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 Alternatives
in
Regulated River
Management

Editors
James A. Gore, Ph.D.
Associate Professor
Faculty of Biological Science
University of Tulsa
Tulsa, Oklahoma

Geoffrey E. Petts, Ph.D.

Senior Lecturer
Department of Geography
University of Technology
Loughborough, England

CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
Boca Raton London New York

CRC Press is an imprint of the

Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
First published 1989 by CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

Reissued 2018 by CRC Press

© 1989 by CRC Press, Inc.

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No claim to original U.S. Government works

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Alternatives in regulated river management.

Bibliography: p.
Includes index.
1. Rivers--Regulation--Environmental aspects
2. Rivers--Regulation. I. Gore, James A. II. Petts,
Geoffrey E.
QH545.R58A47 1989 363.7’3946 88-24255
ISBN 0-8493-4877-3

A Library of Congress record exists under LC control number: 88024255

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 PREFACE

River regulation offers the benefits of stabilized runoff patterns, providing flood-control
and all-year-round water supply, and electricity generation on demand. Against these must
be weighed the ecological effects on downstream areas. Today, virtually every major river
system on the planet has been, or is planned to be, regulated. In the continental U.S. for
example, only the Yellowstone River remains as an unimpounded river of any substantial
size, and in Europe the summer of 1986 witnessed the impoundment and control of the last
free-flowing stretch of the Rhone River. The majority of Third World nations see the
development of river resources for hydro-electric power and irrigation supply as the solution
to immediate flood and economic problems.
The ecological effects of river regulation have become a major focus of environmental
research, and this is reflected by the triennial International Symposia on Regulated Streams
and the foundation of the journal Regulated Rivers. However, the emphasis of scientific
endeavor has been on the description, explanation, and conceptualization of the impacts of
river regulation. Only recently has attention been directed to the management of regulated
rivers to maintain ecological integrity. With this volume, we present river and stream
managers with a set of tools to address the many resource conflicts in river regulation.
Agencies which control the releases from storage and hydropower dams face a suite of
resource demands and conflicts. In most cases all of these demands must be met as mandated
by law. For a North American dam operator, these demands may include storage reservations
for irrigation and flood control (at the request or mandate of local consumers), release
schedules for hydroelectricity generation (as contracted to utilities), multiple releases to
maintain acceptable water quality (as required by state, provincial, or federal environmental
protection agencies), and sufficient releases to maintain downstream habitat for biological
integrity (as required by state, provincial, or federal fish and wildlife agencies). Additionally,
a certain amount of legal protection must be provided to downstream landowners in the
event of substantial land changes from altered flows. At another level of consideration, the
dam must also operate in concert with a network of other facilities for regional flood control,
sediment control, and energy support. Thus, stream managers must acquire the tools (both
techniques and predictive models) which are biologically, chemically, and geologically sound
yet provide a defensible management program so that the requirements of the user groups
can be met.
We intend this volume to be a source of alternatives for stream managers when they are
asked to meet present release requirements or to predict changes from future operations.
The information is as current as a book format will allow and provides many innovative
techniques as well as "standard" techniques in regulated river management. Where some
techniques have received considerable criticism (as in the case of the instream flow incre-
mental methodology), we have attempted to present evaluation of these methods with al-
ternative techniques to answer the regulated flow problem. We hope that some of the chapters
will suggest future avenues of research to both basic and applied scientists. None of the
tools provide a perfect solution and will always require continued modification as newer
ecological information is obtained. In this manner, water resource managers can approach
the goal of ecosystem integrity while meeting the demand of increased resource utilization.

James A. Gore
Geoffrey E. Petts
 EDITORS

James A. Gore, Ph.D., is Associate Professor of Aquatic Biology on the Faculty of

Biological Science at the University of Tulsa, Tulsa, Oklahoma.
Dr. Gore received his B.A. degree from the University of Colorado at Boulder in 1971.
He obtained his M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in 1976 and 1980, respectively, from the Department
of Zoology, University of Montana, Missoula. He has held positions as a research aquatic
biologist with the Wyoming Water Resources Research Institute (Laramie) and as a research
associate with the Tennessee Cooperative Fisheries Research Unit (Cookeville). He was
appointed an Assistant Professor of Aquatic Biology at the University of Tulsa in 1981 and
became an Associate Professor in 1986.
Dr. Gore is a member of the North American Benthological Society, the American Society
of Limnology and Oceanography, the American Fisheries Society, the American Society of
Naturalists, the American Association for the Advancement of Scientists, and the honorary
societies, Sigma Xi and Phi Gamma Kappa.
Dr. Gore has been the recipient of Associated Western University and U.S. Department
of Energy research fellowships to conduct toxicological research and has been nominated
for Fulbright scholarships to Israel and South Africa. Dr. Gore has been an invited guest
professor at the Zoologisches Institute der Universitat (T.H.) [University of Karlsruhe,
Federal Republic of Germany] and an invited research ecologist with the Environmental
Laboratory of the U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station (Vicksburg, Missis-
sippi). In 1989, he will receive a Fulbright senior research fellowship to conduct regulated
river research in South Africa.
Dr. Gore has been the recipient of research grants from the Environmental Protection
Agency, the Office of Water Resources and Technology, the U.S. Geological Survey, the
Department of Interior, Office of Surface Mining, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, and
several private industries. He has presented numerous invited lectures at national and in-
ternational meetings, symposia, and universities. Dr. Gore has published more than 50
papers, book chapters, and technical reports as well as editing/authoring two books. His
current research interests include the development of specific and generic models of habitat
and biotic interactions in rivers regulated by peaking hydropower operation as well as the
influence of hydrology and channel hydraulics upon the distribution of riverine biota.

Geoffrey E. Petts, Ph.D., is Senior Lecturer in Geography, University of Technology,

Loughborough, U.K. Having obtained his B.Sc. degree from Liverpool University in 1974
he undertook research at the Universities of Exeter and Southampton and received his Ph.D.
in 1978. Dr. Petts joined the staff of Loughborough University of Technology in 1979. He
is author or coauthor of three books and more than 30 scientific papers and has been a
speaker at several international symposia in North America and Europe. He is Editor-in-
Chief of the international journal Regulated Rivers: Research and Management and organizer
of the Fourth International Symposium on Regulated Streams. He was a member of the
Preparatory group of the International Lake Environments Committee and is a consultant to
the I.U.C.N. Ecology Commission.
 CONTRIBUTORS
Patrick Armitage, Ph.D.
River Laboratory
Freshwater Biological Association
Wareham, Dorset, England
James Norman Bowlby, M.Sc.
Lake Ontario Fisheries Unit
Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources
Picton, Ontario, Canada
Andrew Brookes, Ph.D.
River Division
Thames Water Authority
Reading, Berkshire, England
Richard A. Cassidy, M.S.
Chief
Reservoir Region and Water Quality
Section
U.S. Army Engineer District
Portland, Oregon
Mark Stephen Dortch, M.S.
Chief
Water Quality Modeling Group
Environmental Laboratory
U.S. Army Engineer Waterways
Experiment Station
Vicksburg, Mississippi
James A. Gore, Ph.D.
Associate Professor
Department of Biological Science
University of Tulsa
Tulsa, Oklahoma
Richard R. Harris, Ph.D.
Forest Advisor
University of California
Cooperative Extension
Eureka, California
Jacob G. Imhof, M.Sc.
Fish Community and Habitat Section
Fisheries Branch
Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources
Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Martin N. R. Jaeggi, Dr.Sc.
Head of the River Section
Laboratory of Hydraulics
Swiss Federal Institute of Technology
Zurich, Switzerland
James B. Layzer, Ph.D.
Assistant Professor
Department of Biology
Tennessee Technological University
Cookeville, Tennessee
James Lenial Martin, Ph.D.
Civil Engineer
Environmental Laboratory
U.S. Army Engineer Waterways
Experiment Station
Vicksburg, Mississippi
Robert T. Milhous, Ph.D
Hydraulic Engineer
Aquatic Systems Branch
National Ecology Research Center
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Fort Collins, Colorado
John M. Nestler, Ph.D.
Research Ecologist
Water Quality Modeling Group
Environmental Laboratory
U.S. Army Engineer Waterways
Experiment Station
Vicksburg, Mississippi
G. E. Petts, Ph.D.
Senior Lecturer
Department of Geography
University of Technology
Leices, England
Michael P. Ramey, M.S.
Senior Hydraulic Engineer
Department of Hydraulics and Hydrology
Bechtel, Inc.
San Francisco, California
Dudley W. Reiser, Ph.D.
Senior Fishery Scientist
Western Regional Operations
EA Engineering, Science, and
Technology Inc.
Lafayette, California
Stephen Swales, Ph.D.
Lecturer
Department of Biological Sciences
University of Waikato
Hamilton, New Zealand

Roland J. Risser, M.S. Robin L. Welcomme

Biologist Senior Fishery Resources Officer
Research and Development Department Department of Fisheries
Pacific Gas and Electric Company Food and Agriculture Organization
San Ramon, California Rome, Italy

Thomas A. Wesche, M.S.

Senior Research Associate
Wyoming Water Research Center
University of Wyoming
Laramie, Wyoming
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The management of regulated rivers suggests an interdisciplinary approach which requires

a variety of specialists from engineering, geology, geography, and biology. The production
of this book required the hard work and efforts of a number of fine individuals. We hope
that these papers will help to answer questions from regulated river managers. We thank all
of our contributors for all of their time and talents and we thank the following individuals
who served as chapter reviewers: R. N. B. Campbell, M. T. Greenwood, Brian Hill, J. M.
King, William F. McTernan, Wendell Pennington, Andrew L. Sheldon, Clair Stalnaker,
Dale Toetz, and Marc Zimmerman. The support of the University of Tulsa, the University
of Technology, and the U.S. Army Engineers Waterways Experiment Station is also grate-
fully acknowledged. A special thanks to Lesa Atkins, Barbara Barnard, and Jan Bingham
for their typing and organizational help.
We dedicate this volume to our families and colleagues who have supported us during its
production.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

Chapter 1
Perspectives for Ecological Management of Regulated Rivers 3
Geoffrey E. Petts

WATER QUALITY PROBLEMS

Chapter 2
Water Temperature, Dissolved Oxygen, and Turbidity Control in Reservoir Releases... 27
Richard A. Cassidy

Chapter 3
Water Quality Modeling of Regulated Streams 63
Mark S. Dortch and James L. Martin

Chapter 4
Flushing Flows 91
Dudley W. Reiser, Michael P. Ramey, and Thomas A. Wesche

CHANNEL MODIFICATION AND MANAGEMENT

Chapter 5
Alternative Channelization Procedures 139
Andrew Brookes

Chapter 6
Channel Engineering and Erosion Control 163
Martin N. R. Jaeggi

Chapter 7
The Use of Instream Habitat Improvement Methodology in Mitigating the Adverse Effects
of River Regulation on Fisheries 185
Stephen Swales

Chapter 8
Floodplain Fisheries Management 209
Robin L. Welcomme

Chapter 9
Mitigation for Impacts to Riparian Vegetation on Western Montane Streams 235
Roland J. Risser and Richard R. Harris

ECOLOGICAL MODELING AND MANAGEMENT

Chapter 10
Models for Predicting Benthic Macroinvertebrate Habitat Suitability Under Regulated
Flows 253
James A. Gore
Chapter 11
The Application of a Classification and Prediction Technique Based on Macroinvertebrates
to Assess the Effects of River Regulation 267
Patrick D. Armitage

Chapter 12
Instream Habitat Modeling Techniques 295
John M. Nestler, Robert T. Milhouse, and James B. Layzer

Chapter 13
Alternative Approaches in Predicting Trout Populations from Habitat in Streams 317
James N. Bowlby and Jacob G. Imhof

Index 333
Introduction
 3

Chapter 1

PERSPECTIVES FOR ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT OF REGULATED

RIVERS

Geoffrey E. Petts

TABLE OF CONTENTS

I. Introduction 4

II. River Regulation: A Historical Perspective 4

III. Impacts of River Regulation 6

IV. The Regulated River in Concept 8

A. Spatial Dimensions 8
1. The Global Scale 8
2. The Catchment Scale 9
B. The Temporal Dimension 10

V. Management Alternatives 13
A. Secondary Regulation Measures 13
1. Flow Modifications 13
2. Water Quality Control 14
3. Channel Design and Maintenance 14
4. Fish Pass Design 15
5. Biological Alternatives 15
6. Controls on Man 16
B. Compensation Schemes 16
C. The Nonuse Alternative 16
D. Integrated Regional River Development 16

VI. Third World Perspectives 17

A. Environmentally Sound River Management 18
1. Management Options 18
2. Efficiency in Water Use. 19
3. Comprehensive Management 19

VII. Conclusion 19

References 21
4 Alternatives in Regulated River Management

I. INTRODUCTION

Throughout history, rivers have provided the foundation for socioeconomic development.
Water is used for domestic, industrial, and agricultural purposes and power production;
rivers offer routes for navigation; and the river fishery is a traditional resource. Today,
particularly in developed countries, rivers and their alluvial corridors are also used for
recreation and leisure.
The ecological dynamism of the river and its alluvial corridor is dependent upon the
variation of river flows over time and the degree of morphological instability. These are the
specific factors that water project developers have sought to control by using large storage
reservoirs, low-head dams and run-of-river impoundments, water transfers, and channeli-
zation. The recent realization that the biologically rich floodplain and riparian systems have
disappeared from many areas of the world, and that the fauna and flora of rivers themselves
have been markedly altered and usually simplified, has resulted in a greater concern for
ecologically sound river management.
During the past three decades, much has been written about the ecological changes that
have resulted from river regulation." However, given appropriate management, rivers can
recover to some degree from external stresses and opportunities to restore damaged eco-
systems, or at least some target species or biotopes of particular interest to society appear
to exist.5 Ecological management opportunities are arising as a result of the departure from
the reductionist and isolationist philosophies of the 1960s and 1970s to focus on large rivers
and physical, chemical, and biological interactions.°
This decade has been characterized by a growing consensus that, given certain precon-
ditions, both economic and environmental management can be pursued simultaneously.'
Integrated river development for small hydroelectric power plants and fisheries has received
particular attention.8 The impetus for incorporating environmental issues in water resources
planning and policy-making was provided by the World Conservation Strategy,9 in which
the key concept is sustainable utilization of species and ecosystems. Such an integrated
approach is a prerequisite for environmentally sound water management.'°
This chapter summarizes the ecological impact of river regulation schemes; provides a
conceptual framework for the evaluation of that impact; reviews the tools available to
maintain, restore, or even enhance the ecosystems of rivers and their alluvial corridors; and
briefly discusses the problems of implementing policies for the ecological management of
regulated rivers.

II. RIVER REGULATION: A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

Since about 3000 B.C., when the earliest civilizations were established on the Nile, Tigris-
Euphrates, and Indus rivers, efforts have been made to regulate rivers for the benefit of
agriculture. Early floodplain farming (ulilizing the natural seasonal flow variation to supply
water to agricultural land, was soon supplemented by elaborate gravity-fed irrigation systems
which made large-scale agriculture possible.
Hydrologic engineering, in the form of irrigation ditches, was practiced as early as 3200
B.C. in Egypt, which is also where the earliest known dam was built at Sadd el Kafara before
2759 B.C." In China, irrigation agriculture was well established by 2000 B.c. By the Qin
Dynasty (ca. 250 B.c.), hydraulic engineering, including river channelization projects for
navigation and flood control, was well developed.' The most extensive and advanced system
of irrigation in ancient America was in the Moche area of northern coastal Peru, where the
change from floodplain farming to irrigation agriculture occurred around 900 B.c.13
River works in Europe were primitive until at least the 1 1 th century. Prior to that time,
embankments were systematically built for flood control and land reclamation, and the
 5

problem of naturally varying river flows for water power had been overcome by the con-
struction of weirs and aquaducts. During the following 700 years, the more commercially
active countries made improvements to rivers to overcome the obstacles to navigation im-
posed by shallows and mill weirs, to reclaim alluvial plains, and to control floods. There
were two main centers of technological advance. In the Netherlands, dredging technology
and designs for floodgates, retaining walls, and groynes were well established by the end
of the 16th century. In Italy, the problem of la bonifica (land reclamation in its broadest
sense) stimulated advances in the technology of river training and regulation which was used
for the management and systematic control of rivers from the mid-15th century. By the end
of the 17th century, the art of river regulation had been replaced by a scientific methodology.
Until approximately 1750, the scale of river regulation worldwide was small; engineering
works modified or harnessed the natural dynamics of rivers. Subsequently, beginning in
Europe, major schemes sought complete control of rivers from headwaters to mouth. Four
phases of development can be recognized.
First, by 1900, most of the large European rivers had been channelized for navigation,
flood control, and land reclamation. In 1817, Tulla initiated the channelization of the braided
Alsatian section of the Rhine and his often quoted statement "As a rule, no stream or river
needs more than one bed!" became general policy for hydraulic engineers. Possibly the
greatest single work of the 19th century was the control of the Tisza River, which drains
the southern and western Carpathians. Beginning in 1845, 12.5 million ha of floodplain
marsh were drained and the river course shortened by 340 km.
It was during that period that schemes were conceived for the complete control of large
drainage systems. In North America, Ellett' proposed the control of the Ohio and Lower
Mississippi Rivers by using both headwater storage reservoirs and channelization of the
lower river. Such grand schemes were considered at the time to be "wild and chimerical".
Complete control of rivers has been achieved during this century with the development
of dam-building technology. The second phase, between 1900 and 1940, was one of increased
dam-building activity in western Europe, North America, and Southeast Asia. The first great
dam was completed in 1936 on the Colorado River; the 221-m-high Hoover Dam impounded
Lake Mead (35 x 109 m3). Today they rank 14th and 23rd, respectively, among all high
dams and large-capacity reservoirs! Furthermore, a policy for the impoundment of entire
rivers to provide more reliable water supply, flood control, hydroelectric power, and im-
proved navigation was implemented by the Tennessee Valley Authority.
Phase three, between 1950 and 1980, included the peak of dam building worldwide.
During this phase, in North America alone, large dams (over 15 m high) were completed
at a rate of more than 200 per year.15 At the end of this period, throughout the world, more
than 700 large dams were completed each year.' In some countries the rate of dam building
has been dramatic. For example, in China, 80,000 reservoirs with storage capacities ranging
from 0.1 to over 100 million m3 had been created by 1980; their combined storage volume
is 16% of the annual runoff.
Currently, dams over 15 m high are being completed throughout the world at a rate of
about 500 per year. By the year 2000, more than 60% of the total stream flow in the world
will be regulated. The world's highest dams and largest reservoirs in the world are listed in
Table 1. In many countries, large-scale interbasin water transfers are seen as the solution
to regional water shortages.18•'9 Two examples illustrate the scale of transfers planned. The
800-km south-north water transfer proposals of China involve the transfer of 15 x 109 m3/
year from the Chang Jiang. In the U.S.S.R., plans have been formulated to transfer ap-
proximately 25 x 109 m3 of water from the Ob River in Siberia to the region southeast of
the Aral Sea, more than 3000 km, to provide for the irrigation of 4.5 million ha. This fourth
phase of river regulation is notable because, for the first time, environmental issues are
playing an increasingly important role in project planning and operation and policy making.
6 Alternatives in Regulated River Management

Table 1
MAJOR DAMS OF THE WORLD"

Highest Dams

Height
Rank Name River Country (m)

1 Rogun Vakhsh U.S.S.R. 335

2 Nurek Vakhsh U.S.S.R. 300
3 Grand Dixence Dixence Switzerland 285
4 Inguri Inguri U.S.S.R. 272
5 Borruca Terraba Costa Rica 267
6 Vaiont Vaiont Italy 262
7 Chicoasen Grijalva Mexico 261
8 Tehri Bhagirthi India 261
9 Kirshau Tons India 253
10 Sayano-Shushensk Yenisei U.S.S.R. 245

Largest Reservoirs

Capacity
Rank Name River Country (m3 x 106)

1 Bratsk Angara U.S.S.R. 169,270

2 Aswan Nile Egypt 168,900
3 Kariba Zambezi Zimbabwe 160,368
4 Akosombo Volta Ghana 148,000
5 Dania] Johnson Maniconagan Canada 141,852
6 Guri Caroni Venezuela 138,000
7 Krasnoyarsk Yenisei U.S.S.R. 73,300
8 W.A.C.Bennett Peace Canada 70,309
9 Zeya Zeya U.S.S.R. 68,400
10 Cahora Bassa Zambezi Mozambique 63,000

III. IMPACTS OF RIVER REGULATION

The hydrological aspects of regulated river basins have been reviewed by Kitson.2° He
divides the influence of regulation on rivers into three major categories: the effect of ab-
stractions, the effect of augmentation, and the effect of storage and channel modification.
Abstractions for domestic, industrial, and agricultural supply; interbasin transfers; and aquifer
recharge cause a reduction in discharge downstream of the abstraction point. Flow aug-
mentation results from the discharge of domestic, industrial, and agricultural waste water;
from interbasin transfers; and from groundwater abstraction. These hydrological and asso-
ciated water quality and sediment transport changes have had a range of ecological impacts,
as illustrated in Table 2.
Some short- and long-term ecological changes relate to short duration events. For example,
major fish kills have been caused by the release of anoxic water from some reservoirs" and
by gas supersaturation below hydroelectric power dams.34,35 Rapid fluctuations of water
level due to supply or power demands can have disastrous effects,3 as can reservoir sluicing
and venting operations.36However, most ecological changes can be related to one of three
situations, or some combination of them.
First the major modification of the flow regime and of water quality leads to changes of
instream habitats, resulting in biological changes. Autotrophic production within regulated
rivers is often enhanced by reduced turbidity, flood regulation, and increased water tem-
peratures. Thus, the benthic algal cover increased markedly after closure of the Vir Dam
 7

Table 2
ECOLOGICAL IMPACTS OF THE ZAMBEZI RIVER REGULATION2'32

Flood control effective for 130 km below Kariba Dam

Saltwater incursion in the coastal floodplain and delta area
Nutrient dynamics of the river determined by reservoir releases, at least during the early years of reservoir maturation
Turbidity increased due to dominance of tributary runoff in wet season and phytoplankton blooms in dry season
Erosion increased due to trapping of sediment by dam and hydrological changes
Macrophyte development enhanced, especially Panicum repens and Phragmites mauritanus
Floating plants develop extensively, including Eichornia crassipes and Salvinia molesta
Fish species dependent upon lotic habitats reduced or eliminated, e.g., Opsaradium zambezense
Fish introduced into lake (Limnothrissa miodon) established sizable stock in downstream river
Diseases spread because river regulation provides optimum conditions for vectors of malaria and bilarzia (Schis-
tosoma mansoni and S. haematobium)
Floodplain productivity and diversity of flora reduced and pools infested with Cyperaceae and Salvinia auriculata
Floodplain fauna reduced in number, including Hippopotamus amphibus, Crocodylus niloticus, and several species
of birds

on the Svratka River' and dense algal carpets and drifting filaments decreased the suitability
of the Glama River (Norway) for supply and recreational purposes.38 Similarly, submerged
angiosperms have spread within regulated rivers" and 30 km of the Dordogne River has
become infested with aquatic macrophytes. 4°
Faunal changes have resulted from a loss of centers of organization, especially spawning
habitat and shelter areas, and life-cycle triggers. Henricson and Muller' demonstrated that
the type of life cycle primarily determines whether a macroinvertebrate species can withstand
regulated conditions. Epilimnial, mixed, and hypolimnial release dams have caused different
changes of the benthos downstream.' Fish species have been particularly affected by changes
of the thermal regime below dams. For example, for 400 km below Glen Canyon Dam, the
Colorado River remains too cold for most native fish."
Changes of channel morphology in response to the changed flow and sediment transport
regimes43'44 or by channelization45,46 alter the hydraulic characteristics of the channel (depth,
velocity, and shear stress distribution), substrate characteristics, and space and shelter avail-
ability. Such changes have a major impact on both benthic invertebrates"'" and fish.49.5°
Moreover, channel changes alter the nature of river-floodplain interactions. When the reg-
ulated river has adjusted to the new conditions, the channel is usually more stable, reducing
the rate of floodplain accretion and erosion, and often incised, thereby lowering floodplain
water levels.
Secondly, the introduction of barriers, especially to migration for anadromous fish, has
had a widespread impact which is not confined to the large dams of the post-1950 era.
Salmo salar L. disappeared from the Dordogne River soon after the first dams were built
on the lower reaches between 1842 and 1904." Irrespective of the height of the dam, delayed
migrations — upstream and downstream — related to fish movement through a reservoir
can adversely affect the survival and reproduction of migratory species.5'
Thirdly, the isolation of the main river from its alluvial plain, eliminating access to
backwaters, floodplain lakes, and marshes, has had a major effect on both the ecological diversity
of the highly productive alluvial corridors' and riverine fish populations," not least within
tropical flood rivers." Floodplain channels and backwaters provide spawning habitats and
refuges during periods of lethal and/or critical water quality. Fish species that spawn on
inundated floodplains or in floodplain backwaters have been severely affected, e.g., in the
Volga" and Missouri Rivers .56 Within the lower Mekong basin, fisheries contribute 4.5%
of the gross national product and supply 40 to 60% of the animal protein intake of the 30
million inhabitants. Flow regulation below the Pa Mong Dam is expected to eliminate
flooding for approximately 700 km downstream, causing a loss of catch of about 2150 t."
Two additional impacts that have received relatively little attention in the literature are
8 Alternatives in Regulated River Management

worthy of note. First is the loss of area of lotic habitat. This relates to the shortening of
rivers and confinement of flow to a single channel in formerly braided and anastomosed
reaches as a result of channelization or channel degradation below dams. Stream ordering
is a well-established method for defining biological zones and river classifications." Higher-
order rivers have been shortened as a result of river regulation, whereas land drainage has
created new low-order streams. The overall effect of this change in structure of the drainage
system on river ecology has yet to be assessed.
Secondly, the loss of catchment integrity has resulted from the introduction of exotic
species. Exotic fish species, usually game fishes, have been introduced to many reservoir
tailwaters and have usually led to the decline or local extinction of native species."'" The
influence of canal construction and interbasin water transfers may also be significant. Cam-
bray and Jubb,59 for example, reported the unintentional introduction of five fish species
into the Great Fish River via the Orange-Fish Tunnel. The consequences of removing natural
barriers between biological populations, notably upon global gene stocks, require urgent
investigation.

IV. THE REGULATED RIVER IN CONCEPT

Case histories are important for both reactive and proactive management. However, eco-
logical impacts are not easily prescribed. Physicochemical changes may affect the ecology
only in combination, or indirectly by affecting lower trophic levels, and are often confounded
with effects of biotic factors (competion, predation, and disease). Furthermore, the effects
of river regulation progress at different rates among the different components of the system,
predominantly in a downstream direction. In detail, the response of a river to regulation is
complex. Nevertheless, the effects of regulation have been conceptualized and these simple
models provide a framework for evaluation of past and prediction of future impacts.

A. Spatial Dimensions
Biswas6° recognized that a major problem in water management is that many people with
policy-making functions in water development agencies have administrative backgrounds
and only limited knowledge and understanding of complex environmental issues associated
with river management projects. In order to persuade policymakers (and the public) of the
need for improved ecological management of regulated rivers, it is necessary to demonstrate
the ecological diversity of river systems at the global scale and the catchment scale. To
achieve environmentally sound river management within a long-term perspective, ecosystems
must be maintained as naturally as is compatible with resource utilization. Achieving this
goal requires due recognition of the different ecological characteristics of each river system
and of the different zones along a single river.

1. The Global Scale

The classification of fluvial hydrosystems at the global scale should be based upon the
Catchment Ecobiome. Each catchment is delineated by a topographic divide that isolates it
from adjacent catchments; the only interactions are the migrations of mobile biotic popu-
lations and some groundwater transfers. The catchment has become accepted as the fun-
damental land unit for studies of the geomorphology,' nutrient dynamics," and ecology'
of rivers.
Ecosystems are established and driven by climate, but geology — lithology and structure
— gives each catchment a distinctive appearance. The soil and vegetation of the hillslopes
within the catchment are important secondary variables determining the character
of the river system. Thus, the general effects of flow regulation on water quality, for example,
differ according to climatic zones,' but the specific changes also relate to the geology and
land use of individual catchments.
 9

Although it is useful to conceptualize catchments as discrete, closed systems, in reality

some catchments are currently linked and many more have had links during their evolution.
Because of the topography of catchment divides, hydrological links and faunal affinities
exist between the Parana and Orinoco drainage systems and, respectively, the southern and
northern tributaries of the Amazon River. Former linkages, associated with climatic changes
over 50,000 years, are apparent in faunal affinities among ancient African rivers such as
the Nile, Niger, and Zaire.' Thus, strategies for ecological management of rivers, especially
in the assessment of conservation needs, must consider the similarities, as well as differences,
among catchments.

2. The Catchment Scale

Transfers within a catchment are dominated by gravitational drainage, i.e., unidirectional
flows from the catchment divide, through and over hillslopes to streams, and along the
channel system to the mouth of the river. Thus, from headwaters to mouth, the physical,
chemical, and biological characteristics of a river progressively change. However, at this
scale of observation it is important to consider the fluvial hydrosystem,66 i.e., the river and
its corridor." The corridor includes the riparian zone, the active floodplain, and river terraces
of the valley floor and can attain widths of tens of kilometers along large rivers.
The River Continuum Concept" proposes that the gradient of physical factors, formed
by the drainage network, exerts a direct control upon the biological strategies and dynamics
of the river systems (Figure 1). For practical purposes, attempts have been made to express
the longitudinal succession of changes along rivers by zonation according to fish species,
invertebrate taxa, and algae." A simplified classification of rivers into the three major zones
of the continuum is given in Table 3.
In zone 1 the thermal characteristics relate to the altitude, proximity of sources, and
shading effects. Terrestrial vegetation contributes large amounts of organic matter. The fauna
is dominated by cool-water species and has a low diversity. In zone 2, the somewhat
predictably variable physical characteristics of many rivers encompass optimum conditions
for a large number of species, so that this zone has the highest biotic diversity. Large rivers
have a relatively large number of degree days, low diurnal temperature range, and stable
discharges, so that the aquatic system has a relatively low biotic diversity.
River regulation will interupt the continuum. Ward and Stanford" proposed the Serial
Discontinuity Concept to aid the analysis of ecological changes below dams (Figure 1).
Although primarily hypothetical, the concept clearly demonstrates the variable impacts that
a dam will have on the physical and biological characteristics of a river depending upon
where it is located on the continuum. Thus, the effect of a large deep-release reservoir will
be to suppress biotic diversity in the downstream river due to the interruption of organic
matter and nutrient spiraling from upstream, or in the middle-order rivers to alterations of
the thermal regime. However, they speculate that the same dam in the lower reaches could
increase biotic diversity by enhancing the spatial and temporal heterogeneity of the system.
The model continuum is often interrupted as the river flows through different climatic,
geologic, and geomorphic zones. Some rivers flow in their middle reaches through extensive
floodplains and then enter deep canyons before emerging into a coastal deltaic alluvial plain;
the Niger River is one example." Amoros et al.66 proposed a valuable alternative to the
sequential zonation of rivers, involving the designation and analysis of functional sectors
defined by both the fluvial dynamics and ecological functions, to overcome the problem of
spatial discontinuities in the river continuum.
A simplified categorization of the major sector types is given in Table 3. The alluvial
plains of sector C include a continuum of vegetation units representing the range of succes-
sional stages (juvenile to mature), giving the corridor a high diversity, and the occurrence
of mature ecosystems brings about high biomass production. In addition to the terrestrial
10 Alternatives in Regulated River Management

12

10

cc
LU
2
cc 6
a.
a.

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
STREAM ORDER

5 7 9 11 1 3 5 7 9 11

FIGURE 1. Theoretical framework for conceptualizing the downstream variation of eco-

logical parameters and the impact of impoundments. The influence of one and three dams
is shown in the upper graph. Discontinuity distance (DD) is the downstream (positive) or
upstream (negative) shift of a parameter a given distance (X). The change in parameter
intensity (PI) is also defined. The postulated effects of locating a dam at different points on
the continuum are shown in the lower graph. (Modified from T. D. Fontaine and S. H.
Bartell, Dynamics of Lotic Ecosystems (Stoneham, MA: Butterworth Publishers, 1983.) With
permission from the publisher.)

ecosystems (terraces, floodplains, and levees), Amoros et al.66 define four groups of aquatic
ecosystems: the main river channels, semistagnant side channels blocked from the main river
at the upstream end only, and old channels with permanent or temporary standing water
either highly or only mildly influenced by river discharges.
The emphasis on function rather than zone eases conceptualization of large complex river
systems wherein, for example, in Table 3 any sector could be associated with any zone.
Nevertheless, the general predictions of the river continuum concept for biological popu-
lations have been confirmed71•72 and the concept, when used flexibly and incorporating
functional sectors, can give due consideration to variable riparian influences, tributary inputs
from different biomes which large rivers must traverse, and irregular variations of channel
and valley morphology. Moreover, in river management, due consideration must be given
to the continuum of functional sectors, which is unique to each large river both in project
location and design, and to the assessment of mitigation or restoration measures.

B. The Temporal Dimension

An additional problem for the specification of causal relationships and an underlying
problem for the development of the serial discontinuity concept is the time-scale and com-
plexity of ecological readjustments to the imposed flow conditions. Many of the reported
 11

Table 3
SPATIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF FLUVIAL HYDROSYSTEMS

River Zones

Zone 1 Zone 2 Zone 3

(headwater) (middle reaches) (large river)

Discharge Low Moderate High

Variability High Moderate Low
Temperature Cold Cold to warm Warm
Variability Narrow Broad Narrow
Organic Matter
Source Allochthonous Autochthonous Allochthonous

River Sectors

Sector A Sector B Sector C

Geomorphological Erosional Transitional Depositional

system
Links with
Hillslope system Strong Weak Very weak
Alluvial aquifer None Moderate Strong
Channel
Pattern Straight or sinuous; Braided or meandering Meandering or anastomosing
canyons
Slope Steep Moderate Low
Substrate Bedrock, boulders, or Gravel Sand and gravel
coarse gravel
Corridor
Form Narrow, riparian zone Well defined but of limited Wide plain, with floodplain,
width; as Sector C terraces, levees, lakes, and
marshes
Biotic diversity Low Moderate to high High to very high
Biomass Low Moderate to high High

changes induced by river regulation may represent transient states and not final equilibria."
River regulation induces a succession of changes, but many adjustments occur too slowly
to be observed directly.
Changes of the fluvial hydrosystem caused by river regulation may be conceptualized as
a hierarchy of responses.3'74 First-order impacts occur simultaneously with, or shortly after,
dam closure and affect the transfer of energy and material into and within the downstream
river. Second-order impacts are the changes of channel and floodplain structure and dynamics,
and primary production that result from the local effects of the first-order impacts. Third-
order impacts on benthic invertebrates, fish, and floodplain fauna result from the combination
of all the changes of first- and second-order impacts as well as from biotic interactions
between populations.
The complete adjustment of biological populations must be preceded by the adjustment
of the abiotic factors, of which the physical structure (i.e., channel and floodplain change)
can require a long period of time. 43'44 The literature suggests that, in many systems, the
attainment of a new equilibrium adjusted to the regulated conditions and involving all the
interadjustments among the different components of the system may require tens or even
hundreds of years (Figure 2).
The response of a system to river regulation may be described by the Transient System
Model." System response is illustrated in Figure 3. When stressed by flow regulation, the
12 Alternatives in Regulated River Management

Floodplain and riparian vegetation

-Water quality
I
-Plankton
i
ac
a Channel morphology

N
Macrophytes and periphyton

I
L
c
a
Invertebr ates 0-

g
\A \ik
13 Fish r.
›.
x

YEARS 10 50 100

FIGURE 2. Interrelationships among the major variables of the fluvial

hydrosystem and appropriate time scales for the consideration of adjust-
ments to river regulation.

EQUILIBRIUM TRANSIENT STATE EQUILIBRIUM

STATE, 1 STATE, 2

to
I-
SYSTEM ST

N S - compartments

FIGURE 3. Conceptual model of system response to river regulation emphasizing that

change involves a succession of transient states (S, C2, Cl) during the relaxation period (RI).
This period is composed of two phases which may persist for variable lengths of time: the
reaction phase (Ra), between the commencement of regulation and the initiation of change,
and the adjustment phase (Ad). (From Petts, G. E., Regulated Streams: Advances in Ecology,
Craig, J. F. and Kemper, J. B., Eds., Plenum Press, New York, 1987, 257. With permission.)

mosaic of habitats (a compartment) within the natural river (N) changes to a compartment
with different characteristics (A) adjusted to the regulated conditions. However, during the
relaxation period (R1) between the two equilibrium states, a compartment experiences four
 13

changes. Immediately following the impact and before structural changes take place (the
reaction period, Ra), biotic populations will adjust to the first-order changes. Once initiated,
the structural adjustment of the channel (Ad) will occur at an exponential rate. During this
period, a succession of changes may be defined (here C2 changes to C1). During the
relaxation period, different reaches of river that are influenced by flow regulation will respond
at different rates so that a discontinuous spatial pattern of transient and final-state com-
partments will be observed." Such chronosequences within the alluvial plain have been
defined by Bravard et al.52 and Amoros et al."
Additional problems may be caused by geo- and biomagnification. In the former, stable
regulated gravel-bed rivers may provide sinks for the progressive concentration of toxic
metals.75• 76 In the latter, contaminants may take a long time to pass through food chains.
Problems such as these are yet to be fully investigated.

V. MANAGEMENT ALTERNATIVES

Recognizing that river regulation "might" cause ecological changes, Kitson (Reference
20, Page 32) proposes three compensating water schemes:

1. Preserve wild river — leave a portion of a regulated river unregulated to provide for
the rehabilitation of desired features
2. Secondary regulation — use additional structural measures and special operation rules
of the major project elements
3. Compensation schemes — introduce fish ponds to compensate for destroyed fish,
provide alternative recreational facilities, and restore scenic areas

In order to achieve sustainable development of water resources in the context of river projects,
the immediate emphasis must be on the development of secondary regulation measures. The
other two options are conflicting alternatives which should be considered only in light of
evaluations of the effectiveness for ecological management of secondary regulation.

A. Secondary Regulation Measures

I. Flow Modifications
Dams, interbasin transfers, and groundwater abstractions may be used to generate artificial
flow regimes or to augment flows depleted by water withdrawals in order to maintain or
optimize conditions for biological populations. Flow regulation can serve to preserve, re-
habilitate, or enhance populations of target species and, potentially, entire communities.
Opportunities for management involve restructuring the flow regime with regard to both
seasonal and short-term variability, which may or may not require changes to total annual
discharge. The restriction of water withdrawal appears to be a relatively obvious management
option, yet in some river systems, such as the Colorado, demands for water are so great
that minimum flows cannot be established." Compensation for water withdrawal by redis-
tributing water by interbasin transfers19•78 or groundwater abstraction"' provides opportunities
for ecological management that are yet to be exploited. To date, the emphasis has been on
the use of controlled reservoir releases.
Flow regime modifications for ecological management are usually intended to mitigate
the effects of an existing regulation scheme, not the least important of which are those below
hydroelectric power and irrigation supply dams.' Daily flow fluctuations in the former and
a reversal of the natural seasonal flow regime in the latter can be detrimental to the river
ecology. It is clearly important that ecological needs are discussed during the formulation
of dam release schedules. In the U.S., for example, the negotiation of a favorable schedule
is part of the licensing procedure for all nonfederal hydroelectric power dams."
14 Alternatives in Regulated River Management

Currently, a major concern in many countries is the designation of the minimum flow
necessary to maintain the fluvial hydrosystem; this must give due consideration to seasonal
flow variations. An ecological compensation flow is designated in most countries as a purely
arbitrary flow duration or flow frequency statistic. In Spain, for example, an ecological flow
has been defined as 10% of the mean annual flow81
The implementation of flow modification techniques presupposes that appropriate mini-
mum flows, maximum flows, and the degree of flow fluctuation to protect the fluvial
hydrosystem or its selected components can be quantified. Solutions to technical problems
in assessing instream flows have been developed, but the solutions have yet to be validated
in more than a few cases. The most widely reported solution, albeit as yet only a partial
one,82'83 is the instream flow incremental methodology that combines a mathematical model
of physical aspects of the river with a model of habitat preference criteria for target species.
O'Brien" derived a minimum streamflow hydrograph to preserve habitat for the Colorado
squawfish (Ptcyhocheilus lucius) in the Yampa River, but this was based upon a 2-year field
program, a flume simulation, and a mathematical simulation.
Even when quantitative models are used, many subjective decisions are necessary to
establish flow requirements. For instance, a target species may need to be identified because
flow conditions that benefit one species may be detrimental to another. Moreover, there
remains a large data gap on preferred flow and habitat needs of most species and little is
known about community requirements. Clearly, the physical, chemical, and biological lim-
iting factors of target species and biological communities must be specified and widely
applicable methods developed.

2. Water Quality Control

Along regulated rivers, point and nonpoint pollution (involving eutrophication" and in-
cluding accidental spillages of toxic wastes) and saltwater incursion to the lower river" can
markedly affect the ecology. These effects can be exacerbated by flow regulation when clean
headwater discharges, which would otherwise dilute downstream effluent inputs, are with-
drawn for supply.
Impoundments can be a source of downstream water quality problems, particularly during
reservoir maturation,3 but in some instances they may also provide potential solutions.
Selective withdrawal from dams with multiple draw-off valves allows mixing of water from
epilimnial and hypolimnial sources before discharge to the downstream river. However, the
use of controlled releases to maintain water quality within the receiving stream can be
problematic. With regard to water temperature, Larson" has shown that reservoir release
strategies are capable of optimizing water temperatures only within a distance of about 50
to 60 km below the Lost Creek Reservoir on the Rogue River in Oregon.
The maintenance of a minimum flow is assumed to be a major benefit of river regulation
because, if it is aerated, wastewater can be effectively diluted. In practice, the elevation of
low flows can reduce both the reaeration of the water (because the oxygen exchange at the
surface is distributed over a greater depth) and the residence time between two points of
waste injection so that the biochemical oxygen demand could be increased below a down-
stream point source." Thus, the provision of a minimum flow is not a priori an appropriate
management tool for regulated rivers receiving urban and industrial effluents or irrigation
return water.
Alternatively, dissolved oxygen levels can be controlled by improved turbine design or
by fitting aeration devices and reregulation weirs can act as efficient reaeration structures.
Such reregulation wiers are often introduced to mitigate short-term flow fluctuations that
cause flushing and/or dewatering problems below power-peaking dams."

3. Channel Design and Maintenance

Until recently, channel engineering works were designed with the single objective of
 15

controlling floods or channel erosion. The works often created new management problems
by inducing channel changes, floodplain succession, and the dramatic alteration of instream
habitats. Increasingly, improved channel designs that address ecological needs, at least to
some extent, are being introduced. At the present time, however, such designs are most
frequently being applied to mitigating the effects of new channelization on small streams
rather than restoring large rivers.
Physical habitat management requires the recognition of critical habitats for biological
communities, or at least target species, including spawning grounds, shelter areas, food
production centers, etc. The emphasis is on channel and floodplain configurations that
determine the hydraulic characteristics of a particular discharge, and the general goal is to
maintain or create sufficient diversity and quality of habitats to sustain diverse indigenous
flora and fauna.
Ecologically sympathetic approaches to bank stabilization and instream structures (check
dams, wing dykes, etc.) have been widely used for small streams" and some large rivers.90
Lelek53 reported that instream structures had been successfully used on the Rhine, where
floodplain backwaters seasonally connected to the main river had also been created.
However, changes of channel morphology are an inevitable consequence of river regu-
lation. Depending upon the geomorphological characteristics of a channel, it may be possible
to maintain the channel form in its preregulation condition, in which case the hydraulic-
geometry of the regulated discharges, as well as the degree of light penetration to the bed
and the thermal regime, may be altered markedly. One alternative would be to design an
artificial channel such that the hydraulic characteristics of the regulated flows would cor-
respond as closely as possible to those of the natural river. The optimum solution may well
involve the combination of flow manipulation and channel engineering to achieve the eco-
logical objectives.

4. Fish Pass Design

Dams and reservoirs often present barriers to species migrations and an additional aspect
of habitat management is the provision of fish passes. Fish passage facilities (ladders, locks,
lifts, and collection and trucking) have been used with varying degrees of success. Several
studies, especially during the 1960s, have reported the failure of fish passes.' Experiments,
particularly on the Snake-Columbia system, revealed that the primary problem appears to
be the ability of the fish collection system to intercept or to attract migrants by providing
entrances at proper locations and with suitable hydraulic conditions.
The technology of fishway design has improved greatly over the past two decades.91 Pelz"
found that one fish pass on the Mosel River had a maximum daily run of 15,572 individuals.
On the Volga River, 1.3 million and 3.9 million fish annually use the Volgograd and Saratov
fish elevators, respectively." However, the design and efficiency of fishways is dependent
upon a detailed knowledge of the swimming capabilities and behavior of migrating fish. For
many species this knowledge is unavailable and the effectiveness of any facilities will be
uncertain at the planning stage.

5. Biological Alternatives
Where self-reproducing populations are no longer viable as a result of river regulation,
one alternative is to stock the fauna and flora with both cultivated species and species
transferred from another area. Fish stocking has received careful examination,94•95 but opin-
ions on its efficiency still vary.5 Within the Don River basin, fish-breeding plants have
restored the stock of sturgeon, increasing their number 15-fold betwen 1965 and 1977.96
There is no doubt that stocking has considerable potential to both maintain production in
the face of intensive exploitation and compensate for the adverse effects of river regulation.
Because of the economic considerations and the requirements of cultivation (adaptability
to environment, high growth rate, successful reproduction, resistance to disease, ability to
16 Alternatives in Regulated River Management

support high population densities, etc.), relatively few species are used for stocking purposes.
Thus, some fish species have become widely dispersed in an number of regions throughout
the world (e.g., Cyprinus carpio, Salmo gairdneri, and Tilapia spp.). This is arguably to
the detriment of native species, particularly because stocking into a depleted population may
reduce genetic variability by allowing the stocked species to dominate.
Similarly, selective species removal (culling, weed management, etc.) may be required
to avoid the increase of populations to pest or weed proportions. For example, flow regulation
has led to the infestation of several tropical rivers by Eichornia crassipes (the water-hy-
acinth),'"'" causing deoxygenation of the water and clogging of irrigation and water supply
intakes, providing breeding ground for mosquitoes, and interfering with recreation. Fish
eradication and reduction programs have been undertaken to control exotics, to maintain
balanced natural populations in man-made environments, and to remove nonvaluable (usually
indigenous) species from planned game fisheries." However, such programs have not been
entirely successful because the eradication program can produce conditions that are favorable
for opportunist exotic species and, in many cases, give unwanted exotics a head start on
deliberately introduced game fish.

6. Controls on Man
Controls on the activities of people have been used successfully to restrict access and to
limit fish catches.5 Access controls include the establishment of closed areas, sites of special
scientific interest, and bird sanctuaries. Controls on fishing and hunting techniques are also
valuable. For fish management, there is no doubt that access control through licensing
remains one of the most important managerial tools in commercial and recreational fisheries."

B. Compensation Schemes
The provision of alternatives to compensate for environmental impacts on regulated rivers
involves the acceptance of those impacts. Compensation schemes include the provision of
alternative recreation facilities, but most commonly they have involved the provision of
alternative fisheries. However, the development of a reservoir fishery or aquaculture to
produce fish, using intensive fish culture systems," can be too expensive for all but the
most highly valued species unless subsidized by other means.

C. The Nonuse Alternative

Nicholson m defines conservation as "wise use". Moreover, he recognized that this
implies acceptance of the sophisticated assumption that nonuse may be an acceptable type
of use. Here nonuse is defined as the preservation of the natural river. Any fluvial hydro-
system may, arguably, be preserved because:

1. There is a need to protect genetic resources, particularly for the future restoration and
maintenance of heavily developed rivers
2. There is an unknown probability that an economic use of unknown value will be found
for it in the future
3. It has value for aesthetic, educational, or scientific purposes or it may have value for
such purposes in the future

If it is accepted that society has a responsibility not only to this but also to future generations,
then it would be irrational for that society to destroy ecosystems that form the sustainable
basis of land and water resources.

D. Integrated Regional River Development

The options outlined above may be organized in a decision-making framework (Figure
4) aimed at providing for environmentally sound river regulation. Preservation of wild rivers
 17

First Order Management

(
Define Flow &
Habitat Requirements)

CHANNEL DESIGN
AND MANAGEMENT

Second Order Management

BIOLOGICAL CONTROLS
CONTROLS ON MAN

Third Order Management

PRESERVATION OF
WILD RIVER

INTEGRATED
EGIONAL RIVER
DEVELOPMENT
PLAN

FIGURE 4. A framework for integrating ecological management into

regional river development.

is totally incompatible with development. In these circumstances, tools are required to re-
create, as closely as possible, the conditions of the natural river.'°' The underlying objective
is to facilitate maximum resource development while providing for ecological conservation.
Thus, at the first level, options for modifying river projects (ideally, but not exclusively,
at the design stage) should be considered with the aim of maintaining the natural structural
and biological dynamics of the affected fluvial hydrosystem. The economic and environ-
mental effectiveness of first-order management proposals should then be evaluated in relation
to second-order options. Finally, if first- and second-order management are considered to
be inefficient, third-order options should be assessed.
At all stages, especially the third level, the impacts of a development should be considered
at the regional scale and focus on the uniqueness of the fluvial hydrosystem concerned. Too
often, reactive responses to conservation issues have been emotive rather than based on any
objective assessment. Such emotive responses often mask important differences between the
local disappearance of a species and the extinction of that species. An international per-
spective could generate greater concern for the conservation of threatened species or eco-
systems. Such concern would lead to the wider acceptance of the nonuse alternative and the
rational selection of fluvial hydrosystems for preservation.

VI. THIRD WORLD PERSPECTIVES

"Although man may alter the rate of change or induce changes that would not have
occurred naturally" wrote Ackers and Thompson,'" "many nations are too near the bor-
derline of hunger and poverty to feel able, politically, to invest in environmental protection
if it is at the expense of food and power."
Many have argued, and continue to argue, that if a river project is required for water
supply, flood protection, or hydroelectric power, then the fauna and flora of the downstream
river must adapt to the regulated conditions. Such a short-term view fails to recognize that
18 Alternatives in Regulated River Management

long-term, sustainable development requires environmentally sound management. Indeed,

the assumption that concern for riverine environments in general is a luxury reserved for
those countries with the highest standards of living has hindered the development of man-
agement strategies appropriate to sustainable resource development in less-developed countries.
Progress in the formulation of environmentally sound river regulation strategies may also
have been delayed by the intense criticism from some conservationists claiming that all
water projects (large dams in particular) are inevitably destructive, while benefits obtained
from them are minimal.103 Demands for environmental preservation are often made without
due consideration of socioeconomic needs or the implications and costs of not regulating a
river. However, decisions on ecological costs are not simply a matter of social preference,
but have a moral dimension because not all of those who would be affected by the decision
can contribute to it or be meaningfully represented. Policymakers, usually with little envi-
ronmental expertise, often have considerable difficulty in distinguishing between rational
and irrational advice. In the Third World, better information and education is needed but
due regard must be given to the institutional, socioeconomic, and religious characteristics
of indigenous cultures.

A. Environmentally Sound River Management

Ecological rationality does not involve preservation per se; it does require a concern for
the conservation and enhancement of the natural environment in relation to societal needs
or desires. Many governments within the Third World, such as Zambia, are beginning to
realize that for sustainable economic growth, a proper balance must be achieved between
water development (to improve the standard of living) and maintenance of environmental
quality.134 Sewell and Biswas "3 define three implications of environmentally sound
management:

1. Development is controlled in such a way as to ensure that the resource itself is

maintained and that adverse effects on other resources are considered and, where
possible, ameliorated
2. Options for future development are not foreclosed
3. Efficiency in water use and in the use of capital are key criteria in strategy selection

1. Management Options
The decision-making framework in Figure 4 is entirely applicable to the Third World,
but scientists must give urgent consideration to the development of appropriate methodologies
for option evaluation. Clearly, the detailed and expensive approaches for minimum flow
specification, for example, are inappropriate. New semiqualitative methods are needed. In
some cases, the need to mitigate adverse effects of water development can provide clear
socioeconomic arguments for the ecological management of river projects. Most obviously,
these relate to health and fisheries. Flow or habitat management may be necessary for pest
or weed control, particularly when they can affect man or livestock. Fly-borne diseases such
as malaria and onchocerciasis can cause particular problems where river regulation creates
favorable breeding habitats. Optimum conditions for Simulium chutteri, a blood-feeding
pest, were created along the Great Fish River, South Africa by flow regulation, causing
severe stock disruption and damage to cattle, sheep, and goats during spring and early
summer. These problems could be minimized by manipulating the flow regime. '°5
Many Third World countries, particularly within the intertropical zone, remain dependent
upon freshwater fish as both a source of protein and a factor in the rural economy. Within
the lower Mekong basin, fisheries contribute 4.5% of the gross national product and supply
40 to 60% of the animal protein intake of the 30 million inhabitants. The Pa Mong Dam is
expected to eliminate flooding for approximately 700 km downstream, causing a loss of
catch of about 2150 t.5° Furthermore, for fishing communities, even where total production
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 A NORTH COUNTRY NIMROD.

As a lad of 18, John Crozier was already well known as a keen

sportsman, as good with his rod in the becks and rivers here about, as he was
with his father's hounds, and fond of wrestling as he was of hunting. At that
day the pack numbered only six couples. They were kept at the farms all
through the year, and were trained to meet at the sound of the Master's horn.
The old Squire would often tell how he would stand on Kiln Hill, blow a
blast, and watch the beauties racing across the meadows to his call. John
Peel, in those days, was still hunting on the other side of Skiddaw, and John
Crozier remembered the last time he saw him was under Wanthwaite Crags,
where, after a long day's run, he invited the old veteran, who was on his
white pony, to come home to supper. 'Nay, nay, John,' said Peel, 'I'se
freetened o' gettin' neeted (benighted),' and so went back on his way to
Ruthwaite supperless. 'But I'll see thee again,' he added—who knows they
may again have met.

The first thing the young Master did was to improve the breed of his
hounds, and this he accomplished by getting a strain from John Peel's
kennels. How much of Ruby, 'Ranter, Royal, and Bellman, so true,' spoken
of in the song, still runs in the blood of the Blencathra pack, I know not.
Other strains since then have been introduced, but a hardier pack never
breasted a mountain side, and there is not one of them who would not carry
on the line himself, if his fellows failed, to the death.

John Crozier once received the following note: 'To J. Crozier, Esq.,
M.F.H., from Isaac and Edward Brownrigg, of Brownrigg. This hound
(Darling) brought a splendid dog-fox, and after a very exciting hunt
ultimately caught it in our house field. About an hour afterwards other five
dogs came. After being fed they left, but this one would not leave. We intend
having the fox preserved.' After carrying on the hounds at his own cost for
30 years, 'the Squire,' as he was always called, at the request of his
neighbours, allowed them to become a subscription pack, in the year 1870.
There was a general feeling in the dales that it was not fair to allow all the
burden to be upon one man, and on the conditions that he would remain
Master, and in case of the hunt ceasing, the hounds should be returned to
him. A treasurer and secretary were appointed, and the Blencathra Hunt
went on merrily as before.

The Master was fortunate in his huntsmen. Joseph Fearon, of honoured

memory, was succeeded by Isaac Todhunter, who carried the horn for 25
years. Isaac Todhunter handed it on to John Porter, who for a like time kept
up the best traditions of the pack, which Jem Dalton carries on to-day. The
names of these past huntsmen, with other members of the hunt, are inscribed
on the stone of memorial raised in the Threlkeld Churchyard at the charges
of the Squire and a few friends; and that pillar in the King's dale—for of this
dale John Crozier was truly king—if it does nothing else, goes to prove that
the following of the foxes in the Lake District adds years, even as it adds
cheer, to the lives of the dalesmen. Thus, for example, one sees that many of
the hunters were fourscore years before they were run to earth; one was 89,
another 91, another 95, and a fourth 98.

Up till the past two years the old Master of the hunt presided at the
annual hunt dinner, but it was known that his health was failing, and though
each week up to the end he kept in touch with all the doings of his pack, he
did not leave his house. Still week by week members of the hunt would go
up and have a 'crack' with him—always to be received with the same
courteous inquiry, 'Well, how about your wives and families, are they well?
That's right. Is any news stirring? What about the House last night?' He took
the keenest interest in politics up to the end, and that came, not
unexpectedly, at two o'clock on a quiet starlit morning, Thursday, 5th March,
1903.

I could not wonder that my old friend the yeoman had said it was a dark
day for Threlkeld, for he had lived among his own people, and loved them to
the end. How they loved him may be gathered from the fact that two days
before he died, a casket containing a book in which every householder in the
parish had entered his name, with an illuminated address, full of affection
and gratitude, for the friendship towards them of a long life, was brought to
the house. 'Ya kna,' said my friend, 'they knew t' aid Squire was house-fast,
and they likely thowt 't wad cheer 'im up a laal bit.' He never saw it, for it
was thought he was too ill to be 'fashed' with it, and he is beyond all earthly
cheering now; 'the Hunter is home from the Hill.'

On the following Monday there was such a gathering together of the

dalesmen from far and near as had never been seen in Threlkeld Church, or
Threlkeld Churchyard. They sang one of the old Squire's favourite hymns.
They bore the coffin to the grave with the veteran's hunting cap and crop and
the brush of the last fox killed by his pack upon it, and before and after the
service they talked of him kindly, as Cumberland folk ever do of the dead;
they spoke of him, not only as the oldest Master of Foxhounds in the land,
but as a man who entered into all the social enjoyments of the country-side,
and whilst on terms of close intimacy, almost familiarity, with the
companions, retained their regard, and in some things set them a good
example.
 For in an age when the gambling spirit was abroad, it will be
remembered that John Crozier never bet a penny in his life. 'I did yance
think o' betting a hawpeth o' snaps,' he once said in the vernacular; 'but I
kind of considered it ower, and I didn't.' It will be remembered of him, too,
that he was against the use of bad language in the field, and that he never
would allow, if he could help it, a bit of scandal or 'ill gien gossip.' If he
heard one man running down another or passing an unkind judgment, or
setting an unkind tale 'agate,' he would jerk out, 'There, noo, thoo mun let
that hare sit'—and it sat. 'Ay, ay,' said an old friend as he turned away from
the graveyard, 'tho' he said nowt about it, he was a kind o' a religious man,
was varra partial to certain hymns, and had his favourite psalms, that he wad
gang off quietly to his bit summerhoose most mornings, and tek his prayer
book with him. They say t' housekeeper, after her master's death, found t' aid
beuk laid open on summerhoose taable, I suppose.'

But as they left the churchyard they all in memory saw the old Master in
his sealskin cap, with the lappets about his ears—squarely built and strong,
with his alpenstock in hand, as the prefatory verse tells:

But I think I see him stand,

Rough mountain staff in hand,
Fur cap and coat of grey,
With a smile for all the band
Of the sportsmen in the land,
And a word for all the merry men who loved his 'Hark away!'

And as they thought of what he has been to them for the last 65 years in the
Threlkeld vale, they admitted the truth of the following words:

Last hunter of your race!

As we bear you to your place,
We forget the hounds and horn,
But the tears are on our face,
For we mind your deeds of grace,
Loving-kindness, late and early, unto all the village-born.
 A WINTER-DAY ON DERWENTWATER.

If November is the month for cloud effect, December certainly is the

month for marvellous dawns and eventides. Then it would appear as if by
some generous intent to give the minds of men unwonted tranquillity and to
impress all the dwellers in the vales with the thought of perfect restfulness,
the sun seems to prepare for his rising a heaven of cloudless silver washed
with faintest gold. All the heavy ragged companies of the night-wrack seem
withdrawn, and very slowly, while Helvellyn stands lilac-grey against the
silver dawn, the sun rolls into sight, kindles the cones of Grisedale and
Grasmoor, and bids the heavy dew upon the valley meadows rise up in finest
lines of delicate gossamer lawn.

Yesterday, though we had little wind in the valley, one could hear the
humming and the roaring of what seemed a tempest in middle heaven, but at
night-time heaven and earth were still, and the seven stars in Orion and the
Pleiads, 'like fireflies tangled in a silver braid,' shone clear, and we felt that
the Frost King had come in earnest. There was no snow on the hills this
morning; the leaves at one's feet tinkled as though they were made of iron; I
met schoolboys with rosy faces and skates upon their shoulders going off to
Tewfit Tarn—the little tarn upon the ridge dividing Naddle from St. John's in
the Vale, that always gives our skaters in the Keswick neighbourhood their
first winter happiness. Down to the lake I went, and standing at Friar's Crag,
saw that part of it was burnished steel and part black ebon water. It was
incredible that one night's frost should thus have partly sealed the lake from
sight.
 A WINTER'S DAY ON DERWENTWATER.

I was bound for Brandelhow to meet the woodman to discuss the felling
of certain timber, and through the ice pack, if it were possible, I must needs
go. Coasting along round the island, I soon found myself in a narrow inlet of
water that stretched half across the lake; tiny spikules of ice that seemed like
floating straws were right and left of me in the still water; here and there
little delicate fans of ice were passed. These miniature ice-islands were the
nuclei round which the freezing mixture would crystallise. Forward across
towards Lingholme I steered, and suddenly should have been brought up
sharp had not the boat, with good way upon it, crashed right into the ice-floe
and shown me how unsubstantial a thing this first ice-covering of the lake
was. With every stroke of the oar the boat forged its way with marvellous
sound of crash and gride, and one remembered how the Ancient Mariner had
heard those 'noises in a swound,' and was able to summon up something of
the roar with which the great ice-breakers or steam rams on the Neva crash
their way up and down the river to keep the waterway clear for the Baltic
shipping. But in a short time the difficulty of rowing became doubled, and if
it had not been that one saw clear water ahead one would hardly have
ventured forward. Meanwhile in the wake of one's boat one saw how swiftly
the little ice-elves repaired the damage one had done by bringing back to its
own place and rest each fragment one had displaced, and piecing over with
exquisite exactness the breach that one had made.

Now the way was clear, for by some mysterious reason, known only to
the water-gods, the shallower the water became as one went shoreward the
freer it was of ice. It may have been mere fantasy, but it seemed as if the
water so near to freezing was semi-fluid, viscous; always right and left of
one swam by the little ice spikules, and the ice fans, with irridescent beauty,
floated and shone hard by. Presently another crash was heard, and an ice-
belt, only a yard wide, but stretching fifty or sixty yards along, was crashed
through, another and another, and so, with alternate noise and silence, one
made one's way to Victoria Point, and ran the boat ashore at Brandelhow.

Beautiful as that woodland is in early spring, it seemed that to-day there

were more beauties still. The bracken was silver-dusted with frost and shone
gold in the sunshine, and the green velvet of the mosses upon tree-trunk and
ground only heightened by contrast the rich russet of the fern. I climbed to
the russet seat on the rocky knoll above; there, sitting, I watched the
gambolling of five squirrels and listened to the crackling as their sharp teeth
made short work of the cones and fir-tufts. All these little merry feasters had
put on their winter coats, and were much less red of hue than when I
watched them last in August. They had put on their winter tails also. I saw
none of that curious white flaxen colour which the squirrel in September
seems so proud of, as, with a wave of his brush, he dashes out of sight.
There, as I watched these miracles of motion and alertness, I thought of
Ruskin—how lovingly he had described them. Here was one leaping on to a
twig that bent with just enough of swing in it to allow the little fellow to fly
through the air to the next bough. Here was another, now running along the
sturdier bough that bent not, now dropping five or six feet into a dark-green
tuft, now sitting cosily in a forked branch to munch his midday meal, now
racing for pure joy and mischief after his brother up a long tree-trunk, the
tail sometimes bent in an arch above the tufted ears, again thrown out
straight, and now bent and undulating—truly a balancing-pole, if ever one
was needed by such expert gymnasts. Children of perfect knowledge of the
woodland boughs, fearless as birds and swift as monkeys, the happy family
rejoiced in the winter sunshine, as free of care as the cloudless sky above
their heads. I moved, and the jay clanged and screamed from among the
alders below me, and in a moment the happy family had vanished out of
sight, and one saw what an intercommunion of alarm against strange comers
birds and beasts must surely have. Dropping down from this happy mount—
and truly it has been called Mons Beata—I made my way through crackling
fern across the chattering little brooklet to the second rocky height further to
the southward. Blencathra lilac-grey and Walla Wood purple-brown and
High Seat tawny yellow were reflected with such fidelity in the flood below
one that the beauty of two worlds seemed to be given me. The tranquillity of
the far-away fells was brought right across the flood to one's feet, a couple of
wild duck dashed into the water, and with the ripplings of their sudden
descent they set the whole fellside trembling. Looking now towards Cat
Bels, one marvelled at the extraordinary beauty of the colour. Never was
such bronze and gold seen to make the sky so blue, as one gazed up to the
hummock of Cat Bels; whilst, between our rustic seat and the high road, the
woodland hollow was filled with colour of gradation from silver-grey to
purple-brown, and here and there a beech tree full of leaf or a Scotch fir
green and blue gave emphasis to the general tone of softest harmony.
Passing on through the larches upon the little height, I gained a third seat,
and here the chief charm was the outlook up Borrodale. Immediately in the
foreground were young Scotch fir; beyond them the lake glinted in silver
through leafless birches. Away up Borrodale, with every variety of lilac
melting into purple-grey, ridge beyond ridge, one saw the bossy outliers of
the Borrodale ranges stand up in sunny calm; one felt the deep tranquillity of
Glaramara and of nearer Honister, the only sound a distant cockcrow from
the far-off Ashness farm and the quiet inland murmur of Lodore. The glory
of the vale was the wonderful Castle Hill, with its echo of old Rome upon its
head, that stood black-purple against the further lilac haze. But as one sat
there in silent content a school of long-tailed tits came quavering by. They
found abundant food, it would seem, in the Scotch firs close beside me, and
what the squirrels had done before to open one's eyes to their miracle of
movement these long-tailed titmice did again, for one here, as I sat and
watched their happy quest for food. Such balancing, such joyousness, such
fiery energy, such swiftness of sight, such whispering of heart's content
would have made the saddest man glad and the dullest marvel. As I rose
from that seat, with a long look up Borrodale, I could not wonder that our
Viking forefathers had called it the Vale of the Borg or Castle, for that Castle
Hill in Borrodale must surely have seemed to them a giant's hold, the fittest
place for some high fortress-camp, as it had seemed to the Romans of an
older day.

If the first height one had ascended was rightly called 'Mons Beata,' and
the seat one had last left was placed on a hill that might be called Mons
Blencathrae, which gave such fair prospect of Blencathra, surely this fair
mount might be called 'Mons Borgadalis,' or the Mount of Borrodale.

I heard a whistle, and to my answering hulloa came a shout. The forester

was waiting for me away up there on the highest point of the woodland, not
far from the main road and above the Brandelhow mines. Descending swiftly
and making my way through the frosty undergrowth, with rabbits scuttling
here and there and a soft-winged owl lazily fluttering from a bough above
my head, I was suddenly aware by the scent that hung upon the fern that a
fox had passed that way. But it must have been in the early morning or 'Brer
Rabbit' would not have been about and the jay would have been screaming,
and, making the best of my way up to the forester, we soon forgot all about
bird and beast in our honest efforts to let in light and give fair outlook to the
wanderers who should hither come for rest and thought in succeeding
summers.

It is not an easy matter to open up a woodland view—the branch of every

tree must be questioned, the joy of 'part seen, imagined part' must be had in
mind,—but the work was done at last. We sat down for rest on the woodland
seat on the fourth rocky eminence on Brandelhow. It is a seat within only a
few yards of the high road, yet so screened from it that it is hardly seen; but
it is a hill with so fair a prospect that indeed I think angels might pass the
little wicket in the wall and visit those who rest here unawares. There is no
better name imaginable for this high resting-place than 'Mons Angelorum.'
As I thought thus the great sun rolled beyond the hills and all the vale lay
darkened. Cat Bels and Brandelhow went black and grey, while still across
the lake Walla and Blencathra lay in full sunshine; but at that moment,
unthought of before, there rose a band of angels all along the riverside, and
tiny cloudlets swam up into shadow, and again from shadow into sun. The
Mount of the Angels was this height rightly called.
 'It is likely getting late,' said the forester, 'and if you do not start soon
you'll happen hardly get through the ice to-night.'

Down to the boat landing in Victoria Bay I went, and as I went the
woodland filled with a mysterious light. I thought of St. Francis and the
visions he had seen at Al Verna; the sun was beyond the hills, it had faded
now even from Walla Crag, but the light from Brandelhow seemed to leap
up from the ground, the larches so dim and dead before gleamed into gold;
the red bracken at my feet burned like fire; it was an enchanted woodland;
the magic after-glow was the enchanter.
 MONS BEATA, BRANDELHOW.

I pushed off from the shore, gained the ice-pack, crashed through it but
not without difficulty, and won the dark, clear water beyond. The sun had
sunk between Robinson and Grisedale, a dark cloud-bar had filled the
heavenly interspace, but there in the gap it seemed as if beneath its heavy
eyebrow the eye of God was keeping watch and ward above the quiet land.
One had often seen at the seaside the sun sink and the slender pillar of
golden light reach downward to the shore, but never had I seen such a
magnificent golden roadway laid upon shining water for happy dreams of
tired men to follow the flying day, as I saw that eventide upon the silver ice
and the darkling flood of tranquil Derwentwater.

WORDSWORTH AT COCKERMOUTH.

It was a difference that arose on the American question, between Sir

James Lowther and his law agent and steward, a certain John Robinson, in
the year 1766, that was the prime cause of the fact that Wordsworth, the
poet, was born here. For John Robinson resigned his stewardship, and young
John Wordsworth, then only 24 years of age, 'a man of great force of
character and real human capacity,' was appointed in his place to be 'law
agent and steward of the manor of Ennerdale.' To that post, which he
occupied for the next 18 years, the young man came from the Penrith
neighbourhood, bringing with him as his girl wife a certain Ann Cookson, a
mercer's daughter, who could boast, through her descent on her mother's side
from the Crackanthorpes, of Newbiggin Hall, an ancestry that flowed from
as far back as the time of Edward III. She was thus well suited to marry the
son of the land agent of Sockbridge, near Penistone, who traced his descent
through a long unbroken line of sturdy Yorkshire yeomen away in the
Penistone neighbourhood, as far as to the time of the Norman Conqueror.
They took up their abode in the substantial house now occupied by Mr.
Robinson Mitchell, then lately builded by one Sheriff Luckock. It bears date
1745-46, and is to-day unmarred and unmodernised, remaining much as it
was when John Wordsworth became its tenant. We know little of this young
John Wordsworth, but he must have been a man 'tender and deep in his
excess of love,' for when, after twelve years of happy married life here in the
old manor house beside the Derwent, his wife died from consumption,
caught, as we are told, by being put into a damp bed in the 'best room' when
on a visit to friends in London, he never seemed to recover his spirits, and he
himself died six years after her, in the year 1783, on the 30th December, and
lies buried at the east end of the All Saints' Church. He lost his way on the
fells when returning from some business engagement at Broughton-in-
Furness, and was obliged to stay out all night; the chill from exposure
brought on inflammation of the lungs, and his strength, sapped by deep
domestic sorrow, could not bear up against it. The orphans whom he left,
Richard, William, Dorothy, John, and Christopher, four of whom were
remarkable in after life, were then removed to the care of their uncle
Cookson at Penrith, and Cockermouth knew them no more. We have been
allowed, from William Wordsworth's autobiographical notes and his poems,
to glean something of those early days. The poet tells us:

Early died
My honoured mother, she who was the heart
And hinge of all our learnings and our loves,
Nor would I praise her, but in perfect love!

We can in fancy see her in earnest converse with Mr. Ellbanks, the teacher of
the school by the churchyard, talking about William's 'moody and stiff
temper'; we can hear her say 'that the only one of the children about whom
she has fears is William; and he will be remarkable for good or evil.' We may
note her pinning on the child's breast the Easter nosegay, for the young lad is
to go up to the church, to say his catechism. Daffodils I expect the flowers
were: years after, in the ecclesiastical sonnets Words worth, speaking of this
act of his mother's, writes:

Sweet flowers at whose inaudible command

Her countenance phantom-like doth reappear.

Or we can see the father, book in hand, hearing the lad recite the long
passages of Shakespeare, and Milton, and Spenser which were insensibly to
mould his ear to music, fire his imagination, and make a poet of him.

But when I think of Wordsworth in those childish days I do not go off to

the ancient school by the church to hear him stumble through Latin verbs.
He was not as happy there as he was at Mrs. Birkett's, the dame's school at
Penrith; there was no Mary Hutchinson to keep him company; and he
learned, he tells us, when he went to Hawkshead at the age of ten, more
Latin in a fortnight than he had learned the two previous years at
Cockermouth. No, rather when I want to see the little William Wordsworth
at his happiest, I go with him into the old Manor House Terrace garden by
the Derwent's side, and see him with his sister, that sister 'Emmeline,' as he
called her, chasing the butterfly, or hand in hand peering through the rose
and privet hedge at the sparrow's nest, 'wishing yet fearing to be near it.'

Or, follow him with his nurse, he a child of only five years of age,
bathing and basking alternate, all the hot August day in the shallows of the
mill pool, and leaping naked as an Indian through the tall garden ragwort on
the sands, and clapping his hands to see the rainbow spring from middle air.
Or I go with him by the river, 'winding among its grassy holmes,' whose
voice flowed along his earliest dreams—that Derwent he could never forget
—away to the Castle-hold of the barons of old time, Waldeof, Umfraville,
Multon, Lucies, and Nevilles, and watch him peering with look of awe into
the dark cellar and dungeons, watch him chase the butterfly through the grim
courts or climb after the tufts of golden wallflower upon its broken
battlements.

But happiest of all was he when with his story book he lay full stretched,
as he describes in the Prelude, upon the sun-warmed stones and sandy banks
'beside the bright blue river,' and there feasted his little heart on fairy tale
and filled his soul with scenes from wonderland.

Wordsworth was never unmindful of the home of his birth. He left

Cockermouth for schooldays at Hawkshead when he was a boy of nine, and
though in the holidays, for the next five years, he paid an occasional visit to
the place, his chief vacation associations were with Penrith. The Poet's
connection with this town ceased at his father's death in 1784, when he was a
lad of fourteen; but he never forgot it. From nature and her overflowing soul
here in his childhood days he had received so much that all his thoughts
were steeped in a feeling of grateful remembrance of it. He visited the home
of his childhood occasionally to refresh his heart with a cup of
remembrance, and we find a note of a certain visit in Dorothy's letter to Mrs.
Marshall. Writing in September, 1807, she says:—'W. and M. have just
returned. They were at Cockermouth, our native place you know, and the
Terrace Walk—that you have heard me speak of many a time—with the
privet hedge, is still full of roses as it was thirty years ago. Yes, I remember
it for more than thirty years.'

In 1836 he interests himself in a scheme for building a new church. He

writes to his friend Poole, of Nether Stowey, for assistance to this object. He
tells him that Cockermouth is in a state of much spiritual destitution, nearly
6000 souls and only 300 sittings for the poor. Wordsworth cared for the poor.
'I have been the means,' he says, 'of setting on foot the project of erecting a
new church there, and the inhabitants look to me for much more assistance
than I can possibly afford them, through any influence that I possess.'

As a Keswick parson, I gather with pride further on in that letter, that it

was the fact of the new church of St. John's having been built there that
spurred him on; and that he hopes Cockermouth will do as Keswick has
done, and thus excite other towns to follow so good an example.

It is interesting to note that the Cockermouthians of that day were not of

one mind in the matter, or the Poet had been misled as to native church
feeling; for the inhabitants having a windfall of £2000 given them by the
Lord of Egremont that year, to spend as they pleased, preferred a new market
place to a new church, and the old Poet writes:—'This was wanted, so we
cannot complain.'

But Wordsworth was disappointed and grieved too at the spirit of

unkindness shown by some of the people of his native town to his good Lord
Lonsdale. I have had access to a MS. letter of Wordsworth's, which shows
that the Church-building project fell through, as far as he was concerned, by
reason of what he considered the unfair treatment of an offer of help, made
by the then Lord Lonsdale to the town, in connection with the church
accommodation needed.

So far as I know this was the last public work he attempted to do for the
place that gave him birth. But at least we cannot regret that his last effort
was in a cause near to his heart, the cause of the religious interests and life of
his fellow Cumbrians, the cause of reverence, worship, and godly fear, of
'pure religion breathing household laws,' the cause of the worship and praise
of Almighty God, here in his native place.
 The seed he sowed, though it lay dormant, did not fall on barren ground;
and in a real sense the present All Saints' Parish Church may stand as a
monument to the immortal Poet, who then, as ever, championed 'in perilous
times the cause of the poor and simple,' and did what he might in his day for
church life and piety in the place of his nativity, Cockermouth.

MOUNTAIN SILENCE AND VALLEY SONG.

Once more the Heavenly power makes all things new.

This was the line from Tennyson's poem that kept ringing in my ears, as on
the mid-most day of April I wandered out and away across the vale to the
skirts of Skiddaw.

Opens a door in Heaven;

From skies of glass
A Jacob's ladder falls
On greening grass,
And o'er the mountain walls
Young angels pass.

Before them fleets the shower

And burst the buds,
And shine the level lands,
And flash the floods,
The stars are from their hands
Flung thro' the woods.

No, no! this last couplet was untrue; the anemones had not yet opened their
delicate shells, and the blackthorn buds were only dimmest seed-pearls of
yellowish lustre. But as I gazed from the fence halfway up Latrigg and
watched the Greta flashing, and the great plain fresh-enamelled with the first
faint green of spring, a Jacob's ladder was let down from above Scafell and
Glaramara, and all the angels that ever came on earth to fill men's hearts
with April jollity came trooping downwards. They took on various forms.
Some of them became tortoise-shell butterflies that lay in sunny content
upon the moist woodland path. Others sailed out of blue air and became
glorious peacock butterflies upon whose underwings in blue and black one
clearly saw the head and face of human kind sketched in with lustrous
powdery pencillings. Other angels ministered to the pink coral glumes of the
sycamore; others, again, daintily untwisted the leafage of the wild rose in the
hedge; others delighted to unfold the tufts upon the elder. But the angels that
seemed to be busiest were those that made the vivid emerald of the 'dog's
mercury' contrast with the faded red of the bracken in the woods, and where
the purple birches showed against the flowering larches added moment by
moment a deeper, ruddier purple to the trees' beauty and a finer flash of
green to the surrounding wood to set the purple off.

But all the gifts of the angels of that April morning seemed as nothing
when compared with the joy of the sight of one single angel of the spring—
he a lustrous-backed swallow who flashed from steel-purple into black and
from black to steel-purple, and disappeared from sight behind the larches. I
had known of his coming, for a swift-eyed shepherd had seen one of his kind
in the valley as early as April 1, but April 13 to the 15th was marked in my
calendar as swallowtide, and I had not expected sight of him till this week.
Here he was, glossy with African sun, and full of silent message that
summer was sure. The chiffchaff would be a-trill and the cuckoo would be
calling for a mate within the week. Ah, swallow! swallow! flying north!
How much of hope and happiness you bring. Then as I moved through the
larchen grove, I heard the titmice whispering that they too were glad, they
too felt reassured by sight of the swallow, and one walked on in a kind of
consciousness that man and swallow and budding larches were more akin
than one had believed, until the joyousness of spring found the selfsame
echo in such divers hearts, and that indeed the over-soul was one, the music
and the melody one voice. Yes, Wordsworth sang truly when he wrote:

One impulse from a vernal wood

May teach us more of man,
Of moral evil and of good,
Than all the sages can.
 I met a child halfway up Latrigg braiding her hat with larch flower. Truly
no rubies ever seemed so rich and rare as these which the simple village
child had twisted in her hat; her sister had a handful of primroses she was
taking to her father in the neighbouring cottage, for he was but slowly
recovering from pneumonia, and the child knew by instinct that a breath
from a primrose posy would do more for him than all the 'doctors' bottles' in
the world.

'You have been up Skiddaw betimes,' I said.

'Ay, ay, sir; you see they've gone to "laate" Herdwicks to-day for
lambing-time, and I went up to the Gale with the dogs.'

Herdwicks! Lambing! What did it all mean? Only that those great brown
slopes of Skiddaw which till this day have been vocal with flocks and alive
with sheep, will by this eventide be as silent as the grave. For between April
10 and April 20 the shepherds know that the Herdwicks will become
mothers of their springtide young, and so they will go forth to the fells and
upland pastures, to bring their woolly charges down from the mountain
heights to the safety and the food and care of the dale-farm enclosures. I
overtook the shepherds at the 'Gale,' and went with them. Soon the dogs
were seen scouring the fell-side, now disappearing from sight, now coming
back to get a signal from their master. A wave of the hand to left or right was
all that was needed, and away they went, and slowly and surely they seemed
to be able to search out and bring into a close company the Herdwicks from
all the heathery waste and grey-bleached mountain hollows.

Then began the home-bringing. Very tenderly and gently did the dogs
urge the sheep, heavy with young, down the fell-side slopes. Now and again
the shepherd cried, 'Hey, Jack!' and away the collies flew back towards him.
'Ga away by!' and away again the collies flew in a great circle out beyond
and behind the sheep. The sheep were a little hustled and came on too fast.
Then the shepherd whistled and held up his hand, and the dogs sat like
stones till he whistled and waved his hand again. So down from Lonscale
and across the gulfy Whitbeck the sheep came. The dogs dashed off to
where, through a great carpet of ever-lucent moss, the main fountains break
from the hill. They slaked their thirst, then came back slowly to urge the
flocks homeward and downward toward the Shepherd's Cross, and so over
the Gale to the Lonscale Farm. We stopped at the Cross, and a tall, 'leish,'
handsome man, with fair hair and the grey Viking eye, said in solemn
undertone, 'Fadder and brudder cud hev been weal content to be wid us on
sic a day as this, I'se thinking.' And the mist gathered in his eyes, and he said
no more, but just went homeward with the sheep. Ah, yes, that Shepherd's
Cross tells of men—father and son—who spent their whole lives in
following the Herdwicks on the sides of Skiddaw and Lonscale Fell;
wrought for their sheep, thought of them by day and dreamed of them by
night, and were as proud, as ever David was, of what they looked upon as
the finest life a man need care to live, the mountain shepherd's round of love
and toil.

I waved adieu, and up beyond the huts to 'Jenkin' I went. The red fern
had been washed into faintest ochre, the heather had grown grey with winter
storm, but everywhere beneath the blanched grass one felt new life and
tenderest first flush of April green was astir; and as one looked down from
'Jenkin' into the circle of the deep blue hills and the Derwent's perfect mirror,
one saw that though the larches were still brown there was an undertone of
something, neither brown nor green, that flooded not only the larch woods
but the great Latrigg pastures also, and betokened that the spring was even at
their doors, and that the fells would soon rejoice with the emerald valley
below. Gazing at the vale of Crosthwaite, where still all the trees seem
winter white, one was astonished at the darkness of the hedgerows that
divided the meadows, and one saw the new fallows shine and swim like
purple enamel upon the green flood of the springtide grass. 'Jenkin' was
reached, but not until many swathes of lingering snow, black with the smoke
of the blast furnaces of the coast and of Lancashire and Yorkshire mills, had
been passed. Here at 'Jenkin top' we found two men hard at work 'graaving'
peats for the Coronation bonfires on June 26.

'Well, how goes the peat-graving?' said I, and a ruddy-faced Norseman

from a Threlkeld farm said, 'Aw, gaily weel, sir; but I'm thinking we mud
hev nae mair kings upo' the throane, for this job will finish t' peat moss, and
peats are hard to finnd within reach o' Skiddaw top. You see,' said he, 'it's
lost its wire, and peat widout wire in it is nae use for makking a "low" wid.'

I saw that what he called 'wire' were the rootlets of the ancient
undergrowth of years gone by, the matted texture of primeval springtides,
and, stooping down, he broke a peat across and showed me the wire. 'You
kna,' he continued, 'we shall just leave peats ligging here, and thoo mun send
up scheul-lads to spreead them in a forthnet's time. Then they mud coom oop
a week laater and shift 'em and turn them, and then a week laater they mud
coom and foot 'em. That is if thoo want 'em in fettle by Coronation-daay, for
they are ter'ble watter-sick noo.'

'Foot them?' I said. 'What do you mean?' And the shepherd took a couple
and leaned them one against another, and showed me how thus a draught of
air passed between the peats and ensured their drying. 'Well, good-daay,
good-daay. But we mud hev nae mair kings to be crooned,' said he; 'for peat
moss ull nobbut howd oot for this un, I'm thinking.'

I bade farewell, and down to the valley I went, noting how doubly near
and blue the hills and vales all seemed to grow, as one passed down beneath
the veils of haze which had lent both greyness and distance to the view.
Again I saw the swallow skim; again I watched the gorgeous butterflies, and,
with a wand of palm-flower that had just lost its gold, and the rosy plumelets
of the larch in my hand, I made the best of my way homeward, through air
that throbbed and thrilled with the voice of thrush and blackbird, and felt the
deep contrast between these silent flockless slopes of Skiddaw, and the
ringing singing valley at his feet.

INDEX

Adelaide, Queen, 46.

Ambleside, 18, 22, 44, 53.
Angler, Complete, 120.
April song, 81.
Arnold, Dr., 19, 50.