the heathens, built stately
tombs for their dead, either by the sides of great roads, or in the
open fields; the Christians, on the contrary, disposed of their
deceased, either after the common way of interment, or laying them
in vaults under ground; such were the catacombs near Rome.—They
had anciently, a religious ambition to be buried near the bodies of
martyrs, and this is that which, at last, brought so many graves and
tombs into the churches; which were frequently erected over the
graves of martyrs: this was the occasion of burying in churches; for a
long time it was the custom to bury the dead no where but without
the walls of cities.
As to the old Greeks, after they had closed the eyes of the
deceased, they used to make a great noise with a sort of bell, done
as it is supposed either to scare away the furies and hobgoblins, or
else to wake the person, in case he was only in a lethargy or
apoplectic fit. Afterwards they put a piece of money into his mouth, to
pay his passage over the Styx, giving him likewise a piece of meat to
put Cerberus in good humour: they then put a bandage, or little scarf
over his eyes, and his face was covered to his chin with cloth. This
office was to be performed by the nearest relations, who were
likewise obliged to wash the body with warm water and anoint it. This
was properly the business of women. The corpse was likewise wrapt
in fresh linen, or new cloth, made into a sort of straight gown. The
body was afterwards crowned with chaplets, to intimate the
deceased had conquered the misfortunes of this life. They likewise
put some sweetmeats into his mouth, which was part of the
entertainment of the Olympionces. The funeral being thus far
prepared, they placed the corpse at the gate of the house, which
was a sort of laying in state.
The day after, before sun-rise, the Greeks used to carry the corpse
to the funeral pile. The expence upon this occasion, though
moderate at first, grew afterwards to a great excess; therefore Solon
made a sumptuary law, to oblige the Athenians to frugality. The
relations used to attend the corpse to the funeral pile; women under
three score years of age, unless pretty near related, were not
permitted to come into the house where the corpse lay; however all
of that sex were allowed to accompany the body to the place of
sepulchre: at the latter end of the solemnity the company had a treat
at the expence of the relations, at which time, if the deceased had
done any thing remarkable, it was set forth in a speech; which
privilege was afterwards granted to none but those who died in the
field, for their country, or such as were buried at the charge of the
state, which in such cases was done in the Ceramicus.
It was a custom among the Greeks, to bury persons of the best
quality in raised grounds, till, at last, there were two public burying
places appointed by the state, called Ceramici, one within, and the
other without the wall. In the first of which, those who died in the
field, were buried. If any person happened to die on their travels, or
in another country, their way was to anoint the corpse with honey, to
preserve it from putrefaction, till they could bring it home. And
sometimes they wrapt them alive, in cerecloth for the same purpose.
The Egyptians of which we shall speak more fully hereafter, used
to embalm their dead with a composition made of wine and
odoriferous drugs, such as myrrh, cinnamon, cedar, &c. This
embalming was a whole month in finishing, it being necessary to
repeat the aromatic gums under the corpse a great many times.
Herodotus observes, that the Egyptians used to dress the corpse in
the same habit that the person wore, and put it into a transparent
glass coffin.
The Romans paid the last offices to the dead, in the following
manner: after they had closed the eyes of the dead, they called out
to him several times, to see if he was not fallen into a swoon, or
lethargical distemper.—After this, they washed the corpse with warm
water, and rubbed it with perfumes. This being done, they put a sort
of white gown upon him, and brought him to the door with his feet to
the street, then they stuck branches of cypress before the house.
This ceremony continued seven days, and upon the eighth they
carried the corpse to the place where it was to be burnt: amongst
people of fortune, the bier, or coffin, was generally carried by
relations: and at the funerals of Emperors and Consuls; the
Senators, and Magistrates of the Republic did this office; but the
common people were carried by Vespillones, or common bearers.
When persons of high blood, or who were eminent for posts in
government, or remarkable actions, were brought to the pile, the
distinctions of their quality were carried before the coffin, as the
consular fasces, the sword and mace, their ancestors in wax work,
the plunder they had gained upon the enemy, the civic, mural, &c.
crowns which they had deserved, and every thing else that might
add to their figure. Servius observes, that in the beginning of the
Republic, they buried their dead in their houses: but by a law of the
twelve tables, it was forbidden either to bury, or burn any corpse
within the city of Rome; but afterwards, the vestal virgins, and
Emperors had a privilege of exception; as for other people they were
either interred in the highways, or in their ground, out of the town. At
the burning of the corpse, they laid it fast upon a pile of wood, of
pines, yew, and other resembling trees, which lay one upon another
in the figure of an altar. The corpse being dressed, and sprinkled
with rich liquors, lay in a coffin, made on purpose, with his face
upwards, and a piece of silver in his mouth to pay Charon for his
fare. The pile was surrounded with cypress, an embalm of grief and
death; after this some of the nearest relations, turning their back to
the pile, set fire to it with a torch, which they held behind them; and
the fire being lighted, they threw in the clothes, arms, and other rich
goods, which the deceased person had the greatest fancy for. When
the corpse was burnt, they wetted the bones and the ashes with milk
and wine, and then put them into an urn, which they buried in a
sepulchre for that purpose. Before this urn, they set a little altar,
where they burnt perfumes.
Their mourning lasted ten months, which was Romulus’s year; but
it was possible to shorten this term by some public success of the
state, or any extraordinary good fortune, which happened to a
private family.
Account of the opening of the Tomb of King

Edward I. in Westminster Abbey, 467 years after
its Interment.
The following interesting account of the effect produced by the
mode of preservation, which, for many centuries, has been made
use of upon the bodies of royal personages, will it is presumed, be
found not unacceptable to our readers. It is extracted from Sir
Joseph Ayloffe’s account of the opening of the Tomb of Edward the
First, in Westminster Abbey 467 years after its interment. After
describing the manner of opening the tomb and coffin, which was
done with the utmost care, in the presence of the Reverend Doctor
Thomas, then Dean of Westminster, two of the prebends, and the
President of the Antiquarian Society, the writer says,
“On lifting up the lid, the royal corpse was found wrapped up within
a large square mantle of strong, course, and thick linen cloth,
diapered, of a dull, pale, yellowish brown colour, and waxed on its
under side.”
The head and face were entirely covered with a sudarium, or face
cloth, of crimson sarsenet, the substance whereof was so much
perished, as to have a cobweb-like face, and the appearance of fine
lint. The sudarium was formed into three folds. When the folds of the
external wrapper were thrown back, and the sudarium removed, the
corpse was discovered, richly habited, adorned with ensigns of
royalty, and almost entire, notwithstanding the length of time that it
had been entombed. Its innermost covering seemed to have been a
very fine linen cerecloth, dressed close to every part of the body, and
superinduced with such accuracy and exactness, that the fingers
and thumbs of both the hands had each of them a separate and
distinct envelope of that material. The face, which had a similar
covering, closely fitted thereto, retained its exact form, although part
of the flesh appeared to be somewhat wasted. It was of a dark
brown, or chocolate colour, approaching to black, as were the hands
and fingers. The chin and lips were entire, but without any beard;
and a sinking or dip, between the chin and underlip, was very
conspicuous. Both the lips were prominent, the nose short, as if
shrunk; but the apertures of the nostrils were visible. There was an
unusual fall, or cavity, on that part of the bridge of the nose which
separates the orbits of the eyes; and some globular substance,
possibly the fleshy part of the eye-balls, was moveable in their
sockets, under the envelope. Below the chin, and under jaw, was
lodged a quantity of black dust, which had neither smell nor
coherence; but, whether the same had been flesh or spices, could
not be ascertained. One of the joints of the middle finger of the right
hand was loose, but those of the left hand were quite perfect. The
corpse, from the waist downward, was covered with a large piece of
rich figured cloth of gold, which was loose over the lower part of the
tunic, thighs, legs and feet, and tucked down behind the soles of the
latter. There did not remain any appearance of gloves; but, on the
back of each hand, and just below the knuckle of the middle finger,
lay a quatre-soil, of the same metal as those in the stole (i.e. of
fillagree work, in metal gilt, elegantly chased in figure.) The feet, with
their toes, soles, and heels, seemed to be perfectly entire; but,
whether they have sandals on them, or not, is uncertain, as the cloth
tucked over them was not removed. On measuring the body by a
rod, quadrated into inches, divided into quarters, it appeared to be
exactly six feet and two inches in length.
The following remarkable fact is translated from

the Imperial Gazette of Petersburg, dated
December 17th, 1798.
“In 1796, a coffin was found at the Convent of Sumovin, in the city
of Trotma, in the eparchy of Volgoda, containing a corpse, in the
habit of a Monk. It had been interred in 1568, yet was in a state of
perfect preservation, as were also the garments. From the letters
embroidered on them, it was found to be the body of the most
memorable Feodose Sumovin, founder and superior of the Convent,
and who had been acknowledged as a saint during his life, for the
miracles he had performed.”
The Emperor Paul, on hearing this report caused the following
proclamation to be issued.
“We Paul, &c. having been certified by a special report of the most
holy synod, of the discovery that has been made in the Convent of

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Alternative Schooling and New

Education European Concepts and

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More information about this series at

Palgrave Studies in Alternative Education

Library of Congress Control Number: 2017952836

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2018

Cover illustration: © Stephen Bonk/Fotolia.co.uk

Printed on acid-free paper

This Palgrave Pivot imprint is published by Springer Nature

2 Hermann Lietz and the German Country

3 Georg Kerschensteiner and the Industrial School 33

4 Ovide Decroly and the Ecole pour la vie 49

5 Pavel Petrovich Blonsky and the Labor School 69

6 Peter Petersen and the Jena Plan School 87

7 Célestin Freinet and the Ecole moderne française 105

Abstract This chapter sets out the structure and methodological

Keywords Alternative schooling · History of education · New

1.1 History of Education: A Methodological

© The Author(s) 2018 1

drawing on our own images of what is good and right. History—we

should be understood as a reference to persons of both genders.

socio-historical context of that time in Europe. This interconnection

1.2 Alternative Schools: European Concepts of New

The curriculum is evaluated and reconstructed on a regular basis. In

3 For further information see Koerrenz (2003).

• the difference between institutional frameworks and daily life,

a crucial element in the discussion about alternative schools. Alternative

• they meet their friends and peers (and their enemies),

be understood as an alternative to schooling in the American context.

When it comes to influential institutions throughout the history of

in ways that are different to mainstream understandings. All six models

The chapter on Belgian educational researcher, physician, and psy-

School remains a flexible institution. It is constructed by human beings.

Oelkers, J. (2001). Rudolf Steiner, 1861–1925. In J. A. Palmer (Ed.), Fifty

Hermann Lietz and the German Country

Keywords Country Boarding Schools · Hermann Lietz · New education

2.1 Hermann Lietz—A Biographical Summary

© The Author(s) 2018 17

mainland. This proved to be a defining turning point in his biography,

S. 35). All translations into English are by the authors.

education, it featured a complex structuring of daily life. For example,

2 “Ich will Lietz in Japan werden” (Ito 2007, S. 111).

of Japanese juku pedagogy, inspired by the progressive leitmotif of an

2.2 German Country Boarding Schools

will be used to do an endurance run, which is especially beneficial for the

Let us take a closer look at Lietz’s program. A useful approach is to ana-

• where young people are educated, not only instructed

2.2.1 In the Countryside, Not in the City—Where Should the Ideal

Towns and cities are a dangerous, endangering environment in which to

5 “Narrheit“ (Rein 1919, S. 71).

hindrance, to work on the soil, to work as a farmer, that is not where

In his biography of Lietz, Erich Meissner speaks of “[the] ascetic reduc-

Alkohol, Nikotin, Ausschweifungen, Wohnungselend, Mangel an eigener Scholle, Geldgier,

The following account of reanimation is extracted

The foregoing cases and observations afford sufficient proof of the

1.1 History of Education: A Methodological

1.2 Alternative Schools: European Concepts of New