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Bird’s Engineering Mathematics
Why is knowledge of mathematics important in engineering?
A career in any engineering or scientific field will
require both basic and advanced mathematics. Without
mathematics to determine principles, calculate dimen-
sions and limits, explore variations, prove concepts and
so on, there would be no mobile telephones, televisions,
stereo systems, video games, microwave ovens, com-
puters or virtually anything electronic. There would be
no bridges, tunnels, roads, skyscrapers, automobiles,
ships, planes, rockets or most things mechanical. There
would be no metals beyond the common ones, such as
iron and copper, no plastics, no synthetics. In fact, soci-
ety would most certainly be less advanced without the
use of mathematics throughout the centuries and into
the future.
Electrical engineers require mathematics to design,
develop, test or supervise the manufacturing and instal-
lation of electrical equipment, components or systems
for commercial, industrial, military or scientific use.
Mechanical engineers require mathematics to perform
engineering duties in planning and designing tools,
engines, machines and other mechanically functioning
equipment; they oversee installation, operation, mainte-
nance and repair of such equipment as centralised heat,
gas, water and steam systems.
Aerospace engineers require mathematics to perform
a variety of engineering work in designing, construct-
ing and testing aircraft, missiles and spacecraft; they
conduct basic and applied research to evaluate adapt-
ability of materials and equipment to aircraft design and
manufacture and recommend improvements in testing
equipment and techniques.
Nuclear engineers require mathematics to conduct
research on nuclear engineering problems or apply
principles and theory of nuclear science to prob-
lems concerned with release, control and utilisation of
nuclear energy and nuclear waste disposal.
Petroleum engineers require mathematics to devise
methods to improve oil and gas well production and
determine the need for new or modified tool designs;
they oversee drilling and offer technical advice to
achieve economical and satisfactory progress.
Industrial engineers require mathematics to design,
develop, test, and evaluate integrated systems for man-
aging industrial production processes, including human
work factors, quality control, inventory control, logis-
tics and material flow, cost analysis and production
coordination.
Environmental engineers require mathematics to
design, plan or perform engineering duties in the
prevention, control and remediation of environmen-
tal health hazards, using various engineering disci-
plines; their work may include waste treatment, site
remediation or pollution control technology.
Civil engineers require mathematics in all levels in
civil engineering – structural engineering, hydraulics
and geotechnical engineering are all fields that employ
mathematical tools such as differential equations, ten-
sor analysis, field theory, numerical methods and oper-
ations research.
Knowledge of mathematics is therefore needed by each
of the engineering disciplines listed above.
It is intended that this text – Bird’s Engineering Mathe-
matics – will provide a step by step approach to learning
fundamental mathematics needed for your engineering
studies.
Now in its ninth edition, Bird’s Engineering Mathematics has helped thousands of students to succeed in their exams.
Mathematical theories are explained in a straightforward manner, supported by practical engineering examples and
applications to ensure that readers can relate theory to practice. Some 1,300 engineering situations/problems have
been ‘flagged-up’ to help demonstrate that engineering cannot be fully understood without a good knowledge of
mathematics.
The extensive and thorough topic coverage makes this a great text for a range of level 2 and 3 engineering courses –
such as for aeronautical, construction, electrical, electronic, mechanical, manufacturing engineering and vehicle tech-
nology – including for BTEC First, National and Diploma syllabuses, City & Guilds Technician Certificate and
Diploma syllabuses, and even for GCSE and A-level revision.
Its companion website at www.routledge.com/cw/bird provides resources for both students and lecturers, includ-
ing full solutions for all 2,000 further questions, lists of essential formulae, multiple-choice tests, and illustrations,
as well as full solutions to revision tests for course instructors.

John Bird, BSc (Hons), CEng, CMath, CSci, FIMA, FIET, FCollT, is the former Head of Applied Electronics in the
Faculty of Technology at Highbury College, Portsmouth, UK. More recently, he has combined freelance lecturing at
the University of Portsmouth, with Examiner responsibilities for Advanced Mathematics with City and Guilds and
examining for the International Baccalaureate Organisation. He has over 45 years’ experience of successfully teach-
ing, lecturing, instructing, training, educating and planning trainee engineers study programmes. He is the author of
146 textbooks on engineering, science and mathematical subjects, with worldwide sales of over one million copies.
He is a chartered engineer, a chartered mathematician, a chartered scientist and a Fellow of three professional insti-
tutions. He has recently retired from lecturing at the Royal Navy’s Defence College of Marine Engineering in the
Defence College of Technical Training at H.M.S. Sultan, Gosport, Hampshire, UK, one of the largest engineering
training establishments in Europe.
In memory of Elizabeth
Bird’s Engineering Mathematics

Ninth Edition

John Bird
Ninth edition published 2021
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN

and by Routledge
52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

© 2021 John Bird

The right of John Bird to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance with sections 77 and 78
of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical,
or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or
retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification
and explanation without intent to infringe.

First edition published by Newnes 1999

Eighth edition published by Routledge 2017

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

A catalog record has been requested for this book

ISBN: 978-0-367-64379-9 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-0-367-64378-2 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-12423-8 (ebk)

Typeset in Times
by KnowledgeWorks Global Ltd.

Visit the companion website: www.routledge.com/cw/bird

Contents
Preface xiv 7 Partial fractions 73
7.1 Introduction to partial fractions 73
Section 1 Number and algebra 1 7.2 Partial fractions with linear factors 74
7.3 Partial fractions with repeated linear factors 76
7.4 Partial fractions with quadratic factors 77
1 Revision of fractions, decimals and percentages 3
1.1 Fractions 3
1.2 Ratio and proportion 6 8 Solving simple equations 80
1.3 Decimals 7 8.1 Expressions, equations and identities 80
1.4 Percentages 9 8.2 Worked problems on simple equations 81
8.3 Further worked problems on simple
equations 82
2 Indices, engineering notation and metric
conversions 13 8.4 Practical problems involving simple
2.1 Indices 13 equations 84
2.2 Standard form 17 8.5 Further practical problems involving
simple equations 85
2.3 Engineering notation and common prefixes 18
2.4 Metric conversions 20
2.5 Metric - US/imperial conversions 23 Revision Test 2 88

3 Binary, octal and hexadecimal numbers 30

3.1 Introduction 30 9 Transposition of formulae 89
9.1 Introduction to transposition of
3.2 Binary numbers 31
formulae 89
3.3 Octal numbers 34
9.2 Worked problems on transposition of
3.4 Hexadecimal numbers 36
formulae 89
9.3 Further worked problems on
4 Calculations and evaluation of formulae 41 transposition of formulae 91
4.1 Errors and approximations 41 9.4 Harder worked problems on
4.2 Use of calculator 43 transposition of formulae 93
4.3 Conversion tables and charts 45
4.4 Evaluation of formulae 46
10 Solving simultaneous equations 98
10.1 Introduction to simultaneous
Revision Test 1 52 equations 98
10.2 Worked problems on simultaneous
equations in two unknowns 98
5 Algebra 54 10.3 Further worked problems on
5.1 Basic operations 54 simultaneous equations 100
5.2 Laws of indices 56 10.4 More difficult worked problems on
5.3 Brackets and factorisation 58 simultaneous equations 102
5.4 Fundamental laws and precedence 60 10.5 Practical problems involving
5.5 Direct and inverse proportionality 62 simultaneous equations 104

6 Further algebra 66 11 Solving quadratic equations 109

6.1 Polynomial division 66 11.1 Introduction to quadratic equations 109
6.2 The factor theorem 68 11.2 Solution of quadratic equations by
6.3 The remainder theorem 70 factorisation 110
viii Contents

11.3 Solution of quadratic equations by Section 2 Trigonometry 167

‘completing the square’ 111
11.4 Solution of quadratic equations by formula 113 17 Introduction to trigonometry 169
11.5 Practical problems involving quadratic 17.1 Trigonometry 169
equations 114 17.2 The theorem of Pythagoras 170
11.6 The solution of linear and quadratic 17.3 Trigonometric ratios of acute angles 171
equations simultaneously 117 17.4 Fractional and surd forms of
trigonometric ratios 173
12 Inequalities 120 17.5 Evaluating trigonometric ratios of any
12.1 Introduction to inequalities 120 angles 174
12.2 Simple inequalities 121 17.6 Solution of right-angled triangles 178
12.3 Inequalities involving a modulus 121 17.7 Angle of elevation and depression 179
12.4 Inequalities involving quotients 122 17.8 Trigonometric approximations for small
12.5 Inequalities involving square functions 123 angles 181
12.6 Quadratic inequalities 124
18 Trigonometric waveforms 184
13 Logarithms 126 18.1 Graphs of trigonometric functions 184
13.1 Introduction to logarithms 126 18.2 Angles of any magnitude 185
13.2 Laws of logarithms 128 18.3 The production of a sine and cosine wave 187
13.3 Indicial equations 130 18.4 Sine and cosine curves 188
13.4 Graphs of logarithmic functions 132 18.5 Sinusoidal form A sin(ωt ± α) 192
18.6 Waveform harmonics 194
Revision Test 3 134 19 Cartesian and polar co-ordinates 196
19.1 Introduction 197
14 Exponential functions 135 19.2 Changing from Cartesian into polar
14.1 Introduction to exponential functions 135 co-ordinates 197
14.2 The power series for e x 136 19.3 Changing from polar into Cartesian
14.3 Graphs of exponential functions 138 co-ordinates 198
14.4 Napierian logarithms 139 19.4 Use of Pol/Rec functions on calculators 200
14.5 Laws of growth and decay 142
Revision Test 5 202
15 Number sequences 147
15.1 Arithmetic progressions 147
15.2 Worked problems on arithmetic 20 Triangles and some practical applications 203
progressions 148 20.1 Sine and cosine rules 203
15.3 Further worked problems on arithmetic 20.2 Area of any triangle 204
progressions 149 20.3 Worked problems on the solution of
15.4 Geometric progressions 150 triangles and their areas 204
15.5 Worked problems on geometric 20.4 Further worked problems on the solution
progressions 151 of triangles and their areas 206
15.6 Further worked problems on geometric 20.5 Practical situations involving
progressions 152 trigonometry 207
15.7 Combinations and permutations 154 20.6 Further practical situations involving
trigonometry 209
16 The binomial series 156 21 Trigonometric identities and equations 214
16.1 Pascal’s triangle 156 21.1 Trigonometric identities 214
16.2 The binomial series 158 21.2 Worked problems on trigonometric
16.3 Worked problems on the binomial series 158 identities 215
16.4 Further worked problems on the 21.3 Trigonometric equations 216
binomial series 159 21.4 Worked problems (i) on trigonometric
16.5 Practical problems involving the equations 217
binomial theorem 162 21.5 Worked problems (ii) on trigonometric
Revision Test 4 165 equations 218
 Contents ix

21.6 Worked problems (iii) on trigonometric 26 Irregular areas and volumes and mean values
equations 219 of waveforms 276
21.7 Worked problems (iv) on trigonometric 26.1 Area of irregular figures 277
equations 219 26.2 Volumes of irregular solids 279
26.3 The mean or average value
22 Compound angles 222
of a waveform 280
22.1 Compound angle formulae 222
22.2 Conversion of a sin ωt + b cos ωt into
Revision Test 7 285
R sin(ωt + α) 224
22.3 Double angles 228
22.4 Changing products of sines and cosines Section 4 Graphs 287
into sums or differences 229
22.5 Changing sums or differences of sines 27 Straight line graphs 289
and cosines into products 230 27.1 Introduction to graphs 289
27.2 The straight line graph 290
Revision Test 6 233 27.3 Practical problems involving straight
line graphs 295
28 Reduction of non-linear laws to linear form 304
Section 3 Areas and volumes 235 28.1 Determination of law 304
28.2 Determination of law involving
23 Areas of common shapes 237 logarithms 307
23.1 Introduction 237
23.2 Properties of quadrilaterals 238 29 Graphs with logarithmic scales 313
29.1 Logarithmic scales 313
23.3 Areas of common shapes 238
29.2 Graphs of the form y = axn 314
23.4 Worked problems on areas of common
shapes 239 29.3 Graphs of the form y = abx 317
23.5 Further worked problems on areas of 29.4 Graphs of the form y = ae kx 318
plane figures 242 30 Graphical solution of equations 321
23.6 Worked problems on areas of composite 30.1 Graphical solution of simultaneous
figures 243 equations 321
23.7 Areas of similar shapes 245 30.2 Graphical solution of quadratic equations 323
24 The circle and its properties 247 30.3 Graphical solution of linear and
24.1 Introduction 247 quadratic equations simultaneously 326
24.2 Properties of circles 247 30.4 Graphical solution of cubic equations 327
24.3 Radians and degrees 249 31 Functions and their curves 330
24.4 Arc length and area of circles and 31.1 Standard curves 330
sectors 250 31.2 Simple transformations 333
24.5 Worked problems on arc length and area 31.3 Periodic functions 337
of circles and sectors 250 31.4 Continuous and discontinuous functions 337
24.6 The equation of a circle 254 31.5 Even and odd functions 338
25 Volumes and surface areas of common solids 257 31.6 Inverse functions 339
25.1 Introduction 257
25.2 Volumes and surface areas of regular Revision Test 8 343
solids 258
25.3 Worked problems on volumes and
surface areas of regular solids 258 Section 5 Complex numbers 345
25.4 Further worked problems on volumes 32 Complex numbers 347
and surface areas of regular solids 260 32.1 Cartesian complex numbers 347
25.5 Volumes and surface areas of frusta of 32.2 The Argand diagram 349
pyramids and cones 266 32.3 Addition and subtraction of complex
25.6 The frustum and zone of a sphere 269 numbers 349
25.7 Prismoidal rule 272 32.4 Multiplication and division of complex
25.8 Volumes of similar shapes 274 numbers 350
x Contents

32.5 Complex equations 352 37.4 Function of a function 413

32.6 The polar form of a complex number 353 37.5 Successive differentiation 414
32.7 Multiplication and division in polar form 354
38 Some applications of differentiation 417
32.8 Applications of complex numbers 355 38.1 Rates of change 417
33 De Moivre’s theorem 360 38.2 Velocity and acceleration 419
33.1 Introduction 360 38.3 Turning points 422
33.2 Powers of complex numbers 360 38.4 Practical problems involving maximum
33.3 Roots of complex numbers 361 and minimum values 425
38.5 Points of inflexion 429
Section 6 Vectors 365 38.6 Tangents and normals 430
38.7 Small changes 432
34 Vectors 367 39 Solving equations by Newton’s method 435
34.1 Introduction 367 39.1 Introduction to iterative methods 435
34.2 Scalars and vectors 367 39.2 The Newton–Raphson method 436
34.3 Drawing a vector 368 39.3 Worked problems on the
34.4 Addition of vectors by drawing 368 Newton–Raphson method 436
34.5 Resolving vectors into horizontal and 40 Maclaurin’s series 439
vertical components 371 40.1 Introduction 440
34.6 Addition of vectors by calculation 372 40.2 Derivation of Maclaurin’s theorem 440
34.7 Vector subtraction 377 40.3 Conditions of Maclaurin’s series 441
34.8 Relative velocity 379 40.4 Worked problems on Maclaurin’s series 441
34.9 i, j, and k notation 380
Revision Test 10 446
35 Methods of adding alternating waveforms 383
35.1 Combination of two periodic functions 383
41 Differentiation of parametric equations 447
35.2 Plotting periodic functions 384 41.1 Introduction to parametric equations 447
35.3 Determining resultant phasors by drawing 385 41.2 Some common parametric equations 448
35.4 Determining resultant phasors by the 41.3 Differentiation in parameters 448
sine and cosine rules 387
41.4 Further worked problems on
35.5 Determining resultant phasors by differentiation of parametric equations 450
horizontal and vertical components 388
35.6 Determining resultant phasors by 42 Differentiation of implicit functions 453
complex numbers 390 42.1 Implicit functions 453
42.2 Differentiating implicit functions 453
Revision Test 9 394 42.3 Differentiating implicit functions
containing products and quotients 454
42.4 Further implicit differentiation 455
Section 7 Differential calculus 395 43 Logarithmic differentiation 459
43.1 Introduction to logarithmic differentiation 459
36 Introduction to differentiation 397 43.2 Laws of logarithms 459
36.1 Introduction to calculus 397
43.3 Differentiation of logarithmic functions 460
36.2 Functional notation 397
43.4 Differentiation of further logarithmic
36.3 The gradient of a curve 398 functions 460
36.4 Differentiation from first principles 399 43.5 Differentiation of [f (x)]x 462
36.5 Differentiation of y = axn by the
general rule 402 Revision Test 11 465
36.6 Differentiation of sine and cosine functions 403
36.7 Differentiation of e ax and ln ax 405 Section 8 Integral calculus 467
37 Methods of differentiation 408
37.1 Differentiation of common functions 408 44 Standard integration 469
44.1 The process of integration 469
37.2 Differentiation of a product 410
44.2 The general solution of integrals of the
37.3 Differentiation of a quotient 411
form axn 470
 Contents xi

44.3 Standard integrals 470 50.4 Simpson’s rule 511

44.4 Definite integrals 473 50.5 Accuracy of numerical integration 514

45 Integration using algebraic substitutions 476 Revision Test 13 516

45.1 Introduction 476
45.2 Algebraic substitutions 476
51 Areas under and between curves 517
45.3 Worked problems on integration using
51.1 Area under a curve 517
algebraic substitutions 477
51.2 Worked problems on the area under a curve 518
45.4 Further worked problems on integration
using algebraic substitutions 478 51.3 Further worked problems on the area
under a curve 521
45.5 Change of limits 479
51.4 The area between curves 524
46 Integration using trigonometric substitutions 482
46.1 Introduction 482 52 Mean and root mean square values 527
46.2 Worked problems on integration of 52.1 Mean or average values 527
sin2 x, cos2 x, tan2 x and cot2 x 482 52.2 Root mean square values 529
46.3 Worked problems on integration of
powers of sines and cosines 485
53 Volumes of solids of revolution 532
46.4 Worked problems on integration of 53.1 Introduction 532
products of sines and cosines 486
53.2 Worked problems on volumes of solids
46.5 Worked problems on integration using of revolution 533
the sin θ substitution 487
53.3 Further worked problems on volumes of
46.6 Worked problems on integration using solids of revolution 534
the tan θ substitution 488

Revision Test 12 490 54 Centroids of simple shapes 538

54.1 Centroids 538
47 Integration using partial fractions 491 54.2 The first moment of area 538
47.1 Introduction 491 54.3 Centroid of area between a curve and the
47.2 Integration using partial fractions with x-axis 539
linear factors 491 54.4 Centroid of area between a curve and the
47.3 Integration using partial fractions with y-axis 539
repeated linear factors 493 54.5 Worked problems on centroids of simple
47.4 Integration using partial fractions with shapes 539
quadratic factors 494 54.6 Further worked problems on centroids of
simple shapes 541
48 The t = tan θ2
substitution 496 54.7 Theorem of Pappus 543
48.1 Introduction 496
48.2 Worked problems on the t = tan θ2 55 Second moments of area 548
substitution 497 55.1 Second moments of area and radius of
48.3 Further worked problems on the gyration 548
t = tan θ2 substitution 498 55.2 Second moment of area of regular
sections 549
49 Integration by parts 501 55.3 Parallel axis theorem 549
49.1 Introduction 501
55.4 Perpendicular axis theorem 549
49.2 Worked problems on integration by parts 501
55.5 Summary of derived results 550
49.3 Further worked problems on integration
55.6 Worked problems on second moments of
by parts 503
area of regular sections 550
55.7 Worked problems on second moments of
50 Numerical integration 507
area of composite areas 554
50.1 Introduction 507
50.2 The trapezoidal rule 507
Revision Test 14 557
50.3 The mid-ordinate rule 510
xii Contents

Section 9 Differential equations 559 Section 11 Statistics 615

56 Introduction to differential equations 561 60 Presentation of statistical data 617

56.1 Family of curves 561 60.1 Some statistical terminology 618
56.2 Differential equations 562 60.2 Presentation of ungrouped data 619
56.3 The solution of equations of the form 60.3 Presentation of grouped data 622
dy
= f (x) 563
dx
56.4 The solution of equations of the form 61 Mean, median, mode and standard deviation 629
dy 61.1 Measures of central tendency 629
= f (y) 564
dx 61.2 Mean, median and mode for
56.5 The solution of equations of the form
discrete data 630
dy
= f (x) · f (y) 566 61.3 Mean, median and mode for
dx grouped data 631
61.4 Standard deviation 632
Revision Test 15 570 61.5 Quartiles, deciles and percentiles 634

Section 10 Further number and algebra 571 62 Probability 637

62.1 Introduction to probability 638
62.2 Laws of probability 638
57 Boolean algebra and logic circuits 573
57.1 Boolean algebra and switching circuits 574 62.3 Worked problems on probability 639
57.2 Simplifying Boolean expressions 578 62.4 Further worked problems on probability 641
57.3 Laws and rules of Boolean algebra 578 62.5 Permutations and combinations 644
57.4 De Morgan’s laws 580 62.6 Bayes’ theorem 645
57.5 Karnaugh maps 581
57.6 Logic circuits 585 Revision Test 17 648
57.7 Universal logic gates 589

58 The theory of matrices and determinants 592 63 The binomial and Poisson distribution 649
58.1 Matrix notation 592 63.1 The binomial distribution 649
58.2 Addition, subtraction and multiplication 63.2 The Poisson distribution 652
of matrices 593
58.3 The unit matrix 596 64 The normal distribution 656
58.4 The determinant of a 2 by 2 matrix 596 64.1 Introduction to the normal distribution 656
58.5 The inverse or reciprocal of a 2 by 2 64.2 Testing for a normal distribution 661
matrix 597
58.6 The determinant of a 3 by 3 matrix 598
Revision Test 18 665
58.7 The inverse or reciprocal of a 3 by 3
matrix 600

59 The solution of simultaneous equations by 65 Linear correlation 666

matrices and determinants 603 65.1 Introduction to linear correlation 666
59.1 Solution of simultaneous equations by 65.2 The Pearson product-moment formula
matrices 603 for determining the linear correlation
59.2 Solution of simultaneous equations by coefficient 666
determinants 606 65.3 The significance of a coefficient of
59.3 Solution of simultaneous equations correlation 667
using Cramers rule 609 65.4 Worked problems on linear correlation 667
59.4 Solution of simultaneous equations
using the Gaussian elimination method 610
66 Linear regression 671
66.1 Introduction to linear regression 671
Revision Test 16 613
66.2 The least-squares regression lines 671
66.3 Worked problems on linear regression 672
 Contents xiii

67 Sampling and estimation theories 677 Revision Test 19 689

67.1 Introduction 677
67.2 Sampling distributions 677 List of essential formulae 690
67.3 The sampling distribution of the means 678
67.4 The estimation of population parameters Answers to Practice Exercises 701
based on a large sample size 681 Index 738
67.5 Estimating the mean of a population
based on a small sample size 685
Preface
‘Bird’s Engineering Mathematics 9th Edition’ covers
a wide range of syllabus requirements. The text is suit-
able for any course involving engineering mathematics,
and in particular for the latest National Certificate and
Diploma courses and City & Guilds syllabuses in
Engineering.
This text will provide a foundation in mathematical
principles, which will enable students to solve math-
ematical, scientific and associated engineering prob-
lem. In addition, the material will provide engineering
applications and mathematical principles necessary for
advancement onto a range of Incorporated Engineer
degree profiles. It is widely recognised that a student’s
ability to use mathematics is a key element in deter-
mining subsequent success. First year undergraduates
who need some remedial mathematics will also find this
book meets their needs.
In Bird’s Engineering Mathematics 9th Edition, chapters
have been re-ordered, examples and problems where
engineering applications occur have been ‘flagged up’,
new multiple-choice questions have been added to each
chapter, the text has been added to and simplified,
together with other minor modifications.
Throughout the text, theory is introduced in each chap-
ter by an outline of essential definitions, formulae, laws
and procedures. The theory is kept to a minimum, for
problem solving is extensively used to establish and
exemplify the theory. It is intended that readers will gain
real understanding through seeing problems solved and
then through solving similar problems themselves.
For clarity, the text is divided into eleven topic areas,
these being: number and algebra, trigonometry, areas
and volumes, graphs, complex numbers, vectors, differ-
ential calculus, integral calculus, differential equations,
further number and algebra and statistics.
This new edition covers, in particular, the following
syllabuses:
(i) Mathematics for Technicians, the core unit for
National Certificate/Diploma courses in Engi-
neering, to include all or part of the following
chapters:
1. Algebraic methods: 2, 5, 11, 13, 14, 27, 29
(1, 4, 6, 8, 9 and 10 for revision)
2. Trigonometric methods and areas and vol-
umes: 17-20, 23-25, 32, 33
3. Statistical methods: 60, 61
4. Elementary calculus: 36, 44, 51
(ii) Further Mathematics for Technicians, the
optional unit for National Certificate/Diploma
courses in Engineering, to include all or part of
the following chapters:
1. Advanced graphical techniques: 28-30
2. Algebraic techniques: 15, 32, 60, 61
3. Trigonometry: 17-22
4. Calculus: 36-38, 44, 50-52
(iii) Mathematics contents of City & Guilds Tech-
nician Certificate/Diploma courses
(iv) Any introductory/access/foundation course
involving Engineering Mathematics at Univer-
sity, Colleges of Further and Higher education
and in schools.
Each topic considered in the text is presented in a way
that assumes in the reader little previous knowledge of
that topic.
‘Bird’s Engineering Mathematics 9th Edition’ pro-
vides a follow-up to ‘Bird’s Basic Engineering Math-
ematics 8th Edition’ and a lead into ‘Bird’s Higher
Engineering Mathematics 9th Edition’.
 Preface xv

This textbook contains over 1050 worked problems,

followed by some 2000 further problems (all with Free Web downloads at
answers at the back of the book). The further prob- www.routledge.com/cw/bird
lems are contained within some 304 Practice Exer- For students
cises; each Exercise follows on directly from the rele-
vant section of work, every two or three pages. In addi- 1. Full solutions to the 2000 questions contained
tion, the text contains 575 multiple-choice questions in the 304 Practice Exercises
and 577 line diagrams to enhance the understanding of
the theory. Where at all possible, the problems mirror 2. List of Essential Formulae
practical situations found in engineering and science. In 3. Famous Engineers/Scientists – 25 are men-
fact, some 1300 engineering situations/problems have tioned in the text.
been ‘flagged-up’ to help demonstrate that engineering
cannot be fully understood without a good knowledge For instructors/lecturers
of mathematics. Look out for the symbol .
1. Full solutions to the 2000 questions contained
At regular intervals throughout the text are some 19 in the 304 Practice Exercises
Revision Tests to check understanding. For example,
Revision Test 1 covers material contained in Chapters 2. Full solutions and marking scheme to each of
1 to 4, Revision Test 2 covers the material in Chap- the 19 Revision Tests
ters 5 to 8 and so on. These Revision Tests do not have 3. Revision Tests – available to run off to be
answers given since it is envisaged that lecturers could given to students
set the tests for students to attempt as part of their course
structure. Lecturers may obtain a set of solutions for 4. List of Essential Formulae
the Revision Tests in an Instructor’s Manual available 5. Illustrations – all 577 available on Power-
online at www.routledge.com/cw/bird Point
A list of Essential Formulae is included in the text for 6. Famous Engineers/Scientists – 25 are men-
convenience of reference. tioned in the text
‘Learning by Example’ is at the heart of ‘Bird’s Engi-
neering Mathematics 9th Edition’.

JOHN BIRD
Formerly Royal Naval Defence College of Marine
and Air Engineering, HMS Sultan,
University of Portsmouth
and Highbury College, Portsmouth
 Section 1
Number and algebra
 Chapter 1
Revision of fractions,
decimals and percentages
Why it is important to understand: Revision of fractions, decimals and percentages
Engineers use fractions all the time, examples including stress to strain ratios in mechanical engineering,
chemical concentration ratios and reaction rates, and ratios in electrical equations to solve for current and
voltage. Fractions are also used everywhere in science, from radioactive decay rates to statistical analysis.
Also, engineers and scientists use decimal numbers all the time in calculations. Calculators are able to
handle calculations with fractions and decimals; however, there will be times when a quick calculation
involving addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of fractions and decimals is needed. Engineers
and scientists also use percentages a lot in calculations; for example, percentage change is commonly used
in engineering, statistics, physics, finance, chemistry and economics. When you feel able to do calculations
with basic arithmetic, fractions, decimals and percentages, with or without the aid of a calculator, then
suddenly mathematics doesn’t seem quite so difficult.

At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

• add, subtract, multiply and divide with fractions

• understand practical examples involving ratio and proportion
• add, subtract, multiply and divide with decimals
• understand and use percentages

of the numerator is greater than the denominator, the

1.1 Fractions
When 2 is divided by 3, it may be written as 23 or 2/3. 23
is called a fraction. The number above the line, i.e. 2,
is called the numerator and the number below the line,
i.e. 3, is called the denominator.
When the value of the numerator is less than the value
of the denominator, the fraction is called a proper
fraction; thus 23 is a proper fraction. When the value
fraction is called an improper fraction. Thus 73 is
an improper fraction and can also be expressed as a
mixed number, that is, an integer and a proper frac-
tion. Thus the improper fraction 73 is equal to the mixed
number 2 13
When a fraction is simplified by dividing the numer-
ator and denominator by the same number, the pro-
cess is called cancelling. Cancelling by 0 is not
permissible.
4 Bird’s Engineering Mathematics

2 1 11 13 22 13 9 1
Problem 1. Simplify:
1 2
+ Thus 3 − 2 = − = − = = 1
3 7 3 6 3 6 6 6 6 2
as obtained previously.
The lowest common multiple (i.e. LCM) of the two
denominators is 3 × 7, i.e. 21 Problem 3. Determine the value of
Expressing each fraction so that their denominators are 5 1 2
21, gives: 4 −3 +1
8 4 5
1 2 1 7 2 3 7 6
+ = × + × = + ( )
3 7 3 7 7 3 21 21 5 1 2 5 1 2
4 − 3 + 1 = (4 − 3 + 1) + − +
7 + 6 13 8 4 5 8 4 5
= =
21 21
5 × 5 − 10 × 1 + 8 × 2
= 2+
Alternatively: 40
25 − 10 + 16
Step (2) Step (3) = 2+
40
↓ ↓
31 31
1 2 (7 × 1) + (3 × 2) = 2+ =2
+ = 40 40
3 7 21
↑
Step (1)
3 14
Problem 4. Find the value of ×
7 15
Step 1: the LCM of the two denominators;
Step 2: for the fraction 13 , 3 into 21 goes 7 times, Dividing numerator and denominator by 3 gives:
7 × the numerator is 7 × 1;
Step 3: for the fraction 27 , 7 into 21 goes 3 times, 1
3 14 1 14 1 × 14
3 × the numerator is 3 × 2 × = × =
7 155 7 5 7×5
1 2 7 + 6 13
Thus + = = as obtained previously. Dividing numerator and denominator by 7 gives:
3 7 21 21
2 1 1 × 14 2 1×2 2
Problem 2. Find the value of 3 − 2 = =
3 6 17×5 1×5 5

One method is to split the mixed numbers into integers This process of dividing both the numerator and denom-
and their fractional parts. Then inator of a fraction by the same factor(s) is called
( ) ( ) cancelling.
2 1 2 1
3 −2 = 3+ − 2+
3 6 3 6
2 1 3 1 3
= 3+ −2− Problem 5. Evaluate: 1 × 2 × 3
3 6 5 3 7
4 1 3 1
= 1+ − = 1 = 1 Mixed numbers must be expressed as improper frac-
6 6 6 2
tions before multiplication can be performed. Thus,
Another method is to express the mixed numbers as
improper fractions. 3 1 3
1 ×2 ×3
9 2 9 2 11 5 3 7
Since 3 = , then 3 = + =
3 3 3 3 3 ( ) ( ) ( )
5 3 6 1 21 3
1 12 1 13 = + × + × +
Similarly, 2 = + = 5 5 3 3 7 7
6 6 6 6
 Revision of fractions, decimals and percentages 5

1 4×2+5×1 31
8 7 24 8
1
8×1×8 = − ÷ (B)
= × × = 3 20 24 8
5 13 71 5×1×1
1 13 82
= − × (D)
64 4 3 5 20 1
= = 12 1 26
5 5 = − (M)
3 5
3 12 (5 × 1) − (3 × 26)
Problem 6. Simplify: ÷ = (S)
7 21 15
−73 13
3 = = −4
3 12 15 15
÷ = 7
7 21 12
Problem 9. Determine the value of
21 ( )
7 1 1 1 3 1
Multiplying both numerator and denominator by the of 3 − 2 +5 ÷ −
reciprocal of the denominator gives: 6 2 4 8 16 2
( )
3
1
3 21 3 3 7 1 1 1 3 1
× of 3 −2 +5 ÷ −
7 = 17 12 4 3 6 2 4 8 16 2
= 4 =
12 1
12 21 1 1 4 7 1 41 3 1
21 × = of 1 + ÷ − (B)
1 21 12 1 6 4 8 16 2
This method can be remembered by the rule: invert the 7 5 41 3 1
= × + ÷ − (O)
second fraction and change the operation from division 6 4 8 16 2
to multiplication. Thus:
7 5 41 16 2 1
3 1 3 = × + × − (D)
3 12 21 3 6 4 18 3 2
÷ = × = as obtained previously.
7 21 1 7 12 4 4
35 82 1
= + − (M)
24 3 2
3 1
Problem 7. Find the value of 5 ÷ 7 =
35 + 656 1
− (A)
5 3 24 2
691 1
The mixed numbers must be expressed as improper = − (A)
24 2
fractions. Thus,
691 − 12
14
= (S)
3 1 28 22 28 3 42 24
5 ÷7 = ÷ = × =
5 3 5 3 5 22 11 55 679 7
= = 28
24 24
Problem 8. Simplify:
( ) ( ) Problem 10. If a storage tank is holding 450
1 2 1 3 1
− + ÷ × litres when it is three-quarters full, how much will it
3 5 4 8 3
contain when it is two-thirds full?
3 1
The order of precedence of operations for problems If 450 litres is full then full would be 450 ÷ 3 =
containing fractions is the same as that for integers, 4 4
150 litres.
i.e. remembered by BODMAS (Brackets, Of, Division, Thus, a full tank would have 4 × 150 = 600 litres.
Multiplication, Addition and Subtraction). Thus, 2 2
of the tank will contain × 600 = 400 litres
3 3
( ) ( )
1 2 1 3 1
− + ÷ ×
3 5 4 8 3 Now try the following Practice Exercise
6 Bird’s Engineering Mathematics

directly proportional to another, then as one quantity

Practice Exercise 1 Fractions (Answers on doubles, the other quantity also doubles. When a quan-
page 701) tity is inversely proportional to another, then as one
Evaluate the following: quantity doubles, the other quantity is halved.

1 2 7 1
1. (a) + (b) − Problem 11. A piece of timber 273 cm long is
2 5 16 4
cut into three pieces in the ratio of 3 to 7 to 11.
2 3 2 1 2
2. (a) + (b) − + Determine the lengths of the three pieces
7 11 9 7 3
3 2 1 4 5 The total number of parts is 3 + 7 + 11, that is, 21.
3. (a) 10 − 8 (b) 3 − 4 + 1 Hence 21 parts correspond to 273 cm
7 3 4 5 6
3 5 17 15 273
4. (a) × (b) × 1 part corresponds to = 13 cm
4 9 35 119 21
3 parts correspond to 3 × 13 = 39 cm
3 7 2 13 7 4
5. (a) × ×1 (b) ×4 ×3 7 parts correspond to 7 × 13 = 91 cm
5 9 7 17 11 39
3 45 1 5 11 parts correspond to 11 × 13 = 143 cm
6. (a) ÷ (b) 1 ÷ 2
8 64 3 9 i.e. the lengths of the three pieces are 39 cm, 91 cm
1 3 8 1 and 143 cm.
7. + ÷ −
2 5 15 3 (Check: 39 + 91 + 143 = 273)
( ) ( )
7 5 3 15
8. of 15 × + ÷
15 7 4 16 Problem 12. A gear wheel having 80 teeth is
in mesh with a 25 tooth gear. What is the gear ratio?
1 2 1 3 2
9. × − ÷ +
4 3 3 5 7 80 16
( ) ( ) Gear ratio = 80 : 25 = = = 3.2
2 1 2 1 3 25 5
10. ×1 ÷ + +1
3 4 3 4 5 i.e. gear ratio = 16 : 5 or 3.2 : 1

11. The movement ratio, M, of a differential

2R
pulley is given by the formula: M =
R−r
where R and r are the radii of the larger and
smaller portions of the stepped pulley. Find
the movement ratio of such a pulley block
having diameters of 140 mm and 120 mm.
12. Three people, P, Q and R contribute to a fund.
P provides 3/5 of the total, Q provides 2/3 of
the remainder, and R provides £8. Determine
(a) the total of the fund, (b) the contributions
of P and Q.
1.2 Ratio and proportion
The ratio of one quantity to another is a fraction, and
is the number of times one quantity is contained in
another quantity of the same kind. If one quantity is
Problem 13. An alloy is made up of metals A
and B in the ratio 2.5 : 1 by mass. How much of A
has to be added to 6 kg of B to make the alloy?
Ratio A : B: :2.5 : 1 (i.e. A is to B as 2.5 is to 1) or
A 2.5
= = 2.5
B 1
A
When B = 6 kg, = 2.5 from which,
6
A = 6 × 2.5 = 15 kg
Problem 14. If 3 people can complete a task
in 4 hours, how long will it take 5 people to
complete the same task, assuming the rate of work
remains constant?
The more the number of people, the more quickly the
task is done, hence inverse proportion exists.

3 people complete the task in 4 hours.
1 person takes three times as long, i.e.
4 × 3 = 12 hours,
5 people can do it in one fifth of the time that one
12
person takes, that is hours or 2 hours 24 minutes.
5
Now try the following Practice Exercise
Practice Exercise 2 Ratio and proportion
(Answers on page 701)
1. Divide 621 cm in the ratio of 3 to 7 to 13.
2. When mixing a quantity of paints, dyes of
four different colours are used in the ratio of
7 : 3 : 19 : 5. If the mass of the first dye used
is 3 12 g, determine the total mass of the dyes
used.
3. Determine how much copper and how much
zinc is needed to make a 99 kg brass ingot if
they have to be in the proportions copper :
zinc: :8 : 3 by mass.
4. It takes 21 hours for 12 men to resurface a
stretch of road. Find how many men it takes to
resurface a similar stretch of road in 50 hours
24 minutes, assuming the work rate remains
constant.
5. It takes 3 hours 15 minutes to fly from city A
to city B at a constant speed. Find how long
the journey takes if
(a) the speed is 1 12 times that of the original
speed and
(b) if the speed is three-quarters of the orig-
inal speed.
6. A mass of 56 kg is divided into 3 parts in the
ratio 3:5:6. Calculate the mass of each part.
1.3 Decimals
The decimal system of numbers is based on the digits 0
to 9. A number such as 53.17 is called a decimal frac-
tion, a decimal point separating the integer part, i.e. 53,
from the fractional part, i.e. 0.17
A number which can be expressed exactly as a deci-
mal fraction is called a terminating decimal and those
which cannot be expressed exactly as a decimal fraction
are called non-terminating decimals. Thus, 32 = 1.5
Revision of fractions, decimals and percentages 7
is a terminating decimal, but 43 = 1.33333. . . is a non-
terminating decimal. 1.33333. . . can be written as 1.3̇,
called ‘one point-three recurring’.
The answer to a non-terminating decimal may be
expressed in two ways, depending on the accuracy
required:
(i) correct to a number of significant figures, that is,
figures which signify something, and
(ii) correct to a number of decimal places, that is, the
number of figures after the decimal point.
The last digit in the answer is unaltered if the next digit
on the right is in the group of numbers 0, 1, 2, 3 or
4, but is increased by 1 if the next digit on the right is
in the group of numbers 5, 6, 7, 8 or 9. Thus the non-
terminating decimal 7.6183. . . becomes 7.62, correct to
3 significant figures, since the next digit on the right is
8, which is in the group of numbers 5, 6, 7, 8 or 9. Also
7.6183. . . becomes 7.618, correct to 3 decimal places,
since the next digit on the right is 3, which is in the
group of numbers 0, 1, 2, 3 or 4
Problem 15. Evaluate: 42.7 + 3.04 + 8.7 + 0.06
The numbers are written so that the decimal points are
under each other. Each column is added, starting from
the right.
42.7
3.04
8.7
0.06
54.50
Thus 42.7 + 3.04 + 8.7 + 0.06 = 54.50
Problem 16. Take 81.70 from 87.23
The numbers are written with the decimal points under
each other.
87.23
−81.70
5.53
Thus 87.23 − 81.70 = 5.53
Problem 17. Find the value of
23.4 − 17.83 − 57.6 + 32.68
8 Bird’s Engineering Mathematics

The sum of the positive decimal fractions is The long division is similar to the long division of
integers and the first four steps are as shown:
23.4 + 32.68 = 56.08 ) 22.24117
17 378.100000
The sum of the negative decimal fractions is 34
__
17.83 + 57.6 = 75.43 38
34
__
Taking the sum of the negative decimal fractions from 41
the sum of the positive decimal fractions gives: 34
__
56.08 − 75.43 70
68
i.e. −(75.43 − 56.08) = −19.35 __
20
Problem 18. Determine the value of 74.3 × 3.8 (i) 37.81 ÷ 1.7 = 22.24, correct to 4 significant
figures, and
When multiplying decimal fractions: (i) the numbers
are multiplied as if they are integers, and (ii) the posi- (ii) 37.81 ÷ 1.7 = 22.2412, correct to 4 decimal
tion of the decimal point in the answer is such that there places.
are as many digits to the right of it as the sum of the dig-
its to the right of the decimal points of the two numbers Problem 20. Convert (a) 0.4375 to a proper
being multiplied together. Thus fraction and (b) 4.285 to a mixed number
(i) 743 0.4375 × 10 000
38 (a) 0.4375 can be written as without
10 000
5 944 changing its value,
22 290 4375
i.e. 0.4375 =
28 234 10 000
(ii) As there are (1 + 1) = 2 digits to the right of the
By cancelling
decimal points of the two numbers being multi-
plied together, (74.3 × 3.8), then 4375 875 175 35 7
= = = =
10 000 2000 400 80 16
74.3 × 3.8 = 282.34 7
i.e. 0.4375 =
16
285 57
Problem 19. Evaluate 37.81 ÷ 1.7, correct to (i) 4 (b) Similarly, 4.285 = 4 =4
1000 200
significant figures and (ii) 4 decimal places
Problem 21. Express as decimal fractions:
9 7
37.81 (a) and (b) 5
37.81 ÷ 1.7 = 16 8
1.7
(a) To convert a proper fraction to a decimal frac-
The denominator is changed into an integer by multi- tion, the numerator is divided by the denominator.
plying by 10. The numerator is also multiplied by 10 to Division by 16 can be done by the long division
keep the fraction the same. Thus method, or, more simply, by dividing by 2 and then
8:

37.81 × 10 ) 4.50 ) 0.5625

37.81 ÷ 1.7 = 2 9.00 8 4.5000
1.7 × 10
378.1 9
= Thus = 0.5625
17 16
 Revision of fractions, decimals and percentages 9

(b) For mixed numbers, it is only necessary to convert

the proper fraction part of the mixed number to a 13. Determine the dimension marked x in the
decimal fraction. Thus, dealing with the 87 gives: length of shaft shown in Fig. 1.1. The dimen-
sions are in millimetres.
82.92
) 0.875 7
8 7.000 i.e. = 0.875
8 27.41 8.32 x 34.67

7
Thus 5 = 5.875
8

Now try the following Practice Exercise

Figure 1.1
Practice Exercise 3 Decimals (Answers on 14. A tank contains 1800 litres of oil. How many
page 701) tins containing 0.75 litres can be filled from
In Problems 1 to 6, determine the values of the this tank?
expressions given:
1. 23.6 + 14.71 − 18.9 − 7.421 1.4 Percentages
2. 73.84 − 113.247 + 8.21 − 0.068
Percentages are used to give a common standard
3. 3.8 × 4.1 × 0.7 and are fractions having the number 100 as their
25
4. 374.1 × 0.006 denominators. For example, 25 per cent means
100
1
5. 421.8 ÷ 17, (a) correct to 4 significant i.e. and is written 25%
4
figures and (b) correct to 3 decimal places.
Problem 22. Express as percentages:
0.0147 (a) 1.875 and (b) 0.0125
6. , (a) correct to 5 decimal places and
2.3
(b) correct to 2 significant figures.
A decimal fraction is converted to a percentage by
7. Convert to proper fractions: multiplying by 100. Thus,
(a) 0.65 (b) 0.84 (c) 0.0125 (d) 0.282 and (a) 1.875 corresponds to 1.875 × 100%, i.e. 187.5%
(e) 0.024
(b) 0.0125 corresponds to 0.0125 × 100%, i.e. 1.25%
8. Convert to mixed numbers:
(a) 1.82 (b) 4.275 (c) 14.125 (d) 15.35 and Problem 23. Express as percentages:
(e) 16.2125 5 2
(a) and (b) 1
In Problems 9 to 12, express as decimal fractions 16 5
to the accuracy stated:
To convert fractions to percentages, they are (i) con-
4 verted to decimal fractions and (ii) multiplied by 100
9. , correct to 5 significant figures.
9
5 5
17 (a) By division, = 0.3125, hence corresponds
10. , correct to 5 decimal places. 16 16
27
to 0.3125 × 100%, i.e. 31.25%
9
11. 1 , correct to 4 significant figures. 2
16 (b) Similarly, 1 = 1.4 when expressed as a decimal
31 5
12. 13 , correct to 2 decimal places. fraction.
37 2
Hence 1 = 1.4 × 100% = 140%
5
10 Bird’s Engineering Mathematics

By direct proportion:
Problem 24. It takes 50 minutes to machine a 100% corresponds to 3.74 kg
certain part, Using a new type of tool, the time can
be reduced by 15%. Calculate the new time taken 3.74
1% corresponds to = 0.0374 kg
100
60% corresponds to 60 × 0.0374 = 2.244 kg
15 750
15% of 50 minutes = × 50 = 25% corresponds to 25 × 0.0374 = 0.935 kg
100 100
= 7.5 minutes. 15% corresponds to 15 × 0.0374 = 0.561 kg
Thus, the masses of the copper, zinc and nickel are
hence the new time taken is 2.244 kg, 0.935 kg and 0.561 kg, respectively.
(Check: 2.244 + 0.935 + 0.561 = 3.74)
50 − 7.5 = 42.5 minutes.

Alternatively, if the time is reduced by 15%, then Problem 28. A mixture used for making
it now takes 85% of the original time, i.e. 85% of concrete contains cement, sand and rubble in the
85 4250 proportion 2:5:8. Calculate (a) the mass of sand in
50 = × 50 = = 42.5 minutes, as above. 750 kg of mixture (b) the percentage of cement in
100 100
the mixture.

Problem 25. Find 12.5% of £378 Since the ratio is 2:3:8, the total number of parts is
2 + 5 + 8 = 15 parts
12.5
12.5% of £378 means × 378, since per cent means 5
100 (a) Sand is 5 parts out of 15, i.e. of the 750 kg
‘per hundred’. 15
12.51 1 mixture
Hence 12.5% of £378 = × 378 = × 378 Hence, the mass of sand in the mixture is
1008 8 5
378 × 750 = 250 kg
= = £47.25 15
8
2
(b) Cement is 2 parts out of 15, i.e. of the mixture
Problem 26. Express 25 minutes as a 15
As a percentage of the mixture, cement is
percentage of 2 hours, correct to the nearest 1% 2
× 100 = 13.33%
15
Working in minute units, 2 hours = 120 minutes.
25
Hence 25 minutes is ths of 2 hours. By cancelling, Problem 29. A brick being tested for its water
120 absorption properties is found to have a mass of
25 5
= 2.628 kg when dry and 3.127 kg after soaking in
120 24
5 water for a day. Calculate its percentage absorption
Expressing as a decimal fraction gives 0.2083̇ by mass, correct to the nearest percent.
24
Multiplying by 100 to convert the decimal fraction to a
percentage gives: Percentage absorption
new value-original value
0.2083̇ × 100 = 20.83% = × 100%
original value
3.127 − 2.628
Thus 25 minutes is 21% of 2 hours, correct to the = × 100%
nearest 1% 2.628
0.499
= × 100%
2.628
Problem 27. A German silver alloy consists
of 60% copper, 25% zinc and 15% nickel. = 18.99%
Determine the masses of the copper, zinc and nickel = 19%correct to the nearest percent
in a 3.74 kilogram block of the alloy
 Revision of fractions, decimals and percentages 11

Now try the following Practice Exercise

11. A screws’ dimension is 12.5 ± 8% mm. Cal-
Practice Exercise 4 Percentages (Answers culate the possible maximum and minimum
on page 701) length of the screw.
1. Convert to percentages: 12. The output power of an engine is 450 kW.
(a) 0.057 (b) 0.374 (c) 1.285 If the efficiency of the engine is 75%, deter-
2. Express as percentages, correct to 3 signifi- mine the power input.
cant figures: 13. A production run produces 4200 compo-
7 19 11 nents of which 97% are reliable. Calculate
(a) (b) (c) 1 the number of unreliable components
33 24 16

3. Calculate correct to 4 significant figures:

(a) 18% of 2758 tonnes (b) 47% of 18.42
grams (c) 147% of 14.1 seconds Practice Exercise 5 Multiple-choice questions
on fractions, decimals and percentages
4. When 1600 bolts are manufactured, 36 are (Answers on page 702)
unsatisfactory. Determine the percentage
Each question has only one correct answer
unsatisfactory.
3 3
5. Express: (a) 140 kg as a percentage of 1 t 1. ÷ 1 is equal to:
4 4
(b) 47 s as a percentage of 5 min (c) 13.4 cm 3 9 5 1
(a) (b) 1 (c) 1 (d) 2
as a percentage of 2.5 m 7 16 16 2
1 2 2 1
6. A block of monel alloy consists of 70% 2. 1 + 1 ÷ 2 − is equal to:
3 3 3 3
nickel and 30% copper. If it contains 88.2 g 5 19 1 2
of nickel, determine the mass of copper in (a) 1 (b) (c) 2 (d) 1
8 24 21 7
the block.
3. The value of
( )
7. A drilling machine should be set to 2 1 1 5 1
250 rev/min. The nearest speed available on of 4 − 3 +5÷ − is:
5 2 4 16 4
the machine is 268 rev/min. Calculate the
7 1 1
percentage over speed. (a) 17 (b) 80 (c) 16 (d) 88
20 2 4
8. Two kilograms of a compound contains 30% 2 3 5 7
4. Which of the fractions , , , is the
of element A, 45% of element B and 25% of 3 5 8 9
element C. Determine the masses of the three smallest?
elements present. 2 3 5 7
(a) (b) (c) (d)
3 5 8 9
( )
9. A concrete mixture contains seven parts by 1 1 1 5
volume of ballast, four parts by volume of 5. 1 + − is equal to:
π 18 6 3
sand and two parts by volume of cement. 2π 2 4 16π
Determine the percentage of each of these (a) (b) (c) − (d) −
9 9π 9π 9
three constituents correct to the nearest 1%
and the mass of cement in a two tonne dry 6. Four engineers can complete a task in 5
mix, correct to 1 significant figure. hours. Assuming the rate of work remains
constant, six engineers will complete the task
10. In a sample of iron ore, 18% is iron. How in:
much ore is needed to produce 3600 kg of (a) 126 h (b) 4 h 48 min
iron? (c) 3 h 20 min (d) 7 h 30 min
12 Bird’s Engineering Mathematics

7. How many litres of water needs to be added

16. Correct to 2 significant figures, 0.01479 is:
to 6 litres of a 60% alcohol solution to create
(a) 0.01 (b) 0.014 (c) 0.0148 (d) 0.015
a 40% alcohol solution?
(a) 2 litres (b) 3 litres 17. The value of 0.02 × 0.003 is:
(c) 6 litres (d) 9 litres (a) 0.06 (b) 0.006
(c) 0.0006 (d) 0.00006
8. A machine can produce 24 identical face
masks per hour. The number of machines 1524 ÷ 15.24
18. is equal to:
needed to produce 144 masks in 20 minutes 0.5
is: (a) 0.2 (b) 20 (c) 100 (d) 200
(a) 36 (b) 18 (c) 12 (d) 6 19. 11 mm expressed as a percentage of 41 mm is:
9. A map has a scale of 1:200,000. Two engi- (a) 2.68, correct to 3 significant figures
neering sites are 15 cm apart on the map. The (b) 2.6, correct to 2 significant figures
actual distance apart of the two sites is: (c) 26.83, correct to 2 decimal places
(a) 30 km (b) 300 km (d) 0.2682, correct to 4 decimal places
(c) 15 km (d) 150 km 20. The current in a component in an electrical
10. y varies as the square of x, and y = 12 when circuit is calculated as 25 mA using Ohm’s
x = 2. When x = 3, the value of y is: law. When measured, the actual current is 25.2
(a) 27 (b) 36 (c) 432 (d) 9 mA. Correct to 2 decimal places, the percent-
age error in the calculation is:
11. A simple machine has an effort to load ratio (a) 0.80% (b) 1.25%
of 5:39. The effort, in newtons, to lift a load (c) 0.79% (d) 1.26%
of 5.46 kN is:
(a) 700 N (b) 620.45 N 21. Given that 12% of P is 48, the value of P is:
(c) 42588 N (d) 0.7 N (a) 250 (b) 400 (c) 100 (d) 200

12. In an engineering laboratory, acid and water 22. Given that 12q = 75% of 336, the value of q
are mixed in the ratio 2:7. To make 369 ml of is:
the mixture, the amount of acid added is: (a) 21 (b) 48 (c) 28 (d) 252
(a) 287 ml (b) 184.5 ml 23. 0.226 as a percentage is:
(c) 105.4 ml (d) 82 ml (a) 2.26% (b) 22.6%
13. Correct to 2 significant figures, 3.748 is equal (c) 0.226% (d) 226%
to: 24. A resistor of 47 kΩ has a tolerance of ±5%.
(a) 3.75 (b) 3.8 (c) 3.74 (d) 3.7 The highest possible value is:
5 (a) 52 kΩ (b) 47.005 kΩ
14. 1 expressed as a decimal, correct to 4 sig- (c) 42 kΩ (d) 49.35 kΩ
6
nificant figures is:
25. The length and width of a rectangle are each
(a) 1.83 (b) 0.633 (c) 1.833 (d) 1.8333
increased by 10%. The percentage increase in
1 the area is:
15. Expressing as a decimal, correct to 3 sig-
11 (a) 20 (b) 21 (c) 12.1 (d) 10
nificant figures, is equal to:
(a) 0.099 (b) 0.909
(c) 0.0909 (d) 0.009

For fully worked solutions to each of the problems in Practice Exercises 1 to 4 in this chapter,
go to the website:
www.routledge.com/cw/bird
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open one into another, giving a fine perspective, and they lead,
through a dozen different doorways, on to a splendid, white-tiled
verandah which runs out to the bank of the Pásig River. There is a
picturesque, moss-covered river landing on the verandah below.
There are about twenty rooms on the one floor, all of them good
sized and some of them enormous, and it took a great many servants
to keep the place in order. The floors were all of beautiful hardwoods
and it required a permanent force of six muchachos to keep them in
a proper state of polish. The Filipino method of polishing floors is
interesting. Your muchacho ties either banana leaves or some sort of
bags on his bare feet, then he skates up and down, up and down,
until the floors get so slick that he himself can hardly stand up on
them. It is easy to imagine that six boys skating together in the
spaciousness of the Palace might cut fancy figures and have a
delightful time generally, if they thought they were unobserved.
Filipinos of the muchacho class always play like children, no matter
what they are doing, and they have to be treated like children.
The Palace furniture, which must have been very fine in Spanish
days, was of red narra, or Philippine mahogany, handsomely carved
and displaying on every piece the Spanish coat-of-arms. But during
the changing Spanish régimes some one with a bizarre taste had
covered all the beautiful wood with a heavy coat of black paint. The
effect was depressingly sombre to me.
The porcelain, however, or what was left of it, was unusually good.
The Spanish coat-of-arms in beautiful colours was reproduced on
each plate against a background of a dark blue canopy. I must say
there were quite as many reminders of Spanish authority as I could
wish for and I frequently felt that some noble Don might walk in at
any moment and catch me living in his house.
But, it didn’t take us long to get settled down in our new domain,
and I soon ceased to regret the sea breezes and the salt baths of
Malate. Malacañan enjoyed a clean sweep of air from the river and
our open verandah was in many ways an improvement on the
gaudily glazed one that we had gradually become accustomed to in
the other house. The Malacañan verandah, being much of it roofless,
was of little use in the daytime, but on clear evenings it was the most
delightful spot I have ever seen. I began to love the tropical nights
and to feel that I never before had known what nights can be like.
The stars were so large and hung so low that they looked almost like
raised silver figures on a dark blue field. And when the moon shone—
but why try to write about tropical moonlight? The wonderful
sunsets and the moonlit nights have tied more American hearts to
Manila and the Philippines than all the country’s other charms
combined. And they are both indescribable.

TWO VIEWS OF MALACAÑAN

PALACE. THE FIRST PICTURE SHOWS
THE WIDE, ROOFLESS VERANDA
OVER THE PASIG RIVER

When I lived in Malate and could look out across the open, white-
capped bay to far-away Mt. Meriveles, I sometimes forgot I was in
the Tropics. But at Malacañan when we gazed down on the low-
lapping Pásig, glinting in the starlight, and across the rice fields on
the other side where swaying lanterns twinkled from beneath the
outline of thatched roofs, there was little to remind us that we were
Americans or that we had ever felt any air less soothing than the soft
breeze which rustled the bamboo plumes along the bank.
Our household was in every way much enlarged on our change of
residence and circumstances. There were eight or nine muchachos in
the house, two extra Chinese helpers in the kitchen, and the staff of
coachmen and gardeners increased on even a larger scale. Our stable
of ponies multiplied to sixteen, and even then there were too few for
our various needs. It is difficult for the dweller in the Temperate
Zone to realise how small an amount of work the native of the
Tropics, either man or beast, is capable of.
We thought at first that the salary attached to the office of
Governor of the Philippines was quite splendid, but we soon gave up
any idea we might have had of saving a little of it for a rainy day. Our
rainy day was upon us. It rained official obligations which we had to
meet. The mere cost of lighting Malacañan was enough to keep a
modest family in comfort. I don’t know about conditions at the
Palace now, but I imagine they have not changed much, and I do
know that Manila is a more expensive place in which to live than it
was in my time. And yet there is serious talk of reducing the salary of
the Governor-General. It seems a pity. This would place the office in
a class with Ambassadorships which nobody but rich men can
accept. The present salary, with nice management and a not too
ambitious programme, will just about cover expenses, but I feel sorry
for the wife of the Governor who must try to do what is expected of
her on less.
My cook, who had been quite independent of me at Malate,
became at Malacañan wholly unapproachable. I don’t know why, but
so it was. He occupied quarters opening on one of the courts below
and connected with the dining-room by an outside staircase up
which I was never able to inveigle him. I had to deliver my orders
from the top of the stairs and when he had listened to just as much as
he cared to hear he would disappear through the kitchen door, and
no amount of calling would bring him back. As the kitchen was an
ante-chamber to a sort of Chinese catacombs, extending over a good
part of the basement, I never ventured to follow him and I had to
swallow my wrath as best I could.
 But he was a jewel despite his eccentricities. He could produce the
most elaborate and varied buffet suppers I ever saw and I never knew
a cook who could make such a wonderful variety of cakes and fruit
tarts and cream-puffs. He took a real delight in their construction,
and for two days before a reception he would spend all his time
filling every pan in the house with patisseries elaborately iced in
every imaginable colour.
I began at once to give an afternoon reception every week and if it
hadn’t been for my disagreeable, but capable, old Ah Sing I should
have been in a constant turmoil of engagements with caterers and
confectioners. As it was, I never had to give an order, really.
“Reception Wednesday, Ah Sing,” was all that was necessary, and
except for a glance now and then to see that the muchachos were
giving the floors and the furniture a little extra polish on Wednesday
morning, the only preparations I had to make for receiving two
thousand people were to put on an embroidered muslin gown and
compose myself.
These afternoon receptions were public, our only form of
invitation being an “At Home” notice in the newspapers, and
considering the unsettled state of Manila society in those days, it is
really remarkable that we had so few unwelcome guests. There were
a great many derelicts and generally disreputable people, both
American and European, trying to better their fortunes or add to the
excitement in our agitated community, but we suffered no
unpleasant consequences from our open hospitality, though every
Wednesday the Palace was thronged and every Wednesday many
new faces appeared. Army and Navy people, civilians of every
occupation and many foreigners—Germans and British mostly—
came nearly always. I remember especially the first instalment of
American school teachers. They were, for the most part, a fine lot of
men and women who had come out with high hopes and ideals and
an enthusiastic desire to pass them on. There were some pretty girls
among them and a number of very clever looking men. I believe they
used to enjoy my parties as much as anybody in Manila. They were
homesick, no doubt, especially the girls, and I suppose the sight of so
many friendly American faces cheered them up.
The Filipinos had to have a little coaxing before they began to avail
themselves very freely of our general invitation. But by asking many
of them personally and persistently to “be sure and come
Wednesday” we prevailed on a good number to believe they were
really wanted; and after a little while there began to be as many
brown faces as white among our guests.
Speaking of school teachers reminds me that it was just about this
time that our minds were relieved of all anxiety with regard to Bob’s
and Helen’s education. My husband had wanted to send our ten-
year-old son back across the Pacific and the United States, all by
himself, to his Uncle Horace’s school in Connecticut, and I had
opposed the idea with all my might without being able to offer a
satisfactory substitute plan. But now a school for American children
was opened and they were as well taught as they would have been at
home. Moreover, Bob and Helen found a large number of congenial
companions, and I don’t think I ever saw a happier set of boys and
girls. They lived out of doors and did everything that children usually
do, but their most conspicuous performance was on the Luneta in
the evenings, where they would race around the drive on their little
ponies, six abreast, or play games all over the grass plots which were
then, and always have been, maintained chiefly for the benefit of
children, both brown and white.
My husband’s change in title and station made very little
difference in the character of his duties, but it gave him increased
authority in the performance of them. The onerous necessity for
submitting legislation to an executive whose point of view was
different from that of the Commission came to an end, and he was
able to see that such laws as the Commission passed were put in
operation without delay. Under General Chaffee the feeling on the
part of the Army against the encroachments of civil government gave
way, slowly but surely, to an attitude of, at least, friendly toleration.
It was as if they said: “Well, let them alone; we know they are wrong;
but they must learn by experience, and, after all, they mean well.”
General Chaffee and General MacArthur were two quite different
types of men. General Chaffee was less precise, less analytical.
General MacArthur had always been given to regarding everything in
its “psychological” aspect and, indeed, “psychological” was a word so
frequently on his lips that it became widely popular. General Chaffee
was impetuous; he was much less formal than his predecessor both
in thought and manner, and Mr. Taft found co-operation with him
much less difficult. He made no secret of his conviction, which was
shared by most of the Army, that civil government was being
established prematurely, but he was not unreasonable about it.
He refused at first to listen to the proposition for the establishment
of a native Constabulary. This had been the Commission’s pet project
ever since they had been in the Islands, and it was a great
disappointment to them to find that the opposition which they had
encountered in the former administration was to be continued.
What they wanted was a force of several thousand Filipinos,
trained and commanded by American Army officers, either from the
regular Army or from the volunteers. The same thing had been done
with success by the British in India and the Straits Settlements, by
the Dutch in Java and by our own General Davis in Porto Rico, and
as the insurrectionary force had dwindled to a few bands and to
scattered groups of murderers and ladrones, so acknowledged by
everybody, there was no reason why a native constabulary should not
be employed to clear these out.
This plan was among the first things submitted to General Chaffee,
but he was evidently not impressed. “Pin them down with a bayonet
for at least ten years” was a favourite expression of Army sentiment
which sometimes made the Commissioners’ explanations to the
natives rather difficult.
General Wright, on behalf of the Commission, called on General
Chaffee and was much surprised to learn that he had not even read
the Constabulary bill which had been passed some time before and
held up pending the hoped for opportunity to carry it into effect.
When General Wright explained the purport of the measure General
Chaffee said,
“I am opposed to the whole business. It seems to me that you are
trying to introduce something to take the place of my Army.”
“Why, so we are,” said General Wright. “We are trying to create a
civil police force to do the police work which we understood the
Army was anxious to be relieved of. You have announced your
purpose to concentrate the Army in the interest of economy, and to
let our civil governments stand alone to see what is in them and we
consider it necessary to have a constabulary, or some such force, to
take care of the lawless characters that are sure to be in the country
after four years of war, and especially in a country where the natives
take naturally to ladronism. The Municipal police as now organised
are not able to meet all the requirements in this regard.”
“There you are,” said General Chaffee, “you give your whole case
away.”
“I have no case to give away,” replied General Wright. “We are
trying to put our provincial governments on a basis where they will
require nothing but the moral force of the military arm, and actually
to preserve law and order through the civil arm. The people desire
peace, but they also desire protection and we intend through the civil
government to give it to them.”
The Commissioner then suggested the names of some Army
officers whose peculiar tact in handling Filipinos had marked them
as the best available men for organising and training native soldiers,
but General Chaffee was not inclined to detail them for the work, so
General Wright returned to the Commission quite cast down and
communicated to his colleagues the feeling that they were to have a
continuance of the same difficulties with which they were required to
contend under the former administration.
But a peacemaker came along in the person of General Corbin. He
spent some time with General Chaffee and then came to Malacañan
to visit us. He made a hurried, but quite extensive trip through the
Islands and gave the whole situation pretty thorough inspection.
After he left, a change was found to have come over the spirit of
affairs, and it was thought that he had managed to make clear to
everybody concerned that, while there was a military arm and a civil
arm of the government in the Philippines, they represented a single
American purpose and that that purpose had been expressed by the
administration at Washington when the Commission was sent out to
do the work it was then engaged upon.
After that General Chaffee seems not only to have been amenable
to reason, but to have been imbued with a spirit of cordiality and
helpfulness which was most gratifying to the long-harassed
Commission. To facilitate co-operation, a private telephone was
installed between the offices of Mr. Taft and the Commanding
General, and it seemed to me that my husband suddenly lost some of
the lines of worry which had begun to appear in his face.
 The Constabulary, as everybody knows, was eventually established
and perhaps no finer body of men, organised for such a purpose,
exists. It took a long time to get them enlisted, equipped and
properly drilled, but to-day they are a force which every man and
woman in the Philippines, of whatever nationality, colour, creed or
occupation, regards with peculiar satisfaction. They include corps
enlisted from nearly every tribe in the Islands, not excepting the
Moros and the Igorrotes. The Moro constabulario is distinguishable
from the Christian in that he wears a jaunty red fez with his smart
khaki uniform instead of the regulation cap, while the Igorrote
refuses trousers and contents himself with the cap, the tight jacket,
the cartridge belt and a bright “G-string.” To the Ifugao Igorrote
uniform is added a distinguishing spiral of brass which the natty
soldier wears just below the knee. It is difficult to imagine anything
more extraordinary than a “crack” company of these magnificent
barelegged Ifugaos going through dress-parade drill under the sharp
commands of an American officer. The Constabulary Band of eighty-
odd pieces, under the direction of Captain Loving, an American
negro from the Boston Conservatory of Music, is well known in
America and is generally considered one of the really great bands of
the world. All its members are Filipinos.
Press clippings and some correspondence which I have before me
remind me that even at this period there began to manifest itself in
the Taft family, and otherwheres, a mild interest in the possibility
that my husband might become President of the United States. Mr.
Taft himself treated all such “far-fetched speculation” with the
derision which he thought it deserved, but to me it did not seem at all
unreasonable. We received first a copy of the Boston Herald
containing two marked articles in parallel columns, one of which,
headed by a picture of Mr. Taft, stated that in Washington there had
been serious suggestion of his name as a Presidential candidate and
the other giving a sympathetic account of an anti-imperialistic
meeting at Faneuil Hall. We thought the two articles as “news items”
hardly warranted juxtaposition, and it seemed to us the editor was
indulging a sort of sardonic sense of humour when he placed them
so. Not that my husband was an “imperialist,” but that he was
generally so considered. Indeed, he was the most active anti-
imperialist of them all. He was doing the work of carrying out a
thoroughly anti-imperialistic policy, but he recognised the difference
between abandoning the Philippines to a certain unhappy fate and
guiding them to substantial independence founded on self-
dependence. It took a long time to get the shouters from the
housetops to accept this interpretation of our national obligation, but
there was reassurance in the fact that where our honour is involved
Americanism can always be trusted to rise above purely partisan
politics.
Mr. Taft’s mother, who took an active and very intelligent interest
in her son’s work and who sent him letters by nearly every mail
which were filled with entertaining and accurate comment on
Philippine affairs, took the suggestion of his being a Presidential
possibility quite seriously. And she did not at all approve of it.
Having seen a number of press notices about it she sat down and
wrote him a long letter in which she discussed with measured
arguments the wisdom of his keeping out of politics. At that time the
idea appealed to nothing in him except his sense of humour. He
wrote to his brother Charles: “To me such a discussion has for its
chief feature the element of humour. The idea that a man who has
issued injunctions against labour unions, almost by the bushel, who
has sent at least ten or a dozen violent labour agitators to jail, and
who is known as one of the worst judges for the maintenance of
government by injunction, could ever be a successful candidate on a
Presidential ticket, strikes me as intensely ludicrous; and had I the
slightest ambition in that direction I hope that my good sense would
bid me to suppress it. But, more than this, the horrors of a modern
Presidential campaign and the political troubles of the successful
candidate for President, rob the office of the slightest attraction for
me. I have but one ambition, and if that cannot be satisfied I am
content to return to the practice of the law with reasonable assurance
that if my health holds out I can make a living, and make Nellie and
the children more comfortable than I could if I went to Washington.”
This letter is dated August 27, 1901, and was written on a Spanish
steamer which the Commission had taken from Aparri, on the north
coast of Luzon, after they finished the last of the long trips they had
to make for the purpose of organising civil government in the
provinces.
It was just after they returned from this trip; just when things were
at their brightest; when everything seemed to be developing so
rapidly and our hopes were running high, that we were shaken by the
appalling news of the attack on President McKinley. We had kept
luncheon waiting for Mr. Taft until it seemed useless to wait any
longer and we were at table when he came in. He looked so white and
stunned and helpless that I was frightened before he could speak.
Then he said, “The President has been shot.”
I suppose that throughout the United States the emotions of
horror and grief were beyond expression, but I cannot help thinking
that to the Americans in the Philippines the shock came with more
overwhelming force than to any one else. Mr. McKinley was our chief
in a very special sense. He was the director of our endeavours and
the father of our destinies. It was he who had sent the civil officials
out there and it was on the strength of his never failing support that
we had relied in all our troubles. It might, indeed, have been Mr.
Root in whose mind the great schemes for the development of the
islands and their peoples had been conceived, but Mr. Root exercised
his authority through the wise endorsement of the President and it
was to the President that we looked for sanction or criticism of every
move that was made. Then, too, the extraordinary sweetness of his
nature inspired in every one with whom he came in close contact a
strong personal affection, and we had reason to feel this more than
most people. Truly, it was as if the foundations of our world had
crumbled under us.
But he was not dead; and on the fact that he was strong and clean
we began to build hopes. Yet the hush which fell upon the
community on the day that he was shot was not broken until a couple
of days before he died when we received word that he was
recovering. We were so far away that we could not believe anybody
would send us such a cable unless it were founded on a practical
certainty, and our “Thank God!” was sufficiently fervent to dispel all
the gloom that had enveloped us. Then came the cable announcing
his death. I need not dwell on that.
Mr. Taft and Mr. Roosevelt knew each other very well. They had
been in Washington together years before, Mr. Taft as Solicitor
General, Mr. Roosevelt as Civil Service Commissioner, and they had
corresponded with some frequency since we had been in Manila. So,
in so far as the work in the Philippines was concerned, my husband
knew where the new President’s sympathies were and he had no
fears on that score. At the same time he was most anxious to have
Mr. Root continued as Secretary of War in order that there might not
be any delay or radical change in carrying out the plans which had
been adopted and put in operation under his direction. All activities
suffered a sort of paralysis from the crushing blow of the President’s
assassination, but the press of routine work continued. We were very
much interested in learning that a great many Filipinos, clever
politicians as they are, thought that after Mr. McKinley’s death Mr.
Bryan would become President, and that, after all, they would get
immediate independence.
Then came the awful tragedy of Balangiga. It happened only a few
days after the President died, while our nerves were still taut, and
filled us all with unspeakable horror intensified by the first actual
fear we had felt since we had been in the Philippine Islands.
Company “C” of the 9th Infantry, stationed at the town of Balangiga
on the island of Samar, was surprised at breakfast, without arms and
at a considerable distance from their quarters, and fifty of them were
massacred. About thirty fought their way bare handed through the
mob, each man of which had a bolo or a gun, and lived to tell the tale.
It was a disaster so ghastly in its details, so undreamed of under the
conditions of almost universal peace which had been established,
that it created absolute panic. Men began to go about their everyday
occupations in Manila carrying pistols conspicuously displayed, and
half the people one met could talk of nothing else but their
conviction that the whole archipelago was a smouldering volcano
and that we were all liable to be murdered in our beds any night. Of
course this made the Army officers more certain than ever that the
Islands should have remained under military control indefinitely,
and I cannot deny that, at the time, their arguments seemed to have
some foundation. It was a frightful nervous strain and it took several
months of tranquillity to restore confidence. If it had been a regular
engagement in which the Americans had sustained a reverse it could
have been accepted with some philosophy, but it was a plain
massacre of a company of defenceless men by many times their
number who had gotten into the town with the consent of the
American authorities, and in conspiracy with the local headman and
the native parish priest, on the pretext of bringing in for surrender a
band of insurrectos.
 The man, Lucban, who was in command of the Samar ladrones
who committed this atrocity, is now a prominent politico in Manila,
and it is interesting to know that only last year, in a campaign
speech, he referred with dramatic intensity to “our glorious victory of
Balangiga.” He was appealing to an ignorant electorate, many of
whom, as he knew, wore the scar of the awful Katipunan “blood
pact,” but it is just to record that the average Filipino is not proud of
the Balangiga “victory.”
Shortly before these unhappy events my sister Maria was called
back to America by the illness of our mother, and I was left to face
the tragic excitements of the month of September without her
comforting companionship. By October I began to feel that I would
have to get out of the Philippine Islands or suffer a nervous
breakdown, so my husband and I agreed that it would be well for me
to “run up to China,” as they express it out there. Running up to
China at that time of year meant getting out of tropic heat into
bracing autumn weather with a nip of real winter in it, and there was
nothing that I needed more.
Mrs. Wright and Mrs. Moses were both anxious to see something
of China before leaving the Orient, and as this seemed an excellent
opportunity to make the trip, they decided to go with me. The Boxer
Insurrection had just been suppressed and the Dowager Empress
had not yet returned from the West, whither she had fled during the
siege of Peking. We were used to the alarums of war and we thought
we were likely to see more of China “from the inside” than if we
visited the country during a period of complete calm. Then there
were wonderful tales of valuable “loot” which interested us. Not
necessarily illegitimate loot, but curios and art treasures in the hands
of Chinese themselves who were selling things at ridiculously low
figures and, sometimes, with a fascinating air of great mystery. There
is some allurement in the idea of bargaining for priceless porcelains,
ivories, silks and Russian sables behind closed and double-locked
doors, in the dark depths of some wretched Chinese hovel. Our Army
officers who had helped to relieve Peking brought us stories of this
kind of adventure, and I secretly hoped that we should be able to
have just some such experience. But being the wives of American
officials I thought likely we should be “taken care of” every hour of
every twenty-four. And so we were.
 We sailed to Shanghai and went from there straight to Peking,
where we became the guests of Colonel and Mrs. Robertson, who had
gone in with the American troops in the Allied Armies and were
quartered in no less a place than the Temple of Heaven. The casual
tourist looking now upon that glorious collection of ancestral shrines
would find it difficult to believe that they once served as barracks for
American soldiers. Most people who visit the Temple of Heaven find
in it an atmosphere of peace and serenity such as is achieved by few
structures in the world, and to have this deep calm invaded by
business-like “foreign-devil” troops must have ruffled the spirits of
the high gods. But the soldiers had to be quartered somewhere and
this great, clean, tree-sheltered enclosure in the heart of the Chinese
city offered ample space.
Mr. Conger was then our Minister to China, and after spending a
few very busy days sightseeing we went to the Legation to visit him.
The Legation quarter, which had been laid in ruins during the Boxer
troubles, had not yet begun to assume an aspect of orderliness, and
many were the evidences of the weeks of horror through which the
besieged foreign representatives had lived.
As the Empress Dowager and her court had not yet returned, we
hoped to be able to see all the mysteries of the Forbidden City, but
order had been restored to a point where it was possible to make the
palaces once more “forbidden,” so we were shown only enough to
whet our curiosity. But the wonderful walls and the temples, the
long, unbelievable streets and the curious life of the people were
sufficient to save us from any feeling of disappointment in our visit.
At a dinner given for us by our Minister we met a number of men and
women who had been through the siege, and I sat next to Sir Robert
Hart, of the Imperial Chinese Customs, the most interesting man,
perhaps, that the great occidental-oriental co-operation has ever
produced.
When we returned to Shanghai on our way down from Peking I
was greeted by two cablegrams. It just happened that I opened them
in the order of their coming and the first one contained the
information that my husband was very ill and said that I had better
return at once to Manila, while the second read that he was much
better and that there was no cause for alarm. There was no way of
getting to Manila for several days, because there were no boats going.
So I decided to take a trip up the Yangtse River on the house-boat
belonging to the wife of the American Consul. If I had been doing
this for pleasure instead of for the purpose of “getting away from
myself” I should have enjoyed it exceedingly, but as it was I have but
a vague recollection of a very wide and very muddy river; great
stretches of clay flats, broken here and there by little clumps of round
mounds which I knew were Chinese graves, and bordered by distant,
low hills; an occasional quaint grey town with uptilted tile roofs; and
a few graceful but dreary-looking pagodas crowning lonesome hill-
tops. And in addition to all of this there was a seething mass of very
dirty and very noisy humanity which kept out of our way and
regarded us with anything but friendly looks.
I had left my husband apparently perfectly well, but I subsequently
learned that the night after I left Manila he developed the first
symptoms of his illness. It was diagnosed at first as dengue fever, a
disease quite common in the Philippines which, though exceedingly
disagreeable, is not regarded as dangerous. It was about two weeks
before a correct diagnosis was made, and it was then discovered that
he was suffering from an abscess which called for a serious
emergency operation. He was taken to the First Reserve Army
hospital and the operation was performed by Dr. Rhoads, the Army
surgeon who afterward became his aide when he was President.
The children must have been much frightened. They had never
seen their father ill before, and he told me afterward that he should
never forget the way they looked as he was being carried out of
Malacañan on a stretcher borne by six stalwart American policemen.
They were all huddled together in the great hall as he passed
through, and while Bob and Charlie were gazing at the proceedings
in open-eyed astonishment, Helen was weeping.
For twenty-four hours after the operation the doctors were not at
all certain that their patient would live, nor did their anxiety end at
that time. The abscess was of long growth, the wound had to be made
a terrible one, and there was great danger of blood poisoning. Mr.
Taft rallied but a second operation was necessary. By the time I
reached Manila he was well on the way to recovery, though even then
there was no prospect of his being able to move for many weeks to
come.
 He used to lie on his cot in the hospital and recite to his visitors a
verse of Kipling’s which he thought fitted his case exactly:
“Now it is not well for the white man
To hurry the Aryan brown,
For the white man riles and the Aryan smiles,
And it weareth the white man down.
And the end of the fight is a tombstone white
With the name of the late deceased,
And the epitaph drear: ‘A fool lies here
Who tried to hurry the East.’”

It was decided at once by everybody, including the doctors, Mr.

Root and President Roosevelt, that Mr. Taft must leave the Islands as
soon as he was able to travel, and there were several reasons, besides
those connected with health, why it seemed best for us to return to
the United States. The principal one was that Congress was
becoming very active with regard to Philippine matters, and as Mr.
Taft was anxious that the right kind of legislation should be passed,
he wished to go to Washington and present the facts about the
situation as he had found them during his long hand-to-hand
struggle with the problem. Mr. Root cabled him that his presence in
Washington was necessary and granted him a three months’ leave of
absence from his duties as Governor, while General Wright was
appointed vice-Governor to fill his place for the time being.
Mr. Worcester was the ranking member of the Commission, but
my husband felt that he had not quite the same talent for genially
dealing with every kind of person, whether evasive Filipino or
dictatorial Army officer, which General Wright so conspicuously
displayed, and, moreover, Mr. Worcester was entirely engrossed with
the problems of his department, which included health and
sanitation and the satisfactory adjustment of the difficulties
connected with the government of the non-Christian tribes. These
were matters which appealed to Mr. Worcester’s scientific mind and
which he vastly preferred to the uncongenial task of administering
the routine of government, so he was only too willing not to be
encumbered with the duties of Governor. This, I understand, was Mr.
Worcester’s attitude throughout his thirteen years as Secretary of the
Interior, during which time he was always the ranking Commissioner
with the first right, under a promotion system, to the Governorship
whenever a vacancy occurred in that office.
The transport Grant was assigned for our use by General Chaffee,
and we made our preparations for an extended absence.
One incident of my husband’s convalescence in the hospital I think
I must relate. In an adjoining room General Frederick Funston was
recovering from an operation for appendicitis and he was sufficiently
far advanced to be able to walk around, so he used to call on Mr. Taft
quite often. Now General Funston, for the benefit of those who have
no mental picture of him, is by no means gigantic. He has the bearing
of a seven-foot soldier, but the truth is he is not more than five feet
three or four inches in height.
One day there was an earthquake of long duration and extended
vibration which would have been sufficient to destroy Manila had it
not lacked a certain upward jerk calculated to unbalance swaying
walls. One gets used to earthquakes in the Orient in a way, but no
amount of familiarity can make the sensation a pleasant one. My
husband was alone at the time and he had decided to hold hard to his
bed and let the roof come down on him if it had to. The hospital was
a one story wooden building and he really thought he was as safe in it
as he would be anywhere. Moreover, he was quite unable to walk, so
his fortitude could hardly be called voluntary, but he had scarcely
had time to steel himself for the worst when his door was thrown
open and in rushed General Funston.
“We must carry out the Governor!” he shouted; “we must carry out
the Governor!”
“But how are you going to do that, General?” asked Mr. Taft.
He knew quite well that General Funston, in his weakened
condition, would be incapable of carrying an infant very far.
“Oh, I have my orderly with me,” responded the doughty General,
and by this time he had begun to get a firm grasp on the mattress
while behind him hurried a soldier, shorter even than his chief, but
with the same look of dauntless determination in his eye.
In spite of the straining on the rafters, Mr. Taft burst out laughing
and flatly refused to let them try to move him. Fortunately for them
all the upward jerk necessary to bring down the roof didn’t occur, so
there is no way of telling whether or not, for once in his life, General
Funston started something that he couldn’t finish.
We sailed from Manila on Christmas Eve, 1901, and, much as I had
enjoyed my life and experiences in our new world of the Philippines,
I was glad to see the tropic shores fade away and to feel that we were
to have a few months in our own land and climate, and among our
own old friends, before I sighted them again.
 CHAPTER XI
A TRIP TO ROME

The winter of 1902, the greater part of which we spent in

Cincinnati, is memorable only as a period of bereavement and
protracted illnesses. Perhaps such a record has no place in a
narrative wherein it is my wish to dwell on pleasant memories only,
or, at least, to touch as lightly as possible upon those incidents
which, for one’s peace, may better be forgotten, but a whole winter
filled with grief and worry is not so easily torn from the leaves of the
calendar rolled back.
In the first place, when I left Manila in December, 1901, I was very
near to a nervous breakdown. This was due to the long strain of a
peculiarly exacting official life in a trying climate, and an added
weight of uneasiness about my husband’s illness.
Then, too, my mother was very ill. She had suffered a stroke of
paralysis the year before from which she had never rallied and I was
extremely anxious to be with her in Cincinnati.
When we arrived in San Francisco a terrible mid-winter storm was
sweeping the country from one end to the other and we were strongly
advised to delay our trip across the continent, but we were both eager
to go on so we started East at once over the Union Pacific.
When we passed Ogden we found ourselves in the midst of the
worst blizzard I ever saw. The snow piled up ahead of us, delaying us
hour by hour; the bitter wind fairly shook the heavy train; and to
turn mere discomfort into misery the water pipes in the cars froze
solid and we were left without heat of any kind. There was nothing to
do but to go to bed; but even so, with all the blankets available piled
on top of us, we shivered through interminable hours while the train
creaked and puffed and struggled over the icy tracks.
 When we reached Omaha I received a telegram telling me that my
mother had died the day before, and I found it no longer possible to
brace myself against the inevitable collapse. We hurried on to
Cincinnati and arrived in time for my mother’s funeral, but I was too
ill to be present. It was two months before I began to recover.
In the meantime Mr. Taft left us and went on to Washington for
consultation with the President and Mr. Root and to appear before
the Philippine Committees of the House and Senate which were then
conducting minute inquiries into conditions in the Islands
preparatory to passing a much needed governmental bill. For a
whole month he was subjected to a hostile cross-examination, but he
was able to place before the Committees more first-hand and
accurate information on the subject of their deliberations than they
had theretofore received. This was exactly what he wanted to come to
the United States for, and he would greatly have enjoyed it had he
been in his usual form, but he was not. During his stay in
Washington he was the guest of Secretary and Mrs. Root and only
their friendly care and solicitude enabled him to continue so long. In
March he was compelled to return to Cincinnati for another
operation, the third in five months. Everything considered, it seemed
to me the Taft family had fallen upon evil days.
However, the weeks passed, I began to improve, and as soon as my
husband had fairly set his feet on earth again we began to make plans
for our return to the Philippines. There could be no thought of
abandoning the work in the Islands just when it was beginning to
assume an ordered and encouraging aspect, nor was it possible just
then to shift the responsibility to other shoulders. This would have
been too much like “changing horses in the middle of a stream.”
My husband was able while he was in Washington to present to
President Roosevelt and Secretary Root a very clear outline of
Philippine affairs, together with such details as could never be
conveyed by cable, and the inevitable conclusion reached was that no
solution of the problem was possible which did not include the
settlement of the Friar controversy. The four monastic orders, the
Franciscan, the Dominican, the Augustinian and the Recoleto, which
held four hundred thousand acres of the best agricultural land in the
Islands, had won the lasting enmity of the Filipino people and it was
absolutely impossible to establish permanent peace while the Friars
remained and persisted in an attempt to return to their parishes.
Hundreds of them were living in practical imprisonment in the
monasteries of Manila, and that they should not be allowed to return
to their churches throughout the Islands, from which they had been
driven, was the one stand taken by the Filipinos from which they
could not by any form of persuasion be moved.
The solution of the difficulty proposed by Mr. Taft and his
colleagues in the Philippine government was that the United States
purchase the Friars’ lands and turn them into a public domain on the
condition that the orders objected to by the people be withdrawn
from the Islands.
As soon as President Roosevelt recognised the importance of
accomplishing these things he decided, with characteristic
directness, that somebody should go at once to Rome and open
negotiations with the Vatican, and after considering various men for
this delicate mission he concluded that Mr. Taft was the man best
fitted to undertake it.
The prospect of another novel experience was exceedingly
gratifying to me and I began at once to look forward with interest to a
renewal of my acquaintance with Rome and to the trip back to the
East by the Suez Canal, the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean which,
according to Kipling, “sits an’ smiles, so sof’, so bright, so bloomin’
blue.” So my feet no longer lagged in my preparations for a long trip
with my three children and another extended residence in the
tropics.
To assist Mr. Taft in his negotiations with the Vatican, and to make
up a dignified and formidable looking Commission, the President
appointed Bishop O’Gorman of the Catholic diocese of South Dakota,
and General James F. Smith, at that time a member of the Philippine
judiciary and in later years Philippine Commissioner and Governor-
General of the Islands. His rank of General he attained as an officer
of volunteers in the Army of Pacification in the Philippines, but, a
lawyer in the beginning, after he was appointed to the Bench he
became known as Judge Smith, and Judge we always called him. He
is an Irish Catholic Democrat and a man of very sane views and
exceptional ability. Major John Biddle Porter was made Secretary-
Interpreter to the Commission, and Bishop Brent, Episcopal Bishop
of the Philippines, on his way to Manila, decided to go with Mr. Taft,