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Textbook Clinical 3D Dosimetry in Modern Radiation Therapy 1St Edition Ben Mijnheer Ebook All Chapter PDF
Textbook Clinical 3D Dosimetry in Modern Radiation Therapy 1St Edition Ben Mijnheer Ebook All Chapter PDF
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Clinical 3D
Dosimetry in
Modern Radiation
Therapy
IMAGING IN MEDICAL DIAGNOSIS AND THERAPY
Series Editors: Andrew Karellas and Bruce R. Thomadsen
Published titles
Published titles
Comprehensive Brachytherapy: Tomosynthesis Imaging
Physical and Clinical Aspects Ingrid Reiser and Stephen Glick, Editors
Jack Venselaar, Dimos Baltas, Peter J. Hoskin, ISBN: 978-1-138-19965-1
and Ali Soleimani-Meigooni, Editors
Ultrasound Imaging and Therapy
ISBN: 978-1-4398-4498-4
Aaron Fenster and James C. Lacefield, Editors
Handbook of Radioembolization: ISBN: 978-1-4398-6628-3
Physics, Biology, Nuclear Medicine,
Beam’s Eye View Imaging in
and Imaging
Radiation Oncology
Alexander S. Pasciak, PhD., Yong Bradley, MD.,
Ross I. Berbeco, Ph.D., Editor
J. Mark McKinney, MD., Editors
ISBN: 978-1-4987-3634-3
ISBN: 978-1-4987-4201-6
Principles and Practice of
Monte Carlo Techniques in Radiation
Image-Guided Radiation Therapy
Therapy
of Lung Cancer
Joao Seco and Frank Verhaegen, Editors
Jing Cai, Joe Y. Chang, and Fang-Fang Yin,
ISBN: 978-1-4665-0792-0
Editors
Stereotactic Radiosurgery and ISBN: 978-1-4987-3673-2
Stereotactic Body Radiation Therapy
Radiochromic Film: Role and
Stanley H. Benedict, David J. Schlesinger,
Applications in Radiation Dosimetry
Steven J. Goetsch, and Brian D. Kavanagh,
Indra J. Das, Editor
Editors
ISBN: 978-1-4987-7647-9
ISBN: 978-1-4398-4197-6
Clinical 3D Dosimetry in Modern
Physics of PET and SPECT Imaging
Radiation Therapy
Magnus Dahlbom, Editor
Ben Mijnheer, Editor
ISBN: 978-1-4665-6013-0
ISBN: 978-1-4822-5221-7
Clinical 3D
Dosimetry in
Modern Radiation
Therapy
Edited by
Ben Mijnheer
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable
efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot
assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and
publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication
and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any
copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any
future reprint.
Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced,
transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or
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or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers.
For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.
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photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged.
Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are
used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
Series Preface xi
Preface xiii
Acknowledgments xv
Editor xvii
Contributors xix
Section I Introduction
Section II Instrumentation
vii
6 Radiochromic 3D Detectors 137
Mark Oldham, Titania Juang, and Suk Whan (Paul) Yoon
7 Electronic Portal Imaging Device Dosimetry 169
Boyd McCurdy, Peter Greer, and James Bedford
8 2D and Semi-3D Dosimetry Systems 199
Donald A. Roberts, Kelly C. Younge, and Jean M. Moran
viii Contents
18 Patient-Specific Quality Assurance: In Vivo 3D
Dose Verification 457
Ben Mijnheer
19 Audits Using End-to-End Tests 487
David S. Followill, Catharine H. Clark, and Tomas Kron
20 Brachytherapy Dosimetry in Three Dimensions 509
J. Adam M. Cunha, Christopher L. Deufel, and Mark J. Rivard
21 Dose Outside the Treatment Volume in External Beam
Therapy 537
Stephen F. Kry, Rebecca M. Howell, and Bryan P. Bednarz
22 Imaging Dose in Radiation Therapy 553
Jonathan Sykes, Parham Alaei, and Emiliano Spezi
23 Dose Verification of Proton and Carbon
Ion Beam Treatments 581
Katia Parodi
Contents ix
Series Preface
Since their inception over a century ago, advances in the science and technology
of medical imaging and radiation therapy are more profound and rapid than
ever before. Further, these disciplines are increasingly cross-linked as imaging
methods become more widely used to plan, guide, monitor, and assess treatments
in radiation therapy. Today, the technologies of medical imaging and radiation
therapy are so complex and computer driven that it is difficult for the people (phy-
sicians and technologists) responsible for their clinical use to know exactly what
is happening at the point of care, when a patient is being examined or treated.
The people best equipped to understand the technologies and their applications
are medical physicists, and these individuals are assuming greater responsibili-
ties in the clinical arena to ensure that what is intended for the patient is actually
delivered in a safe and effective manner.
The growing responsibilities of medical physicists in the clinical arenas of
medical imaging and radiation therapy are not without their challenges, how-
ever. Most medical physicists are knowledgeable in either radiation therapy or
medical imaging, and expert in one or a small number of areas within their
disciplines. They sustain their expertise in these areas by reading scientific
articles and attending scientific talks at meetings. In contrast, their responsibili-
ties increasingly extend beyond their specific areas of expertise. To meet these
responsibilities, medical physicists periodically must refresh their knowledge of
advances in medical imaging or radiation therapy, and they must be prepared
to function at the intersection of these two fields. The challenge is to accomplish
these objectives.
At the 2007 annual meeting of the American Association of Physicists in
Medicine in Minneapolis, this challenge was the topic of conversation during
a lunch hosted by Taylor & Francis Group and involving a group of senior
medical physicists (Arthur L. Boyer, Joseph O. Deasy, C.-M. Charlie Ma, Todd
A. Pawlicki, Ervin B. Podgorsak, Elke Reitzel, Anthony B. Wolbarst, and Ellen
D. Yorke). The conclusion of this discussion was that a book series should be
launched under the Taylor & Francis banner, with each volume in the series
addressing a rapidly advancing area of medical imaging or radiation therapy of
importance to medical physicists. The aim of this series would be for each vol-
ume to provide medical physicists with the information needed to understand
xi
technologies driving a rapid advance and their applications to safe and effective
delivery of patient care.
Each volume in the series is edited by one or more individuals with recognized
expertise in the technological area encompassed by the book. The editors are
responsible for selecting the authors of individual chapters and ensuring that the
chapters are comprehensive and intelligible to someone without such expertise.
The enthusiasm of volume editors and chapter authors has been gratifying and
reinforces the conclusion of the Minneapolis luncheon that this series of books
addresses a major need of medical physicists.
The series Imaging in Medical Diagnosis and Therapy would not have been
possible without the encouragement and support of the series manager, Lu Han,
of Taylor & Francis Group. The editors and authors, and most of all I, are indebted
to his steady guidance of the entire project.
— William R. Hendee
Founding Series Editor
Rochester, Minnesota
xiii
has always been 3D in a real-world sense, and certain aspects of 3D dosimetry
have been used in clinical practice for several decades, such as in the commis-
sioning of accelerators and treatment planning systems. This has until relatively
recently been largely based on point (0D), one-dimensional (1D), and 2D practi-
cal approaches such as the use of ionization chambers and planar films or diode
arrays. The major recent advances in the field have demanded new and innova-
tive direct 3D or semi-3D dosimetric tools and methods to accurately character-
ize and validate hard- and software, and to determine and verify patient- and
organ-specific doses. This book aims to bring together these developments and
information to cover the state-of-the-art of the accuracy, instrumentation, meth-
ods, and clinical as well as preclinical applications of 3D dosimetry in modern
radiation therapy.
Thus, in summary, the topic is wide, but for the purposes of this book the main
focus is on dose measurement, although dose calculations are also discussed in
a restricted manner. Dose calculation algorithms will not be discussed in detail;
however, the verification of the algorithms and their clinical application is an
important part of the book. The theoretical physical aspects of the characteristics
of dose computation models and measurement devices can be found in many
textbooks and will only be discussed briefly. In this book, we focus on new devel-
opments of measurement techniques and 3D dosimetry of modern radiotherapy
techniques including those of new image-guided treatment modalities.
This book is divided into five sections dealing with various aspects related to
clinical 3D dosimetry. In the section entitled “Introduction,” after summarizing
the main topics discussed in the different chapters in this book, the clinical need
for accurate 3D dosimetry is elucidated from different points of view. In the sec-
ond section on “Instrumentation,” experts in the use of the many different types
of radiation detectors currently applied for dosimetry describe the specific appli-
cation of these detectors to 3D dosimetry. The emphasis is on the clinical applica-
tion of these detectors with a brief overview of the unique characteristics of the
detectors of importance to 3D dosimetry. In the third section on “Measurement
and Computation,” various 3D and 4D dosimetry methods required for special
treatment techniques, both already routinely applied or at the developmental
stage, are described. In the fourth section of the book on “Clinical Applications,”
a range of 3D dosimetry techniques are discussed extensively for a large variety of
treatment techniques and disease sites including intensity-modulated radiother-
apy (IMRT), volumetric-modulated arc therapy (VMAT), brachytherapy, and
proton/carbon ion therapy. In the final section, entitled “Emerging Technological
Developments,” 3D dosimetry techniques used for emerging technological devel-
opments in the field of radiotherapy are introduced.
The target audiences are primarily physicists involved in clinical radiotherapy.
These include medical physicists working in radiotherapy departments, medi-
cal physics residents, and graduate students training in the field of radiotherapy
physics. In addition, the book is intended to provide state-of-the-art information
on relevant dosimetry methods for basic scientists and other researchers working
on the development of new radiation detectors or sources. Finally, some chapters
of the book are suitable as background information for radiation oncologists and
radiation therapists, and may serve as teaching material for radiation oncology
residents and other students and trainees.
xiv Preface
Acknowledgments
The idea for this book originated about four years ago. Since that time both
original editors (Ben Mijnheer and David Thwaites) had many exciting discus-
sions about the concept of the book, its outline and content, finding authors and
discussing with them about their chapters and developing the chapter outlines.
Also, both spent a lot of time in responding to the questions and comments up
to the point that draft chapters started to come in and the editing process began.
Unfortunately, around that time, it became clear that it was not possible for
David Thwaites to continue to put in the time to this project that he had expected
and intended. He therefore had to withdraw as a coeditor, which was a setback for
both of us and for the book timing. The editor (BM) very much appreciates that
David has helped enormously to initiate and support such a book, for which we
felt a clear need in our clinical practice and research community.
xv
Editor
xvii
Contributors
xix
Catharine H. Clark Nesrin Dogan
Department of Medical Physics Radiation Oncology Department
St. Luke’s Cancer Centre Sylvester Comprehensive Cancer
Royal Surrey County Hospital Center
Guildford, Surrey, UK University of Miami
Miami, Florida
and
Simon Duane
Metrology for Medical Physics Division of Acoustics and Ionizing
National Physical Laboratory Radiation
Teddington, UK National Physical Laboratory
Teddington, United Kingdom
Emma Colvill
Sydney Medical School David S. Followill
University of Sydney Department of Radiation Physics
Sydney, New South Wales, Australia The University of Texas MD Anderson
Cancer Center
J. Adam M. Cunha Houston, Texas
Department of Radiation Oncology
University of California Paolo Francescon
San Francisco, California Department of Medical Physics
San Bortolo Hospital
Joanna E. Cygler Vicenza, Italy
Medical Physics Department
The Ottawa Hospital Cancer Centre Dietmar Georg
and Division Medical Radiation Physics
Department of Radiology Department of Radiation Oncology
University of Ottawa Medical University of Vienna
and Vienna, Austria
Department of Physics
Carleton University Peter B. Greer
Ottawa, Ontario, Canada Department of Radiation Oncology
Calvary Mater Newcastle
Indra J. Das Waratah, New South Wales,
Department of Radiation Oncology Australia
New York University Langone
Medical Center and
New York, New York
Mathematical and Physical
Yves De Deene Sciences
Department of Engineering University of Newcastle
Faculty of Science and Engineering Newcastle, New South Wales,
Macquarie University Australia
Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
Rebecca M. Howell
Christopher L. Deufel Department of Radiation Physics
Department of Radiation Oncology The University of Texas MD Anderson
Mayo Clinic Cancer Center
Rochester, Minnesota Houston, Texas
xx Contributors
Mohammad Hussein Boyd McCurdy
Department of Medical Physics Division of Medical Physics
St. Luke’s Cancer Centre Department of Physics & Astronomy
Royal Surrey County Hospital NHS CancerCare Manitoba and University
Foundation Trust of Manitoba
Guildford, Surrey, UK Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
Contributors xxi
Chester Reft Jonathan Sykes
Department of Radiation and Cellular Radiation Oncology Medical Physics
Oncology Sydney West Cancer Network—
University of Chicago Blacktown Hospital
Chicago, Illinois Blacktown, New South Wales, Australia
xxii Contributors
S ECTION I
Introduction
1
Introduction and Overview of
the Contents of the Book
Ben Mijnheer
3
in the clinic. Capabilities of a 3D TPS that had to be tested included the use of
irregularly shaped treatment fields, 3D dose calculation algorithms, display of
3D anatomy and 3D dose distributions, and treatment plan evaluation tools.
For all these activities, new dosimetric approaches were introduced, often
based on the use of the same type of dosimeters as applied in conventional
2DRT, but measurements were now required in many more points in multiple
planes.
Gradually, 3DCRT became more complicated with the use of techniques
having small fields shaped by multileaf collimators (MLCs) or special cones,
for instance, for stereotactic radiotherapy. With the introduction of intensity-
modulated radiotherapy (IMRT) and volumetric-modulated arc therapy
(VMAT), as well as with the clinical use of proton and carbon ion beams, numer-
ous other new possibilities for creating complex treatment plans became avail-
able. All these new treatment modalities needed, however, additional efforts in
assessing the accuracy of the various steps in the radiotherapy process as dis-
cussed in many reports (e.g., Ezzell et al., 2003; ESTRO, 2008; ICRU, 2010). This
book aims to discuss the many aspects related to 3D, or even 4D, that is, includ-
ing the time variation, dosimetry techniques needed to determine very accu-
rately the 3D dose distributions involved in modern radiotherapy using these
novel planning and delivery tools. It is intended to explain the many issues
involved in the design and clinical implementation of these newly developed 3D
dosimetry tools required for the introduction of new treatment technology. It
should enable readers to select the most suitable dosimetry approaches, as well as
equipment and methods for their application, based on numerical data, exam-
ples, and case studies provided.
In the first section of this book, diverse aspects related to the accuracy that
is required and can be achieved in modern radiotherapy are elucidated. The
need for accurate 3D dosimetry is clarified in Chapter 2 from different points
of view, starting with the physical aspects followed by the biological and clini-
cal context for accuracy and precision in contemporary radiation therapy. After
discussing the basic metrology terminology and the relationship between
dosimetry and geometry, a historical perspective on accuracy in radiotherapy
is given, followed by a summary of recent data on uncertainties associated with
3D dosimetry and 3D dose delivery. The drive for dosimetric accuracy needs,
however, to be considered in context with the inherent uncertainties associated
with complex biological environments. It is shown in Chapter 2 that in many
cases, biological and clinical uncertainties may predominate over uncertainties
associated with the physical delivery of therapeutic radiation. These biological
and clinical sources of uncertainties are associated with underlying tissue
biology and with target delineations as determined by human observers. The
impact of systematic and random uncertainties on clinical response has been
used to formulate accuracy requirements for planning target volumes and
organs at risk. Furthermore, it is discussed how these uncertainties can influ-
ence the design and interpretation of clinical trial outcomes incorporating
radiation treatments. Strategies to deal with uncertainties in the clinic, such as
quality management, clinical audit, and risk analysis, are also briefly discussed
in this chapter. On the basis of this review of uncertainties in modern radio-
therapy, recommendations regarding accuracy requirements are given, espe-
cially in the context of 3D dosimetry, which were partially taken from a recent
report published by the IAEA (2016).
1.2 Instrumentation 5
are presented. After discussing the uncertainties in the dose determination due
to variation in the preparation of these dosimeters and in the readout procedure,
guidelines for the implementation of polymer gel dosimetry and radiochromic
3D detectors are provided.
In addition to their original use for patient setup verification, electronic portal
imaging devices (EPIDs) are also used for many other purposes including dosi-
metric applications. Some EPID-based approaches are able to reconstruct the 3D
dose distribution in the patient anatomy from EPID images and can therefore be
considered as pseudo-3D dosimetry systems. Amorphous silicon (a-Si)–type
EPIDs possess useful dosimetric characteristics such as the (almost) linearity of
the response with dose and dose rate, good long-term stability, high spatial reso-
lution, and real-time readout. These characteristics, and their applications in
radiation therapy, have been described in detail in Chapter 7. Technical chal-
lenges to the routine use of a-Si EPIDs, such as improvements to signal acquisi-
tion and clinical software, are also explained. The remaining discussion in this
chapter focuses on updating the literature review on EPID dosimetry provided
by van Elmpt et al. (2008) to include publications between 2008 and mid-2016,
numbering more than 100 additional references.
In Chapter 8, the use of multidimensional (2D and semi-3D) dosimetry sys-
tems is discussed. These systems, whether in a 2D or other array of detectors,
provide real-time feedback at the time of measurements, and an overview of the
basic characteristics of planar and semi-3D systems is provided. It is essential
that these multidimensional detectors are adequately characterized for clinical
use, and guidelines for performing these types of measurements are given. How-
ever, when superior spatial resolution is required, passive detector systems such
as radiochromic films are often the preferred method, and their dosimetric char-
acteristics are also provided in this chapter. Furthermore, novel 2D or semi-3D
dosimetry systems are discussed in this chapter, including detectors to measure
Cherenkov radiation during delivery, plastic scintillators, which can be set up in
arrays similar to other multidimensional systems, and devices that provide real-
time feedback of a patient’s plan delivery based on the exit fluence from the
collimator of the linear accelerator (linac).
Poika odotti ääneti ja uhmailevana vain sitä, että Aljoša nyt toki
välttämättömästi hyökkäisi hänen kimppuunsa. Kun hän näki että
tämä nytkään ei aio sitä tehdä, niin hän vimmastui kuin peto: hän
syöksyi paikaltaan ja hyökkäsi Aljošan kimppuun, eikä tämä
ennättänyt liikahtaakaan, kun ilkeä poika taivuttaen päänsä alas ja
tarttuen molemmin käsin hänen vasempaan käteensä puraisi
kipeästi hänen keskisormeaan. Poika pureutui siihen hampaineen
eikä noin kymmeneen sekuntiin päästänyt sitä irti. Aljoša huudahti
kivusta ja nyki kaikin voimin sormeaan. Poika päästi sen viimein irti
ja juoksi pois entisen välimatkan päähän. Sormea hän oli purrut
kipeästi aivan kynnen kohdalta syvälle luuhun asti, ja siitä virtasi
verta. Aljoša otti taskustaan liinan ja kääri sen tiukasti haavoitetun
käden ympäri. Käärimiseen meni melkein kokonainen minuutti. Poika
seisoi kaiken aikaa ja odotti. Viimein Aljoša kohotti häneen
rauhallisen katseensa.
— No, hyvä, — sanoi hän, — näette, kuinka kipeästi olette minua
purrut, kai se jo riittää? Sanokaa nyt, mitä minä olen teille tehnyt?
4.
Hohlakovien luona
— Sain kyllä.
Mutta heti kun Lise näki raosta Aljošan sormen, hän avasi oven
selko selälleen.
— Minä tuon heti kaikki, Lise, älä vain huuda äläkä ole levoton.
Näetkö, kuinka lujana Aleksei Fjodorovitš kantaa onnettomuutensa.
Missä te olettekaan voinut niin kamalasti haavoittua, Aleksei
Fjodorovitš?
— Se jäi sinne.
— Minkä tähden?
— Te loukkaatte minua!
— Enhän minä voinut tietää, että hän tulee tänne sormi purtuna,
muutenhan tosiaankin olisin voinut tehdä sen tahallani. Enkelini,
äitikulta, te alatte puhua tavattoman teräväjärkisesti.
— No, riittää jo, Lise, kenties minä tosiaankin olin liian kärkäs
puhumaan hullusta pojasta ja sinä teit jo omat johtopäätöksesi. Heti
kun Katerina Ivanovna sai kuulla teidän tulleen, Aleksei Fjodorovitš,
hän syöksyi luokseni, hänellä on hirveä, hirveä halu nähdä teitä.
— Ah, äiti! Menkää sinne yksin, hän ei voi nyt heti lähteä, hän
kärsii kovin.
— Ah, Lise, tuo on vain leikkiä sinun puoleltasi, vaan mitäpä, jos
tosiaankin nukkuisit! — huudahti rouva Hohlakov.
— Minä en tiedä, millä olen… Minä jään vielä noin kolmeksi tai, jos
niin tahdotte, viideksi minuutiksi, — mutisi Aljoša.
Mullerrus vierashuoneessa