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POWER ENGINEERING
Advances and Challenges
Part A: Thermal, Hydro and Nuclear Power
Editors
Viorel Badescu
Candida Oancea Institute
Polytechnic University of Bucharest
Bucharest, Romania
George Cristian Lazaroiu
Department of Power Systems
University Politehnica of Bucharest
Bucharest, Romania
Linda Barelli
Department of Engineering
University of Perugia
Perugia, Italy
p,
p,
A SCIENCE PUBLISHERS BOOK
A SCIENCE PUBLISHERS BOOK
Cover credit : Ch 4-Fig. 17—Author (Maurizio Luigi Cumo and Renato Gatto)
MATLAB® and Simulink® are trademarks of The MathWorks, Inc. and are used with permission. The MathWorks does
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software or related products does not constitute endorsement or sponsorship by The MathWorks of a particular
pedagogical approach or particular use of the MATLAB® and Simulink® software.
CRC Press
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A critical part of writing any book is the review process, and the authors
and editors are very much obliged to the following researchers who
patiently helped them read through subsequent chapters and who made
valuable suggestions: Viktor Bolgov (Tallinn University of Technology),
Yacine Chakhchoukh (University of Idaho, USA), Minh Quan Duong
(The University of Da Nang, Danang City, Vietnam), Roberto Faranda
(Politecnico di Milano, Italy), Mahmud Fotuhi-Firuzabad (Sharif University
of Technology, Tehran), Nicolae Golovanov (University Politehnica of
Bucharest, Romania), Francesco Grimaccia (Politecnico di Milano, Italy),
Youguang Guo (University of Technology, Sydney, Australia), Bogdan
Ionescu (University “Politehnica” of Bucharest, Romania), Marty Page
(Southernco, USA), Ivo Palu (Tallinn University of Technology), Agis M.
Papadopoulos (Aristotle University, Thessaloniki, Greece), Ion Petre (Abo
Akademi University, Turku, Finland), Gustavo A. Ramos (University
of the Andes, Columbia), Mariacristina Roscia (Universita di Bergamo,
Italy), Vladislav Samoylenko (Ural Federal University, Russia), Giorgos
Stavrakakis (Technical University of Crete, Greece), Gorazd Stumberger
(University of Maribor, Slovenia), Lee Taylor (Southernco, USA), Fernando
Lessa Tofoli (Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora, Brazil), Geraldo
Leite Torres (Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Brazil), Michael von
Spakovsky (Virginia Tech, USA), Dario Zaninelli (Politecnico di Milano,
Italy), and Wenxiang Zhao (Jiangsu University, China).
Substantial help and guidance has been received from Vijay Primlani,
from the Science Publishers team, to whom our thanks are kindly
addressed.
The editors, furthermore, owe a debt of gratitude to all authors.
Collaborating with these stimulating colleagues has been a privilege and
a very satisfying experience.
Viorel Badescu
George Cristian Lazaroiu
Linda Barelli
Contents
Foreword v
Preface ix
Acknowledgments xi
List of Contributors xv
D. Apostolou
Soft Energy Applications and Environmental Protection Laboratory, Piraeus
University of Applied Sciences, Athens, 12201, Greece
E-mail: j.apostolou@puas.gr
Kostantin G. Aravossis
National Technical University of Athens, 9, Iroon Polytechniou str, 15780
Zografou, Greece
E-mail: arvis@mail.ntua.gr
Lukasz Bartela
Silesian University of Technology, Akademicka 2A, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland
E-mail: Lukasz.Bartela@polsl.pl
Mikel Belsué Echevarria
Tecnalia R&I, Mikeletegi Pasealekua, 2, E-20009 Donostia-San Sebastián—
Guipúzcoa, Spain
E-mail: mikel.belsue@tecnalia.com
David Bullejos Martín
University of Córdoba, Spain, Campus de Rabanales, 14071 Córdoba, Spain
E-mail: bullejos@uco.es
David Chiaramonti
University of Florence, RE-CORD and Department of Industrial
Engineering, Viale Morgagni 40, 50134 Firenze, Italy.
E-mail: david.chiaramonti@unifi.it
Viviana Cigolotti
ENEA, Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy and
Sustainable Economic Development, Piazzale Enrico Fermi 1, 80055
Portici (Napoli), Italy
E-mail: viviana.cigolotti@enea.it
Maurizio Luigi Cumo
Sapienza University of Rome, Via Eudossiana, 18 - 00184 Roma, Italy
E-mail: maurizio.cumo@uniroma1.it
xvi POWER ENGINEERING: Advances and Challenges, Part A
Franco Donatini
University of Pisa, Largo Lucio Lazzarino, 56122 Pisa, Italy
E-mail: franco.donatini@unipi.it
Renato Gatto
Sapienza University of Rome, Via Eudossiana, 18 - 00184 Roma, Italy
E-mail: renato.gatto@uniroma1.it
Timothy J. Held
Echogen Power Systems, 365 Water Street, Akron, OH 44308, United States
of America
E-mail: theld@echogen.com
Vasilis C. Kapsalis
National Technical University of Athens, 9, Iroon Polytechniou str, 15780
Zografou, Greece
E-mail: bkapsal@mail.ntua.gr
Kosmas A. Kavadias
Soft Energy Applications and Environmental Protection Laboratory,
Piraeus University of Applied Sciences, Athens, 12201, Greece
E-mail: kkav@puas.gr
Gheorghe Lazaroiu
University Politehnica of Bucharest, Spl. Independentei 313, Bucharest
060042, Romania
E-mail: glazaroiu@yahoo.com
Jorge M. Llamas Aragonés
University of Córdoba, Spain, Campus de Rabanales, 14071 Córdoba,
Spain
E-mail: p52llarj@uco.es; jllaragones@yahoo.es
Lucian Mihaescu
University Politehnica of Bucharest, Spl. Independentei 313, Bucharest
060042, Romania
E-mail: lmihaescu@caz.mecen.pub.ro
Jarosław Milewski
Warsaw University of Technology, 21/25 Nowowiejska Street, 00-665
Warsaw, Poland
E-mail: milewski@itc.pw.edu.pl
Mariagiovanna Minutillo
University of Naples Parthenope, Centro Direzionale di Napoli, Isola C4,
80143 Napoli, Italy
E-mail: mariagiovanna.minutillo@uniparthenope.it
List of Contributors xvii
Angelo Moreno
ENEA, Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy and
Sustainable Economic Development, Via Anguillarese 301, 00123 Roma,
Italy
E-mail: angelo.moreno@enea.it
Gabriel Paul Negreanu
University Politehnica of Bucharest, Spl. Independentei 313, Bucharest
060042, Romania
E-mail: gabriel.negreanu@upb.ro
Susana Pérez Gil
Tecnalia R&I, Mikeletegi Pasealekua, 2, E-20009 Donostia-San Sebastián—
Guipúzcoa, Spain
E-mail: susana.perez@tecnalia.com
Alessandra Perna
University of Cassino and Southern Lazio, Viale dell’Università, 03043
Cassino (FR), Italy
E-mail: perna@unicas.it
Ionel Pisa
University Politehnica of Bucharest, Spl. Independentei 313, Bucharest
060042, Romania
E-mail: ipisa@caz.mecen.pub.ro
Matteo Prussi
University of Florence, RE-CORD and Department of Industrial
Engineering, Viale Morgagni 40, 50134 Firenze, Italy
E-mail: matteo.prussi@unifi.it
Andrea Maria Rizzo
University of Florence, RE-CORD and Department of Industrial
Engineering, Viale Morgagni 40, 50134 Firenze, Italy
E-mail: andreamaria.Rizzo@unifi.it
Goran Strbac
Imperial College London, EEE Building, South Kensington Campus, SW7
2AZ, United Kingdom
E-mail: g.strbac@imperial.ac.uk
Fei Teng
Imperial College London, EEE Building, South Kensington Campus, SW7
2AZ, United Kingdom
E-mail: fei.teng09@imperial.ac.uk
I
Progress in Thermal, Hydro
and Nuclear Classical
Technologies
Chapter 1
1. Introduction
The target to decarbonise the electricity system is expected to be largely
achieved by integrating high penetration of renewable energy sources
(RES). Due to the variability, uncertainty and limited inertia capability of
RES, the need for ancillary services will be significantly increased. These
services are traditionally delivered through part-loaded online plants with
reduced efficiency, and/or through standing plants with higher operating
costs. This not only leads to an increase in real-time balancing costs but also
may eventfully limit the ability of the system to absorb RES, particularly
when high output of RES coincides with low demand. As shown in Fig. 1,
alternative flexible technologies, including energy storage (ES), Demand
Side Response (DSR), network technologies and flexible generation, have
been proposed and investigated to mitigate these challenges (Strbac et al.
2012a).
Previous study (Strbac et al. 2012b) suggests that ES may have an
important role to play in facilitating the transition to the future low-carbon
power system. ES can deliver cost savings across the whole electricity
Imperial College London, EEE Building, South Kensington Campus, SW7 2AZ, United
Kingdom.
Email: g.strbac@imperial.ac.uk
* Corresponding author: fei.teng09@imperial.ac.uk
Fig.1
4 POWER ENGINEERING: Advances and Challenges, Part A
Flexible Storage
Generation
Increasing asset
utilization and efficiency
of system balancing
Network Demand
Technologies Response
system due to the ability to offset the need for generation, transmission
and distribution investment while at the same time contribute to operating
cost savings through reducing RES curtailment and delivery of reserve
and frequency regulation services.
DSR can be provided by a number of potentially flexible loads, such
as flexible industrial and commercial (I&C) loads, flexible heat pump
or HVAC systems, electric vehicles following smart charging strategies,
smart domestic appliances, etc. DSR can support the integration of low-
carbon generation by providing both energy arbitrage (load shifting or
peak load reduction) and ancillary services (Strbac 2008).
A variety of network solutions have been considered to address
the challenges of integrating RES. Conventional measures include the
reinforcement of transmission and distribution grids in order to enable
the connection of the increasing amount of wind and PV generation. There
are also a number of advanced network technologies (e.g., FACTs) that
facilitate a smarter and more efficient management of transmission and
distribution networks.
Flexible generation is another key technology to support the
integration of high penetration of RES. The operating flexibility of a thermal
generator is determined by its operational limitations (e.g., minimum
stable generation), the ability to provide ancillary services, ramping rates,
minimum up/down time, and the reduced efficiency when running
part-loaded. The manufacturers have identified the potential technology
innovations to increase the flexibility of thermal plants (Probert 2011,
Stevens et al. 2012).
Due to the electrification of transport/heating sectors and the
upcoming retirement of coal plants under European Industrial Emissions
Directive in Europe, significant amount of investment is required to build
new thermal plants to cope with the potential capacity shortage. Although
Understanding of the Flexibility from Combined Cycle Gas Turbine Plant 5
50%
Base Case Enhanced Case
Frequency response in % of
40%
nominal power
30%
20%
10%
0%
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 120%
Load in % of nominal power
Fig. 2: Frequency response characteristics of a CCGT plant.
Similar as in Brouwer et al. (2015), hot start-up time is used in the system
simulation. Due to the commitment time constraint, thermal plant
needs to be turned on before the real time operation. In the future low
carbon system, the variability of RES increases the number of start-ups
of thermal plants and the uncertainty of RES increases the challenge of
making optimal start-up decision long time ahead of real-time operation.
The start-up decision of a thermal plant with shorter commitment time
can be made nearer to real-time operation, which significantly reduces
the uncertainty faced by the system operator. Potential improvements
have been suggested in Probert (2011) and NETL (2012) to shorten the
commitment time of a CCGT plant.
100%
80%
70%
60%
Base Part-load Efficiency High Part-load Efficiency
50%
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 120%
Load in % of nominal power
Fig. 3: A typical part-load efficiency curve of a CCGT plant.
operation cost. Compared with deterministic approaches that rely on the pre-
defined requirements, the provision of ancillary services is endogenously
optimised within the model. As the increased need on these services is the
main driver to enhance the flexibility, their optimal scheduling is critical
to fully understand the benefits of flexible generation. Furthermore, this
model explicitly considers the frequency response requirements in the
system, taking into account the levels of system inertia. Given that RES is
expected to gradually replace conventional generation, the system inertia
provided by rotating synchronous machines will decline. This not only
increases the required amount of frequency regulation to maintain the
frequency within the statutory limits, but also leads to more volatility
in the needs of frequency response across different hours. It is therefore
important to consider this effect when quantifying the benefits of flexible
generation. Figure 4 provides a schematic illustration of the components
of the stochastic scheduling tool.
RES statistics
Storage Capacity: 18GWh
1
Rating: +/- 4GW
0.9
Round-trip efficiency:
Aggregate wind power (p.u.)
60000
0.8
72%
50000
Demand net wind (MW)
0.7 40000
30000
0.6
RES forecast
20000
0.5 10000
0.4 0
105
113
121
129
137
145
153
161
1
9
17
25
33
41
49
57
65
73
81
89
97
0.2
0.1
0 wind, demand,
outage realisation
00:00
01:00
02:00
03:00
04:00
05:00
06:00
07:00
08:00
09:00
10:00
11:00
12:00
13:00
14:00
15:00
16:00
Time (hrs)
demand forecast
RES uncertainty model
50000 Full Stochastic Scheduling model 70000
60000
Aggregate demand (MW)
45000
50000 Wind
Generation (MW)
Demand risk
0 Demand
101
111
121
131
141
151
161
25000
1
11
21
31
41
51
61
71
81
91
08:00
09:00
10:00
11:00
12:00
13:00
14:00
15:00
16:00
17:00
18:00
19:00
20:00
21:00
22:00
23:00
00:00
Time (hr)
Time (hrs)
Dispatch
Outage risk
Demand uncertainty model SoS metrics
Operating costs
Carbon emission
Online Inertia dependent Stochastic security
startup λ Δt
frequency response target
Unavail-
requirement VOLL: 17,000 £/ MWh
Available able
μ Δt
Outage model
Ei ole sen mustempaa kiusausta kuin se, joka tulee ihmisen eteen,
kun perkele kuiskaa hänelle tämmöisiä ajatuksia: »Jumala ei
minusta välitä — Jumala vihaa minua. Onni ja kaikki muu on minua
vastaan. Jonkinlainen kirous näyttää riippuvan minun päälläni. Miksi
minun pitäisi muuttua? Tulkoon Jumala ensin toisellaiseksi minua
vastaan, niin tulen minäkin toisellaiseksi Häntä kohtaan. Mutta
Jumala ei tahdo tulla toisellaiseksi; Hän on päättänyt ettei osoita
vanhurskautta minulle. Minä voin nähdä sen; sillä kaikessa käypi
mulle huonosti. Mitäpä silloin auttaa katua? Minä tahdon kulkea omia
teitäni — ja tulkoon mitä tulee. — Onko sulla koskaan ollut
semmoisia ajatuksia? Silloin kuule Herran sana sinulle: »Kun
jumalaton kääntyy kaikista synneistään, joita hän on tehnyt, ja tekee
oikeuden ja vanhurskauden, niin hän saa totisesti elää. Luuletko
minulla olevan iloa jumalattoman kuolemasta, sanoo Herra, Herra,
eikö paljoa enempi, että hän palajaa teistään ja saapi elää?» Hes.
18:21—23. Elä koskaan usko perkelettä, kun hän sanoo Jumalan
sinua vihaavan. Elä usko häntä koskaan, kun hän sanoo sinulle
Jumalan olleen liika kovan sinua vastaan ja asettaneen sinut
semmoisiin olosuhteisiin kiusausten, tietämättömyyden, köyhyyden
tai jonkin muun kuorman alaiseksi, niin ettet sinä voi tulla
paremmaksi. Mitä sanoo sinun kasteesi lupaus? »Joskin olet köyhä,
kiusattu, tietämätön, tyhmä, olepa mikä tahansa, niin sinä olet
Jumalan lapsi — sinun Isäsi rakkaus kannattaa sinua, Hänen
armonsa on alttiina sinulle.» Sinä tunnut heikolta parantueksesi.
Rukoile Jumalan Henkeä antamaan sinulle tahdon voimaa, jota et
koskaan ennen ole tuntenut. Sinä tunnut liika ylpeältä muuttuaksesi.
Rukoile Jumalan Henkeä nöyryyttämään ylpeää sydäntäsi,
pehmittämään kovaa sydäntäsi; ja sinä saat ihmeeksesi nähdä että
kun ylpeytesi on hävinnyt, kun olet sisällisesti häpeissäsi itsesi
tähden ja näet syntisi niitten oikeassa mustassa valossa ja tunnet
itsesi arvottomaksi katsomaan Jumalaan ylös, silloin tulee sijaan
jalompi, pyhempi ja miehuullisempi tunne — oman kunnioituksen
tunto ja puhdas omatunto ja se ajatus, että heikkona ja huononakin
olet sinä oikealla tiellä; että Jumala ja Hänen enkelinsä hymyilevät
sinulle; että sinä jälleen olet sopusoinnussa maan ja taivaan kanssa,
sillä sinä olet se, joksi Jumala sinua tahtoo. Et ole Hänen ylpeä,
vaikeroiva, itsepäinen lapsensa, joka kuvailet olevasi kyllin väkevä
kulkemaan yksin, kun sinä todellisuudessa olet omain himojesi,
halujesi orja ja perkeleen leikkikalu; vaan sinä olet Hänen rakastava,
harras lapsensa Jumalan voiman kautta ja kykenet tekemään mitä
tahdot, sillä mitä sinä tahdot, sitä tahtoo Jumalakin.
National Sermons.
Sermons on David.
Minä voin ainoasti huutaa: »Oi Herra, Sinuun olen minä luottanut,
elä salli minun koskaan joutua häpeään. Miksi kelvoton sanoisi:
missä on nyt hänen Jumalansa?» Mutta silloin kun minä olen enin
rauhaton, sanoo sisällinen ääni minulle: »Mitä se haittaa, jos sinä
joudut häpeään? Jumala ei joudu. Usko vain lujasti ja luottavasti,
että Jumala on niin hyvä, kuin sinä rajoitetulla ymmärrykselläsi voit
käsittää, ja Hän kyllä viimeinkin antaa sinun ymmärtää kuinka hyvä
Hän on, ja sinä saat täydellisen siunauksen siitä, että näet
Jumalan.» Sinä ehkä sanot että minä puhun vastakkaista. Niin minä
teenkin; ja niin tekevät Davidin psalmitkin, jos ne rehellisesti luetaan.
Kuitenkin juuri tämä vastakkaisuus tekee ne aina mahdollisiksi
tunkeutumaan ihmissydämiin. Ne ovat ihmisen sanoja, joka on
todellisessa epäilyksessä ja todellisessa pimeydessä, joka huutaa
valoa ja joka ei huuda turhaan, niinkuin en minäkään luule turhaan
huutavani.
‒ ‒ Minä vain tiedän, etten minä mitään tiedä, vaan toivon että
Kristus, joka on Ihmisen Poika, opettaa minulle vähä kerrassaan, jos
olen kärsivällinen ja valveillani, mitä minä olen ja mitä ihminen on.
National Sermons.
Westminster Sermons.
KUOLEMAN SYVYYDESTÄ.
National Sermons.
National Sermons.
Miksi kuoli Hän? kysymme me. Jokaisen ihmisenkin kuolemalla
pitänee olla erityinen syy, tarkoitus, muutenhan se olisi kauhea
tapaus — outo asia ilman ajatusta — luuranko ilman sielua. Miksi
kuoli Hän? »Minä vaikenen enkä avaa suutani; kyllä Sinä sen teet.»
Ps. 39:10. Näin sanoo hautauspsalmi. Sanokaamme me sitä samaa.
»Minä vaikenen»: en raivosta enkä epätoivosta, mutta siksi että Sinä
puhut, ja silloin on se hyvin tehty. Se ei ollut mikään satunnainen tai
välttämätön teko. Sillä se oli Isän työ, eikä ilman Häntä yksikään
varpunen putoa maahan; Pojan työ oli se myös, joka kuoli ristillä,
siksi että Hän viimeiseen asti halusi pelastaa ihmiskunnan; se oli
Pyhän Hengen työ, joka on kaiken luodun Herra ja Elonantaja. Se oli
Hänen työnsä, jolla on halu elämään eikä kuolemaan, iloon eikä
suruun, valkeuteen eikä pimeyteen, järjestykseen eikä
epäjärjestykseen, hyvään eikä pahaan. Sillä oli määrätty syy, ajatus,
tarkotus; ja se tarkotus on hyvin hyvä. Mikä se on, emme tiedä;
emmekä tarvitse sitä tietää. Arvailla sitä olisi todellakin sekautumista
asioihin, jotka ovat meille liika korkeita. Sentähden olkaamme ääneti.
Elkäämme olko ääneti epäilyksestä, vaan uskosta; ei ääneti niinkuin
heittiö, joka on väsynyt apua huutamasta, mitä hän ei saa, vaan
ääneti kuin lapsi, joka istuu äitinsä helmoissa ja katsoo ylös hänen
kasvoihinsa ja tarkastaa hänen liikkeitään, joka ei ymmärrä vielä
mitään niistä, vaan on varma siitä että kaikki on tehty rakkaudessa.
Westminster Sermons.
National Sermons.
National Sermons
Village Sermons.
National Sermons.