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 IFIP AICT 542
Jason Staggs
Sujeet Shenoi (Eds.)

Critical
Infrastructure
Protection XII

123
IFIP Advances in Information
and Communication Technology 542

Editor-in-Chief

Kai Rannenberg, Goethe University Frankfurt, Germany

Editorial Board
TC 1 – Foundations of Computer Science
Jacques Sakarovitch, Télécom ParisTech, France
TC 2 – Software: Theory and Practice
Michael Goedicke, University of Duisburg-Essen, Germany
TC 3 – Education
Arthur Tatnall, Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia
TC 5 – Information Technology Applications
Erich J. Neuhold, University of Vienna, Austria
TC 6 – Communication Systems
Aiko Pras, University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands
TC 7 – System Modeling and Optimization
Fredi Tröltzsch, TU Berlin, Germany
TC 8 – Information Systems
Jan Pries-Heje, Roskilde University, Denmark
TC 9 – ICT and Society
David Kreps, University of Salford, Greater Manchester, UK
TC 10 – Computer Systems Technology
Ricardo Reis, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil
TC 11 – Security and Privacy Protection in Information Processing Systems
Steven Furnell, Plymouth University, UK
TC 12 – Artificial Intelligence
Ulrich Furbach, University of Koblenz-Landau, Germany
TC 13 – Human-Computer Interaction
Marco Winckler, University Paul Sabatier, Toulouse, France
TC 14 – Entertainment Computing
Matthias Rauterberg, Eindhoven University of Technology, The Netherlands
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More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/6102

Jason Staggs Sujeet Shenoi (Eds.)
•

Critical Infrastructure
Protection XII
12th IFIP WG 11.10 International Conference, ICCIP 2018
Arlington, VA, USA, March 12–14, 2018
Revised Selected Papers

123
Editors
Jason Staggs Sujeet Shenoi
Tandy School of Computer Science Tandy School of Computer Science
University of Tulsa University of Tulsa
Tulsa, OK, USA Tulsa, OK, USA

ISSN 1868-4238 ISSN 1868-422X (electronic)

IFIP Advances in Information and Communication Technology
ISBN 978-3-030-04536-4 ISBN 978-3-030-04537-1 (eBook)
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Contents

Contributing Authors ix
Preface xv

PART I THEMES AND ISSUES

1
A Theory of Homeland Security 3
Richard White

2
An Evidence Quality Assessment Model for Cyber Security Policymaking 23
Atif Hussain, Siraj Shaikh, Alex Chung, Sneha Dawda and
Madeline Carr

3
Liability Exposure when 3D-Printed Parts Fall from the Sky 39
Lynne Graves, Mark Yampolskiy, Wayne King, Sofia Belikovetsky
and Yuval Elovici

PART II INFRASTRUCTURE PROTECTION

4
Error Propagation After Reordering Attacks on Hierarchical State 67
Estimation
Ammara Gul and Stephen Wolthusen

5
Securing Data in Power-Limited Sensor Networks Using Two-Channel 81
Communications
Clark Wolfe, Scott Graham, Robert Mills, Scott Nykl and Paul
Simon

6
Reversing a Lattice ECP3 FPGA for Bitstream Protection 91
Daniel Celebucki, Scott Graham and Sanjeev Gunawardena
vi CRITICAL INFRASTRUCTURE PROTECTION XII
7
Protecting Infrastructure Data via Enhanced Access Control, Blockchain 113
and Differential Privacy
Asma Alnemari, Suchith Arodi, Valentina Rodriguez Sosa, Soni
Pandey, Carol Romanowski, Rajendra Raj and Sumita Mishra

8
A New SCAP Information Model and Data Model for Content 127
Authors
Joshua Lubell

PART III INFRASTRUCTURE MODELING AND SIMULATION

9
Modeling a Midstream Oil Terminal for Cyber Security Risk Evaluation 149
Rishabh Das and Thomas Morris

10
A Cyber-Physical Testbed for Measuring the Impacts of Cyber 177
Attacks on Urban Road Networks
Marielba Urdaneta, Antoine Lemay, Nicolas Saunier and Jose
Fernandez

11
Persistent Human Control in a Reservation-Based Autonomous 197
Intersection Protocol
Karl Bentjen, Scott Graham and Scott Nykl

PART IV INDUSTRIAL CONTROL SYSTEMS SECURITY

12
A History of Cyber Incidents and Threats Involving Industrial 215
Control Systems
Kevin Hemsley and Ronald Fisher

13
An Integrated Control and Intrusion Detection System for Smart 243
Grid Security
Eniye Tebekaemi, Duminda Wijesekera and Paulo Costa

14
Generating Abnormal Industrial Control Network Traffic for Intrusion 265
Detection System Testing
Joo-Yeop Song, Woomyo Lee, Jeong-Han Yun, Hyunjae Park,
Sin-Kyu Kim and Young-June Choi
Contents vii

15
Variable Speed Simulation for Accelerated Industrial Control System 283
Cyber Training
Luke Bradford, Barry Mullins, Stephen Dunlap and Timothy Lacey
Contributing Authors

Asma Alnemari is a Ph.D. student in Computing and Information Sciences at

Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, New York. Her research interests
include differential privacy and its application in real-world systems.

Suchith Arodi is a Software Engineer with the Office of Architecture, State

Street Corporation, Raleigh, North Carolina. His research interests include
blockchain, cyber security and data science.

Sofia Belikovetsky is a Ph.D. student in Information Systems Engineering at

Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel. Her research focuses
on the security of additive manufacturing processes and systems.

Karl Bentjen recently completed his M.S. degree in Computer Engineering

at the Air Force Institute of Technology, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base,
Ohio. His research interests include vehicular network security and critical
infrastructure protection.

Luke Bradford is an M.S. student in Computer Science at the Air Force

Institute of Technology, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio. His research
interests include cyber operations and critical infrastructure protection.

Madeline Carr is an Associate Professor of International Relations and Cyber

Security, and the Director of the Research Institute for the Science of Cyber
Security at University College London, London, United Kingdom. Her research
interests include global cyber security, cyber norms, the Internet of Things and
board/policy decision making on cyber risk.

Daniel Celebucki recently completed his M.S. degree in Cyber Operations at

the Air Force Institute of Technology, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio.
His research interests include embedded systems, reconfigurable computing,
reverse engineering and critical infrastructure protection.
x CRITICAL INFRASTRUCTURE PROTECTION XII

Young-June Choi is a Professor of Computer Engineering at Ajou University,

Suwon, Republic of Korea. His research interests include network security and
cyber-physical systems.

Alex Chung is a Research Associate in the Department of Science, Technology,

Engineering and Public Policy, University College London, London, United
Kingdom. His research interests include cyber security policy, organized crime,
and digital economy and society.

Paulo Costa is an Associate Professor of Systems Engineering and Operations

Research at George Mason University, Fairfax, Virginia. His research interests
include cyber security, transportation systems and multi-sensor data fusion.

Rishabh Das is a Ph.D. student in Computer Engineering at the University

of Alabama in Huntsville, Huntsville, Alabama. His research interests include
industrial control system virtualization, machine learning and embedded intru-
sion detection systems.

Sneha Dawda is a Research Associate in Digital Business Strategy at Forrester

Research, London, United Kingdom. Her research interests include geopolitical
cyber security and digital financial services security.

Stephen Dunlap is a Cyber Security Research Engineer at the Air Force

Institute of Technology, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio. His research
interests include embedded systems security, cyber-physical systems security
and critical infrastructure protection.

Yuval Elovici is a Professor of Information Systems Engineering, Director of

the Telekom Innovation Laboratories and Head of the Cyber Security Research
Center at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel. His research
interests include computer security and network security.

Jose Fernandez is an Associate Professor of Computer and Software Engi-

neering at Ecole Polytechnique de Montreal, Montreal, Canada. His research
interests include industrial control systems security, critical infrastructure se-
curity, cyber crime, cyber public health and cyber conflict.

Ronald Fisher is the Director of the Infrastructure Assurance and Analysis

Division at Idaho National Laboratory, Idaho Falls, Idaho. His research inter-
ests include critical infrastructure protection and resilience, including industrial
control systems.
Contributing Authors xi

Scott Graham is an Assistant Professor of Computer Engineering at the Air

Force Institute of Technology, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio. His re-
search interests include vehicle cyber security, critical infrastructure protection
and embedded systems security.

Lynne Graves is a Ph.D. student in Computer Science at the University of

South Alabama, Mobile, Alabama. Her research focuses on additive manufac-
turing security.

Ammara Gul is a Ph.D. student in Information Security at Royal Holloway,

University of London, Egham, United Kingdom. Her research interests include
graph theory and control theory, in particular, the security of state estimation
systems.

Sanjeev Gunawardena is a Research Assistant Professor of Electrical Engi-

neering at the Air Force Institute of Technology, Wright-Patterson Air Force
Base, Ohio. His research interests include satellite navigation and timing sys-
tems, embedded systems, reconfigurable computing and software-defined radio.

Kevin Hemsley is a Project Manager at Idaho National Laboratory, Idaho

Falls, Idaho. His research interests include critical infrastructure protection
and industrial control systems security.

Atif Hussain is a Cyber Security Researcher at the Future Transport and

Cities Research Institute, Coventry University, Coventry, United Kingdom. His
research interests include penetration testing, digital forensics and cyber secu-
rity policymaking.

Sin-Kyu Kim is a Senior Engineering Staff Member at the National Security

Research Institute, Daejeon, Republic of Korea. His research focuses on critical
infrastructure protection.

Wayne King is a Project Leader at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory,

Livermore, California. His research focuses on the physics, material science,
engineering and control aspects of additive manufacturing.

Timothy Lacey is an Adjunct Assistant Professor of Computer Science at the

Air Force Institute of Technology, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio. His
research interests include cyber operations, critical infrastructure protection,
mobile device security, and computer, network and embedded systems security.
xii CRITICAL INFRASTRUCTURE PROTECTION XII

Woomyo Lee is an Engineering Staff Member at the National Security Re-

search Institute, Daejeon, Republic of Korea. Her research interests include
applied cryptography, cyber security and cyber-physical systems.

Antoine Lemay is a Researcher in the Department of Computer and Soft-

ware Engineering at Ecole Polytechnique de Montreal, Montreal, Canada. His
research interests include industrial control systems security, critical infrastruc-
ture protection, cyber crime ecosystems and cyber conflict.

Joshua Lubell is a Computer Scientist in the Systems Integration Division at

the National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland.
His research interests include model-based engineering, cyber security, cyber-
physical systems, information modeling and markup technologies.

Robert Mills is a Professor of Electrical Engineering at the Air Force Institute

of Technology, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio. His research interests
include network security and management, cyber situational awareness and
electronic warfare.

Sumita Mishra is a Professor of Computing Security at Rochester Institute

of Technology, Rochester, New York. Her research interests include critical
infrastructure protection, resource-constrained networking and security.

Thomas Morris is a Professor of Electrical and Computer Engineering, and

the Director of the Center for Cybersecurity Research and Education at the Uni-
versity of Alabama in Huntsville, Huntsville, Alabama. His research interests
include industrial control system virtualization, intrusion detection, machine
learning and vulnerability testing of cyber-physical systems.

Barry Mullins is a Professor of Computer Engineering at the Air Force In-

stitute of Technology, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio. His research
interests include cyber-physical systems security, cyber operations, critical in-
frastructure protection, computer, network and embedded systems security,
wired and wireless networking, and code reverse engineering.

Scott Nykl is an Assistant Professor of Computer Science at the Air Force

Institute of Technology, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio. His research
interests include visualization and the use of synthetic environments for evalu-
ating computer vision algorithms.
Contributing Authors xiii

Soni Pandey recently completed her M.S. degree in Computer Science at

Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, New York. Her research interests
include data management and cyber security.

Hyunjae Park is a Ph.D. candidate in Computer Engineering at Ajou Uni-

versity, Suwon, Republic of Korea. His research areas include cyber-physical
systems and artificial intelligence.

Rajendra Raj is a Professor of Computer Science at Rochester Institute of

Technology, Rochester, New York. His research interests include cyber security,
data management and distributed computing.

Valentina Rodriguez Sosa is an M.S. student in Computer Science at Roches-

ter Institute of Technology, Rochester, New York. Her research interests include
enterprise system security, secure coding and cyber security education.

Carol Romanowski is a Professor of Computer Science at Rochester Institute

of Technology, Rochester, New York. Her research interests include applications
of data science and data mining to critical infrastructure protection, cyber
security and engineering design.

Nicolas Saunier is a Professor of Transportation Engineering at Ecole Poly-

technique de Montreal, Montreal, Canada. His research interests include in-
telligent transportation systems, road safety and information technology for
transportation.

Siraj Shaikh is a Professor of Systems Security at the Future Transport and

Cities Research Institute, Coventry University, Coventry, United Kingdom. His
research interests include stealthy threat detection, cyber-physical systems se-
curity, especially transportation and cyber security policymaking.

Paul Simon is a Ph.D. student in Electrical Engineering at the Air Force

Institute of Technology, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio. His research
interests include embedded systems security, computer communications secu-
rity and critical infrastructure protection.

Joo-Yeop Song is an M.S. student in Computer Engineering at Ajou Univer-

sity, Suwon, Republic of Korea. His research areas include network security
and artificial intelligence.
xiv CRITICAL INFRASTRUCTURE PROTECTION XII

Eniye Tebekaemi is an Assistant Professor of Computer Science at Mer-

cer University, Macon, Georgia. His research interests include cyber security,
cyber-physical systems and intrusion detection systems.

Marielba Urdaneta is an M.S. student in Computer Engineering at Ecole

Polytechnique de Montreal, Montreal, Canada. Her research interests include
industrial control systems security and critical infrastructure protection.

Richard White is an Assistant Research Professor of Security Engineering at

the University of Colorado Colorado Springs, Colorado Springs, Colorado. His
research interests include risk management and critical infrastructure protec-
tion.

Duminda Wijesekera is a Professor of Computer Science at George Mason

University, Fairfax, Virginia; and a Visiting Research Scientist at the National
Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland. His research
interests include cyber security, digital forensics and transportation systems.

Clark Wolfe recently completed his M.S. degree in Electrical Engineering at

the Air Force Institute of Technology, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio.
His research interests include computer communications security and critical
infrastructure protection.

Stephen Wolthusen is a Professor of Information Security in the Faculty of

Information Technology, Mathematics and Electrical Engineering at the Norwe-
gian University of Science and Technology, Gjovik, Norway; and a Professor of
Information Security at Royal Holloway, University of London, Egham, United
Kingdom. His research interests include critical infrastructure protection and
cyber-physical systems security.

Mark Yampolskiy is an Assistant Professor of Computer Science at the Uni-

versity of South Alabama, Mobile, Alabama. His research focuses on the secu-
rity aspects of additive manufacturing, cyber-physical systems and the Internet
of Things.

Jeong-Han Yun is a Senior Engineering Staff Member at the National Se-

curity Research Institute, Daejeon, Republic of Korea. His reseach interests
include network security, cyber security and industrial control systems secu-
rity.
Preface

The information infrastructure – comprising computers, embedded devices,

networks and software systems – is vital to operations in every sector: chemi-
cals, commercial facilities, communications, critical manufacturing, dams, de-
fense industrial base, emergency services, energy, financial services, food and
agriculture, government facilities, healthcare and public health, information
technology, nuclear reactors, materials and waste, transportation systems, and
water and wastewater systems. Global business and industry, governments,
indeed society itself, cannot function if major components of the critical infor-
mation infrastructure are degraded, disabled or destroyed.
This book, Critical Infrastructure Protection XII, is the twelfth volume in
the annual series produced by IFIP Working Group 11.10 on Critical Infras-
tructure Protection, an active international community of scientists, engineers,
practitioners and policy makers dedicated to advancing research, development
and implementation efforts related to critical infrastructure protection. The
book presents original research results and innovative applications in the area
of infrastructure protection. Also, it highlights the importance of weaving sci-
ence, technology and policy in crafting sophisticated, yet practical, solutions
that will help secure information, computer and network assets in the various
critical infrastructure sectors.
This volume contains fifteen revised and edited papers from the Twelfth
Annual IFIP Working Group 11.10 International Conference on Critical Infras-
tructure Protection, held at SRI International in Arlington, Virginia, USA on
March 12–14, 2018. The papers were refereed by members of IFIP Working
Group 11.10 and other internationally-recognized experts in critical infrastruc-
ture protection. The post-conference manuscripts submitted by the authors
were rewritten to accommodate the suggestions provided by the conference at-
tendees. They were subsequently revised by the editors to produce the final
chapters published in this volume.
The chapters are organized into four sections: (i) themes and issues; (ii)
infrastructure protection; (iii) infrastructure modeling and simulation; and (iv)
industrial control systems security. The coverage of topics showcases the rich-
ness and vitality of the discipline, and offers promising avenues for future re-
search in critical infrastructure protection.
xvi CRITICAL INFRASTRUCTURE PROTECTION XII

This book is the result of the combined efforts of several individuals and or-
ganizations. In particular, we thank David Balenson and Molly Keane for their
tireless work on behalf of IFIP Working Group 11.10. We gratefully acknowl-
edge the Institute for Information Infrastructure Protection (I3P), managed
by George Washington University, for its sponsorship of IFIP Working Group
11.10. We also thank the U.S. Department of Homeland Security, National Se-
curity Agency and SRI International for their support of IFIP Working Group
11.10 and its activities. Finally, we wish to note that all opinions, findings,
conclusions and recommendations in the chapters of this book are those of the
authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of their employers or funding
agencies.

JASON STAGGS AND SUJEET SHENOI

I

THEMES AND ISSUES

 Chapter 1

A THEORY OF HOMELAND SECURITY

Richard White

Abstract Homeland security is a recognized practice, profession and field without

a unifying theory to guide its study and application. The one previous
attempt by Bellavita [2] acknowledges its own shortcomings and may
be considered incomplete at best. The failure may be attributed to
the lack of an underlying correlating factor. This chapter demonstrates
that “domestic catastrophic destruction” is the correlating factor that
unites key historical homeland security incidents and this observation is
leveraged to propose a theory of homeland security that is descriptive,
prescriptive and predictive. The proposed theory is descriptive because
it can differentiate between what is and what is not homeland security.
The theory is prescriptive because it can suggest an optimum homeland
security strategy. It is predictive because it renders homeland security
into a technical problem and demonstrates how its effects may eventu-
ally be blunted through the technological evolution and revolution of
the critical infrastructure. Accordingly, the proposed theory embodies
a set of foundational principles to guide the study and application of
the practice, profession and field of homeland security.

Keywords: Homeland security, theory, foundational principles

1. Introduction
Homeland security is a recognized practice, profession and field that only
recently emerged in the context of national security, which is itself a well-
established practice, profession and field. Partly because of its “newness,”
homeland security – unlike national security – does not yet have a theory and
foundational set of principles that could guide its study and application. The
absence of a theory and foundational principles may also be the result of a lack
of consensus on what constitutes homeland security. This chapter proposes a
theory of homeland security and a set of foundational principles to help bring
about consensus and guide the study and application of the practice, profession
and field of homeland security.

c IFIP International Federation for Information Processing 2018

Published by Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2018.
J. Staggs and S. Shenoi (Eds.): Critical Infrastructure Protection XII, IFIP AICT 542, pp. 3–21, 2018.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04537-1_1
4 CRITICAL INFRASTRUCTURE PROTECTION XII

Situation Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4 Stage 5 Stage 6 Stage 7

Pre- Event Alarm Demand Difficult Priorities Post-
Event Event

Simple X X X X

Complicated X X X X X X

Complex X X X X

Chaotic X

Figure 1: Bellavita Opportunities Matrix (1 p. 22)

Figure 1. Bellavita’s opportunities matrix [2].

2. Previous Work
Perhaps unsurprisingly there have been few attempts to develop a theory of
homeland security and the one treatment by Bellavita [2] is considered to be
incomplete. Bellavita suggested that the dearth of literature may be attributed
to a view by many that homeland security is a subset of existing theories and
does not warrant independent status. Such a view is not unprecedented and has
close parallels with computer science, which, in its early years, was considered
to be a subset of mathematics and engineering. While mathematics and engi-
neering remain integral to computer science, it eventually gained independent
status due to its own distinctiveness. Bellavita felt that such distinctiveness
may yet elude homeland security. However, he kickstarted the process by set-
ting down an initial set of principles, incomplete as they may be, and letting
the theory evolve from there.
Bellavita’s theory of homeland security is based on an “issue-attention cy-
cle.” According to this theory, homeland security is the culmination of a series
of issue-attention cycles that began with the September 11, 2001 (9/11) ter-
rorist attacks and continued with Hurricane Katrina, the H1N1 pandemic, the
merging of homeland security and national security policy by the Obama ad-
ministration, and leading up to the Great Recession. Bellavita observes that
each cycle proceeds in seven stages, providing an opportunity to evaluate and
respond appropriately at each stage. Bellavita subsequently introduced an
“opportunities matrix” for which “one could fill in the chart for a variety of de-
cisions that have to be made during the cycle: decisions about communication,
strategy, planning, technology, leadership, and so on.” For example, the op-
portunities matrix might recommend different leadership styles during different
stages depending on the type of incident. Citing the 2010 Deepwater Horizon
catastrophe, Bellavita claims that an opportunities matrix could make it clear
that leaders who applied complex strategies would be more effective than those
who followed routine procedures. Figure 1 presents the opportunities matrix
of Bellavita [2]
Bellavita’s proposal satisfies two important aspects of a theory. The first is
that is descriptive, offering an explanation of homeland security. The second
White 5

is that it is prescriptive, offering insights on responding to homeland security

incidents. However, by his own admission, Bellavita’s theory fails in one impor-
tant purpose – prediction. Without prediction there can be no direction and,
therefore, no guide for the study and application of the practice, profession and
field of homeland security. Because of the absence of the predictive character-
istic, Bellavita’s proposed theory must be considered incomplete at best. But,
in fact, it can be proved wrong.
In his proposal, Bellavita claims that the 9/11 attacks was the initiating
event for the string of issue-attention cycles that comprise homeland security.
This is not the case. Homeland security did not begin in the aftermath of
the 9/11 attacks. Instead, it began with the 1995 Tokyo subway attacks. On
March 20, 1995, Aum Shinrikyo, a quasi-religious cult, attempted to overthrow
the Japanese government and initiate an apocalypse by releasing the deadly
Sarin nerve agent in the Tokyo subway system during the morning rush hour.
Tragically, twelve people lost their lives, but experts believe it was sheer luck
that prevented thousands more from being killed.
The 1995 Tokyo subway attacks were the first deployment of a weapon of
mass destruction (WMD) by a non-state actor [8]. Before this incident, weapons
of mass destruction were the exclusive domain of nation-states. The impli-
cations for national security were profound. The diplomatic, economic and
military instruments of national power that kept the use of weapons of mass
destruction by nation-states in check were shown to be useless against non-state
actors.
Concerns about a similar attack in the United States prompted a flurry of
Congressional investigations [3, 6, 7, 14–16]. In a series of reports, the Gilmore
Commission, the Hart-Rudman Commission and the Bremer Commission sep-
arately agreed that the United States was unprepared for weapons of mass
destruction threats involving non-state actors. Accordingly, in December 2000,
the second report of the Gilmore Commission [7] recommended that the next
President establish a National Office for Combating Terrorism in the Executive
Office of the President. In February 2001, the third report of the Hart-Rudman
Commission [16] recommended creating a new National Homeland Security
Agency. In March 2001, Representative William Thornberry (R-TX) intro-
duced House Resolution 1158 to create a National Homeland Security Agency
within the Executive Branch of the U.S. Federal Government. House Resolu-
tion 1158 was still sitting in Congress when the nation was attacked six months
later on September 11, 2001 [17].
Does this mean that all that is needed is to reset Bellavita’s issue-attention
cycle to begin with the 1995 Tokyo subway attacks? But this will not salvage
the theory because it would still not have any predictive power. The reason
why Bellavita’s theory will not gain any predictive power – and the reason it
lacks any to begin with – is that the theory does not offer any correlating factor
that explains the relationship between selected events that make up homeland
security. It is the absence of a correlating factor that deprives Bellavita’s theory
of predictive power. This does not mean there is no correlating factor that
6 CRITICAL INFRASTRUCTURE PROTECTION XII

unites homeland security events. There is a correlating factor, but it just has
nothing to do with issue-attention cycles. Indeed, it is the correlating factor
that enables the formulation of a theory of homeland security that is descriptive,
prescriptive and predictive.

3. Correlating Factor
If homeland security began with the 1995 Tokyo subway attacks, then the
correlating factor that underpins homeland security must reside in some sim-
ilarity between this incident and the 9/11 attacks. On September 11, 2001,
nineteen hijackers gained control of four passenger jets and flew three of them
into icons that represented the economic and military strength of the United
States. In just two hours, the hijackers utterly destroyed the Twin Towers in
New York City, and severely damaged the Pentagon outside Washington, DC.
Alerted to these suicide attacks, passengers aboard the fourth aircraft rose up
against their hijackers, forcing them to abort their mission against the nation’s
capital and crash in an empty field outside Shanksville, Pennsylvania. Alto-
gether, the attacks left nearly 3,000 dead and caused 40 billion in direct dam-
age. Cross-referencing the passenger manifests against CIA databases quickly
revealed the hijackers to be members of Al Qaeda, a known terrorist group led
by Osama bin Laden that was operating out of Afghanistan. Enraged by the
presence of U.S. military forces in Saudi Arabia to protect it from aggression by
Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein, bin Laden issued an edict in 1996 that declared
war on the United States. The 9/11 Commission Report [1] states that the
attacks were staged to force U.S. military forces out of Saudi Arabia.
At first glance it might appear that the correlating factor is terrorism. The
1995 Tokyo subway attacks and the 9/11 attacks were terrorist attacks as de-
fined by Title 18 Section 2331 of the United States Code [20]. Under this
definition, terrorism is a crime distinguished by motive, specifically violent
acts calculated to coerce government. The many commission reports stemming
from the 1995 Tokyo subway attacks and the seminal 2004 9/11 Commission
Report [1] clearly branded both attacks as acts of terrorism. While the Tokyo
subway attacks raised the issue of homeland security in the United States, the
9/11 attack brought homeland security to the forefront of U.S. policy concerns.
Terrorism, however, is not the correlating factor underpinning the two home-
land security incidents. If terrorism was, indeed, the founding principle of
homeland security, then it would have become a U.S. priority policy long be-
fore the 1995 Tokyo subway attacks, because in one form or another, the United
States had been the target of terrorist attacks, some would say as far back as
the founding of the nation.
Hurricane Katrina provides the strongest evidence that terrorism is not the
correlating factor that underpins homeland security. On August 29, 2005, Hur-
ricane Katrina made landfall in Louisiana and crossed directly over the city of
New Orleans. The wind damage was minimal, but the eight to ten inches of rain
filled Lake Pontchartrain to overflowing and the canals designed to channel its
waters began to fail. The levee system built to protect New Orleans breached
White 7

in 53 places, rendering 80% of the city under fifteen feet of water. The extensive
flooding stranded numerous residents in their homes. Many made their way to
their roofs using hatchets and sledgehammers. House tops across the city were
dotted with survivors; others were unable to escape and remained trapped in
their homes. According to the Louisiana Department of Health, 1,464 citizens
died in the storm; across the Gulf Coast, Hurricane Katrina caused nearly 1,500
deaths and 108 billion in damage [21].
Hurricane Katrina had a profound impact on the United States similar to
the 9/11 attacks – both are recognized as homeland security incidents [13]. But
where the 9/11 attacks was a terrorist incident, Hurricane Katrina was not. By
definition, terrorism is a violent act distinguished by motive, but nature has
no motive. The correlating factor between the 1995 Tokyo subway attacks, the
9/11 attacks and Hurricane Katrina in 2005 is not terrorism. The correlating
factor is domestic catastrophic destruction.
Homeland security began with the 1995 Tokyo subway attacks over concerns
of domestic catastrophic destruction precipitated by weapons of mass destruc-
tion in the hands of non-state actors. It was brought to the forefront of U.S.
policy concerns by the 9/11 attacks, where nineteen hijackers achieved effects
similar to those of weapons of mass destruction by subverting the nation’s
transportation infrastructure and turning passenger jets into guided missiles
to inflict domestic catastrophic destruction. Hurricane Katrina was a harsh
reminder that domestic catastrophic destruction can be natural as well as man-
made. Although the means were different in the three incidents, the potential
and the real consequences were the same for all three incidents – domestic
catastrophic destruction.

4. Unique Mission
Domestic catastrophic destruction is nothing new to the United States. From
its inception, the U.S. has suffered from domestic catastrophic destruction of
the natural and manmade varieties. An estimated 6,000 people were killed
in the 1900 Galveston Hurricane, more than twice as many as in the 9/11
attacks [22]. More than 22,000 soldiers were killed or wounded in a single day
during the Battle of Antietam in the Civil War, making it the “bloodiest day
in U.S. history” [24]. So what is new about domestic catastrophic destruction
that makes homeland security a unique mission?
As indicated previously, the new twist in domestic catastrophic destruction
is the unprecedented ability for it to be inflicted by non-state actors. The 1995
Tokyo subway attacks demonstrated the ability of a small group to acquire and
deploy weapons of mass destruction. The 9/11 attacks demonstrated the ability
of a small group to create weapons of mass destruction effects by subverting
the critical infrastructure (CI). Because these attacks were perpetrated by non-
state actors, unsanctioned by any government, the acts constituted crimes.
The crimes were unprecedented in their scope – indeed, they had national
and international repercussions. Because of their scope and consequences, the
8 CRITICAL INFRASTRUCTURE PROTECTION XII

crimes were not ordinary and would not have been contained by traditional law
enforcement alone.
As was pointed out in the many reports following the 1995 Tokyo subway
attacks, the threat of domestic catastrophic destruction by a non-state actor
requires an unprecedented level of coordination across all levels of government.
It was also recognized that no amount of effort could ever eliminate the threat –
it is impossible to always stop a determined attacker. In this regard, the threat
of domestic catastrophic destruction by a non-state actor is similar to that
of a natural disaster in that neither can be stopped completely. Since safety
cannot be guaranteed, the best that can be accomplished is to reduce the risk
of the likelihood and consequences of domestic catastrophic destruction. This
requires actions across the four disaster phases – prevent, protect, respond and
recover – to effectively cope with domestic catastrophic destruction.
In summary, homeland security is a unique mission because never before
in human history have small groups and individuals demonstrated the ability
to inflict domestic catastrophic destruction. This uniqueness makes homeland
security sufficiently distinct to warrant recognition as an independent practice,
profession and field.

5. Proposed Theory
Given the preceding discussion, the theory of homeland security is formu-
lated by specifying a set of axioms that establish a firm foundation:
A1.0: Domestic catastrophic destruction from natural and manmade
sources is a historical threat to organized society.
A2.0: Domestic catastrophic destruction perpetrated by non-state actors
represents a new and unprecedented threat to organized society.
A3.0: Domestic catastrophic destruction perpetrated by non-state actors
is similar to that caused by natural disasters in that neither are completely
stoppable.
A3.1: There can be no guarantee of safety from domestic catastrophic
destruction.
A3.2: The best that can be accomplished is to mitigate the likelihood
and consequences of domestic catastrophic destruction.
A3.3: Mitigating the risks of domestic catastrophic destruction entails
actions across the four disaster phases – prevent, protect, respond and
recover.
A4.0: It is a purpose of government to safeguard its citizens from do-
mestic catastrophic destruction.
This set of axioms leads to the following theory of homeland security:
Theory: Homeland security encompasses actions designed to safeguard
a nation from domestic catastrophic destruction.
White 9

6. Descriptive Theory
The proposed theory of homeland security is descriptive because it helps
identify what is and what is not homeland security. First, it tells us that
homeland security is international because all nations are at risk of domestic
catastrophic destruction. Consequently, any nation that engages in actions to
safeguard against domestic catastrophic destruction is conducting homeland
security.
The theory of homeland security thus leads to the following proposition or
corollary:

C1.0: Homeland security is a concern to every nation.

The theory specifies what constitutes a homeland security concern: anything

that can create domestic catastrophic destruction. As stipulated by Axiom 1.0,
domestic catastrophic destruction stems from two sources, natural and human
(manmade). The natural sources are broadly classified as: (i) meteorologi-
cal; (ii) geological; (iii) epidemiological; and (iv) astronomical. Meteorological
threats encompass all types of extreme weather, including floods, heat, hurri-
canes and tornadoes. Geological threats cover all tectonic incidents, including
earthquakes, volcanoes and tsunamis. Epidemiological threats include all forms
of pandemic disease stemming from highly contagious and virulent pathogens.
Astronomical threats encompass all forms of celestial phenomena, including
extreme solar activity and large-body collisions. Note that large-body colli-
sions may not necessarily include incidents such as the 1908 Tunguska event
in Siberia, which experts believe was an air burst of a small asteroid or comet
with the explosive equivalent of 10-15 megatons of TNT.
All these threats share the property that they may precipitate domestic
catastrophic destruction in the form of a natural disaster. As noted by Axiom
3.0, they also share the property that they are unstoppable, and it is not
a matter of if they will occur, but when they will occur. The inevitability
of natural disasters makes it necessary to invest in emergency preparedness,
actions designed to promote rapid response and recovery to catastrophic events.
This presupposes two caveats: (i) the disasters are transient events of short
duration; and (ii) they do not necessarily threaten human extinction. The first
caveat addresses the apparent perception that threats such as climate change
and cardiopulmonary disease are not immediate crises, although billions of
dollars are spent every year to deal with extended droughts and floods, and
cardiopulmonary disease is the leading killer of Americans. The second caveat
concedes that there are no practical solutions at this time for dangers such as
asteroid impacts and super volcanoes, but it also recognizes that such dangers
are fortunately rare in the human time-scale.
Based on these observations, the following corollaries are derived:

C2.0: Homeland security threats are transient events of a specific, short-

term duration.
10 CRITICAL INFRASTRUCTURE PROTECTION XII

C2.1: Emergency preparedness is a necessary investment against the

inevitability of natural disasters.

With regard to manmade domestic catastrophic destruction, the threats may

be broadly grouped as those committed by: (i) state actors; and (ii) non-
state actors. As noted previously, manmade domestic catastrophic destruction
has historically been perpetrated through warfare. Warfare is waged between
sovereign nations. Like the United States, most nations have national security
establishments to assert their sovereignty and defend themselves from hostile
nations. National security has thus evolved to maintain a nation’s sovereignty
in the community of nations. However, the instruments that help maintain a
nation’s sovereignty are practically useless against small groups or individu-
als that are categorized as non-state actors. In general, non-state actors are
subject to the laws of the nations in which they reside, whether or not they
are citizens. Although nations use different means to enforce their laws, they
were not prepared to cope with the threat of domestic catastrophic destruction
posed by small groups or individuals; certainly not before the 9/11 attacks, and
in some cases, not yet. This is why, according to Axiom 2.0, domestic catas-
trophic destruction by non-state actors constitutes a new and unprecedented
threat that cannot be contained by law enforcement alone.
In the case of manmade domestic catastrophic destruction, a distinction
should be made between the actions that are deliberate versus those that are
accidental. While the containment of deliberate acts of manmade domestic
catastrophic destruction fall in the realm of criminal justice, the containment
of accidental acts of manmade domestic catastrophic destruction are the domain
of safety engineering. This does not mean that an accident cannot be prosecuted
as a crime. A chemical release from a pesticide plant that killed 3,787 in Bhopal,
India in 1984 was ruled an accident; even so, seven ex-employees, including the
former company chairman, were convicted of negligent homicide and sentenced
to two years imprisonment and a fine of about 2,000 each, the maximum
punishment allowed at that time under Indian law [25].
Based on these observations, the following corollaries are derived:

C3.0: Homeland security and national security are related through a

common objective: to safeguard a nation from manmade domestic catas-
trophic destruction.

C3.1: National security is distinct from homeland security in that it

addresses the threat of manmade domestic catastrophic destruction by
recognized state actors.

C3.2: Homeland security is distinct from national security in that it

addresses the threat of manmade domestic catastrophic destruction by
non-state actors.

C3.3: Manmade domestic catastrophic destruction stemming from the

actions of non-state actors may be deliberate or accidental.
White 11

C3.4: Manmade domestic catastrophic destruction deliberately perpe-

trated by non-state actors is a crime subject to criminal justice within
the jurisdiction where the act was committed.

With regard to natural and manmade disasters, as neither is completely

stoppable, both require actions across the four disaster phases: prevent, pro-
tect, respond and recover. The inevitability of disasters places first responders
such as police, firefighters and emergency medical services on the front-line of
emergency response. By definition, since the consequences are catastrophic, lo-
cal first responders are most likely to be overwhelmed. Therefore, by necessity,
local first responders must have the means to quickly call for assistance and
rapidly integrate capabilities from other jurisdictions to mount an efficient and
effective emergency response.
Based on these observations, the following corollaries are derived:

C4.0: The inevitability of disasters places first responders at the front-

line of emergency response.
C4.1: Efficient and effective emergency response requires the means to
quickly call for assistance and rapidly integrate capabilities from other
jurisdictions.

Finally, it is important to discuss what does not constitute homeland secu-

rity under the proposed theory. The central property of the theory is domestic
catastrophic destruction. Domestic catastrophic destruction has not been de-
fined aside from indicating that the 9/11 attacks and Hurricane Katrina are
recognized homeland security incidents. As potential benchmarks, it has been
noted above that the 9/11 attacks resulted in nearly 3,000 deaths and 40
billion in damage whereas Hurricane Katrina caused about 1,500 deaths and
108 billion in damage. In March 2002, a few months after the 9/11 attacks,
Williams [28] proposed a threshold of 500 deaths and/or 1 billion in property
damage for catastrophic incidents. Can there be a defined threshold? Perhaps.
The more important point is that the consequences of criminal acts can far
exceed those encountered previously. Title 28 530C of the United States Code
defines a mass killing as three or more killings in a single incident. In October
2017, 58 people attending a concert in Las Vegas were killed, the worst shooting
incident in U.S. history [23]. Despite the horrific number of casualties, the Las
Vegas shooting does not approach even the lowest threshold suggested for a
catastrophic incident. The Las Vegas shooting, therefore, is not a homeland
security incident; absent a motive, it cannot even be classified as a terrorist
incident.
The same holds true for the 1995 Oklahoma City bombing, the worst bomb-
ing incident in United States history. The bombing killed 168 men, women and
children, and inflicted 652 million in damage [26]. Still, its scope does not
measure up to catastrophes such as the 9/11 attacks and Hurricane Katrina.
Under the proposed theory, the Oklahoma City bombing does not constitute a
homeland security incident. By the same token, the motive is inconsequential
12 CRITICAL INFRASTRUCTURE PROTECTION XII

compared with the means. In fact, none of the incidents examined so far have
a common motive, and nature harbors no motive at all.
Based on these observations, the following corollaries are derived:

C5.0: Homeland security incidents are distinguished by catastrophic con-

sequences.
C5.1: Homeland security incidents are not distinguished by motive.
C5.2: Mass killings, although tragic, are not necessarily homeland secu-
rity incidents.
C5.3: Terrorist incidents are not necessarily homeland security incidents.

Based on the preceding discussion, all the components constituting homeland

security can be compiled into the map shown in Table 1.

7. Prescriptive Theory
The proposed theory of homeland security is prescriptive, providing a means
to guide national homeland security strategy. In November 2002, the Homeland
Security Act created the U.S. Department of Homeland Security to coordinate
homeland security efforts across federal, state and local agencies. The depart-
ment’s homeland security functions were organized into critical mission areas.
The original mission set was derived from the 2002 National Homeland Security
Strategy and comprised the following six critical mission areas [10]:

Intelligence and warning.

Border and transportation security.
Domestic counterterrorism.
Protecting critical infrastructure.
Defending against catastrophic terrorism.
Emergency preparedness and response.

During the ensuing years, the mission set of the U.S. Department of Home-
land Security evolved due to internal reorganizations, external events, Presiden-
tial priorities and Congressional legislation. One of the changes was instituted
by the Implementing Recommendations of the 9/11 Commission Act of 2007,
which mandated a systematic review of the U.S. Department of Homeland Se-
curity mission set and organization every four years starting in 2009 [18]. The
first Quadrennial Homeland Security Review was released in 2010. The most
recent Quadrennial Homeland Security Review, which was completed in 2014,
identified the following mission set [19]:
Prevent terrorism and enhance security.
 White

Table 1. Homeland security map.

Theory Actions to Safeguard a Nation from Domestic Catastrophic Destruction

Threats Natural Manmade
Type Meteorological Geological Epidemiological Astronomical State Actor Non-State Actor
Forms Extreme Tectonic Pandemic Celestial Warfare Criminal Accident
Weather Event Disease Phenomenon Act
Means Flood, Heat, Earthquake, Contagious Solar Activity, Conventional, WMD, WMD,
Hurricane, Volcano, Pathogen Earth Strike Nuclear, Critical Critical
Tornado Tsunami Asymmetric Infrastructure Infrastructure
Subversion Subversion
Subclass Emergency Emergency Emergency Emergency National Criminal Safety
Preparedness Preparedness Preparedness Preparedness Security Justice Engineering
Prevent Early Early Public Early Deterrence Law Safety
Warning Warning Health Warning Measures Enforcement Design
Protect Sheltering and Building Vaccinations Sheltering and Defensive Security Safety
Evacuation Codes Evacuation Measures Measures Practices
Respond Emergency Emergency Health Emergency Emergency Emergency Emergency
Response Response Measures Response Response Response Response
Recover Disaster Disaster Disaster Disaster Disaster Disaster Disaster
Recovery Recovery Recovery Recovery Recovery Recovery Recovery
13
14 CRITICAL INFRASTRUCTURE PROTECTION XII

Secure and manage our borders.

Enforce and administer our immigration jaws.
Safeguard and secure cyberspace.
Strengthen national preparedness and resilience.
When the current U.S. Department of Homeland Security mission set is
superimposed on top of the homeland security map shown in Table 1, the map
shown in Table 2 is obtained. Note that the italicized items in the last five rows
of Table 2 comprise the U.S. Department of Homeland Security mission set.
Based on the map in Table 2, a number of observations regarding the appli-
cation of homeland security in the United States can be made:
Observation 1.0: Homeland security is a team sport; the U.S. Depart-
ment of Homeland Security cannot do it alone. As can be seen by the
italicized items in Table 2, the U.S. Department of Homeland Security
mission set does not encompass the entire mission space corresponding
to the last five rows of the table. It is, therefore, incumbent upon the
U.S. Department of Homeland Security to play a coordinating role across
public and private agencies in what is called the “homeland security en-
terprise.”
Observation 2.0: Failure is an inevitable outcome. Nobody wants to
fail. Typical strategies attempt to avoid failure at all cost. However,
no amount of investment in the prevent and protect mission areas will
preclude failure. Emergency preparedness, response and recovery are an
inseparable part of homeland security. Accepting failure and investing
in the respond and recover mission areas are essential to reducing the
consequences.
Observation 3.0: Unprecedented responses to unprecedented threats.
Most U.S. Department of Homeland Security missions are concentrated
on securing the nation from the unprecedented threats of domestic catas-
trophic destruction by non-state actors (i.e., security measures marked
with an asterisk in Table 2). Whereas law enforcement agencies remain
responsible for preventing these particularly heinous form of crimes, the
U.S. Department of Homeland Security has taken the lead in protecting
against the means for committing them. Aviation security, for example,
keeps passenger jets from becoming guided missiles.
Observation 4.0: Cyber security is essential to homeland security. Fol-
lowing the 1995 Tokyo subway attacks, a 1997 Presidential Commission
Report examining the vulnerability of U.S. critical infrastructure to a
similar attack first raised concerns about cyber security [12]. The report
noted that infrastructure owners and operators were increasingly resort-
ing to remote monitoring and control using commercial networking prod-
ucts to reduce costs and increase efficiency across their geographically-
Another random document with
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right one. The poet sees the reality in the commonplace. Our
surroundings are filled with wonderful and varied beauty when we
open our eyes to the truth. Our friends and companions are splendid
men and women when we see them at their worth. For happiness as
well as success add poetry to heroism.

“The Inscrutable who set this orb awhirl

Gave power to strength that effort might attain;
Gave power to wit that knowledge might direct;
And so with penalties, incentives, gains,
Limits, and compensations intricate,
He dowered this earth, that man should never rest
Save as his Maker’s will be carried out.

There is no easy, unearned joy on earth

Save what God gives—the lustiness of youth,
And love’s dear pangs. All other joys we gain
By striving, and so qualified we are
That effort’s zest our need as much consoles
As effort’s gain. Both issues are our due.

Better when work is past

Back into dust dissolve and help a seed
Climb upward, than with strength still full
Deny to God His claim and thwart His wish.”
 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF FAITH.

Mark Twain quotes a schoolboy as saying: “Faith is believing what

you know ain’t so.” This definition is turned from humor into
seriousness by some modern thinkers when they charge immorality
against all whose beliefs are not scientifically established on
sufficient evidence. They look upon what they consider unwarranted
beliefs as a species of lying to one’s self, demoralizing to intellect
and character. If no element of faith may anywhere be tolerated,
these same thinkers should reëxamine their own foundations. The
only thorough agnostic in history or literature, agnostic even toward
his own agnosticism, is Charles Kingsley’s Raphael Aben-Ezra. Let
us listen to him. “Here am I, at last! fairly and safely landed at the
very bottom of the bottomless.... No man, angel or demon can this
day cast it in my teeth that I am weak enough to believe or disbelieve
any phenomenon or theory in or concerning heaven or earth; or even
that any such heaven, earth, phenomena or theories exist—or
otherwise.”
In a last analysis our very foundation principles rest on a ground of
faith, and a clear knowledge of this fact may make us more humble
in the presence of other claims on our belief. Whenever the
adventurous philosophic mind gazes over the dizzy edge at the
“bottomless,” it draws back and gains a firm footing on the reality of
conscious ideas. To abandon this is annihilation.
Years ago an old friend of mine, very worthy, but somewhat self-
opinioned and truculent, in a discussion on religious thought
exclaimed: “What! believe in anything I can’t see, touch, hear, smell,
taste? No, sir!” He represented the uneducated instinctive belief in
the reality of the outer world as revealed through the senses; and he
would have violently affirmed the reliability of the senses and the
existence of material things. But philosophy shows these also to be
of faith.
 Had he been asked whether he had a knowledge of space and
time and of certain indisputable facts concerning them, and whether
he could see or hear these entities and intuitive truths, he would
have paused to think. The axioms of mathematics would have been
a veritable Socratic poser to him, and he would have withdrawn from
his position—would have acknowledged some truths as more
certain, by the nature and need of the mind, than the existence of
matter.
The modern scientist for practical purposes postulates the
existence of conscious ideas, of the outer material world, of space
and time. He accepts axiomatic truths. He goes farther; he
postulates the uniformity of nature, and the validity of his reasoning
processes. He discovers natural laws, and propounds theories
concerning them. He investigates the physical correlates of mental
processes. He has his favorite hypotheses concerning phenomena
that defy his powers of analysis. He shows the process of the world
as a whole to be evolution.
So far we have no controversy and should have none, did not
some eminent investigators in the field of natural science claim to
have covered the entire realm of legitimate inquiry, and deny the
right to raise further questions or entertain beliefs, however strongly
they may be prompted by our very constitution, concerning the origin
and end of things, the meaning of the world, and man’s place in it. To
the well-rounded nature, faith is not necessarily limited to the
physical world, and the credulity implied in unwarranted denial is at
least as unscientific as positive faith.
Human nature rebels against conclusions wholly discordant with
its best instincts, and, in the light of the most recent data and
speculation, begins anew a discussion as old as philosophy. The
subject is all the more important, because the uneducated mind,
misled by superficial catch phrases of materialism, fails to know the
reverent spirit of true science.
Here is an illustration relating to the general theme. A prominent
biologist puts this statement before the reading public: “There is no
ego except that which arises from the coördination of the nerve
cells.” I might take the contrary of the proposition and reply: “There is
an ego not adequately described by your ‘colonial consciousness’
theory.” Regarding each position as dogmatic, perhaps mine is as
good as the biologist’s. As to evidence, he founds his belief on the
general fact of evolution and specifically upon the functions, partly
known, partly conjectured, of nerve cells in the brain. He has no
knowledge that a unit-being called the ego does not exist. His is the
faith of denial of something which from his standpoint he can neither
prove nor disprove. I also accept the facts of evolution and of the
mechanism of the brain. I base my belief in the ego on certain views
of other biologists, and on data of consciousness, morality, and
religion, and the insight of all subjective philosophy. My faith is one of
assent to something not admitting demonstrative proof. Have I
sufficient reason for my faith in passing beyond the inductions of
material science?

We present some latest views of eminent biologists. While

evolution must be accepted as a fact, there is great uncertainty as to
the factors that produce changes in the organic world. To-day there
is small evidence that variations are produced by direct influence of
environment. In the germ is the “whole machinery and the mystery of
heredity.” Since the microscope fails to reveal the causes, either of
normal development or of variations, some are forced to accept, as
the simplest and most rational hypothesis, the existence of a psychic
principle in the germ. The facts appear to support the doctrine of
purpose in evolution. So earnest and able a thinker as Professor
LeConte frankly affirms: “With the appearance of Man another factor
was introduced, namely, conscious coöperation in his own evolution,
striving to attain an ideal.”
Professor Muensterberg is of high authority in experimental
psychology and besides has a keen philosophic mind. His paper
entitled “Psychology and the Real Life” is instructive and significant.
He shows that it is the business of psychology to analyze the ideas
and emotions, the whole content of consciousness, into sensations,
to investigate the whole psychological mechanism, but that the
primary reality is not a possible object of psychology and natural
science. By his view it takes an act of free will to declare the will
unfree; there can be no science, thought, or doubt that is not the
child of duties; even skeptical denial demands to be regarded as
absolute truth; there is a truth, a beauty, a morality independent of
psychological conditions; psychology is the last word of a
materialistic century, it may become the introductory word of an
idealistic century. His views are maintained with force and power of
conviction.
But these references are only incidental to the purpose of this
discussion. They may serve to show (1) that science has no real
proof against the dictum, “Evolution is God’s way of doing things;” (2)
that on the contrary it may support the spiritual view of the world; (3)
that there are grounds of faith with which science properly has no
business.

Evolution is according to nature’s laws. Man is a product of

evolution. Man possesses poetry and sentiment, conceives the
beauty of holiness, and has speculative reason. None of these can
properly be explained by merely materialistic evolution; they are not
necessary to preservation of life. We have tried to wholly account for
the ideals, emotions, and aspirations of human nature by analyzing
them into primitive sensations and instincts. This is the fatal error of
materialistic philosophy. The process of evolution is not analysis; it is
synthesis, development, the appearance of new factors—a gradual
revelation. It is our business to analyze, but, also, to try to
understand the higher complex, the perfected product. The first
stand of spiritual philosophy is faith in the validity of our own evolved
being, and to this we have as much right as to faith in the reliability of
our five senses.
The geologist might say: To me the grandeur of the mountain
means nothing; I know how it was made. The cooling and
contraction of the earth, the crushing and uplifting of strata, the
action of air, wind, and water, the sculpturing of time, the planting of
vegetation by a chance breeze—and you have your mountain, a
thing of science. Yet Coleridge, standing in the vale of Chamounix
and gazing on Mont Blanc,

“Till the dilating Soul, enrapt, transfused,

Into the mighty Vision passing—there,
As in her natural form, swelled vast to Heaven,”

found it an emblem of sublimity, a voice from the throne of God. We

shall find it hard to believe that the poetry of science can be
explained on a merely physical basis. One may say: The religious
sentiment means nothing to me; I know its origin; it is the result of
bad dreams. A primitive ancestor, after a successful hunt, ate too
much raw meat and dreamed of his grandfather. Thus arose the
belief in disembodied spirits and a whole train of false conceptions.
Yet we shall hardly grant that the religious feeling of the martyrs,
which enabled the exalted spirit to lose the sense of unutterable
physical torture, is adequately explained by the dream hypothesis.
A Beethoven string orchestra, to the musical mind, discourses
most excellent music. It is a connected series of sublimated and
elusive metaphors, arousing the harmonies of the soul, touching its
chords of sweetness, purity, beauty, and nobility. Yet there are minds
that find in it nothing—pardon the quotation—but the friction of
horsehair on catgut. There are minds to which these grand
mountains, this deep sky, these groves of pine are nothing but rock
and vapor and wood. The elements make no sweet tones for them;
they can not hear the music of the spheres. To them honor, courage,
morality, beauty, religion, are but refined forms of crude animal
instincts, by aid of which the race has survived in its struggle for
existence. There are no soul harmonies—nothing but the beating of
the primitive tom-tom. They believe nothing which can not be verified
by the methods of physical science. They have no faith.
How many a man of science, on some slight hint pointing in a
given direction, with faith and courage has pursued his
investigations, adopting hypothesis after hypothesis, rejecting,
adjusting, the world meanwhile laughing at his folly and credulity,
until he has discovered and proclaimed a great truth. When in the
world of mind we find phenomena calling for explanation, needs that
can be met in only a certain way, higher impulses reaching out
toward objects whose existence they prove and whose nature they
define, shall we show less faith and courage because of some
dogmatic view that there is no reality beyond the world of material
existence? In this universe of mystery, anything may be supposed
possible for which there is evidence, and any theory is rational that
will best explain the facts. If we have not the sense to understand the
deepest conceptions of philosophy, let us at least have the sense to
stick to that common sense with which God has endowed us in order
that we may know by faith the supreme truths concerning man.
Somewhere and somehow in the nature of things is an ideal that
made us as we are—an ideal that is adequate to our nature, need,
and conception. God at the beginning and God at the end of the
natural world, and the world of consciousness seems a postulate
that is necessary and warranted. Professor James writes of an old
lady who believed that the world rests on a great rock, and that the
first rock rests on a rock; being urged further, she exclaimed that it
was rocky all up and down. Unless we postulate a spiritual
foundation of things that is self-active and rational, we are no better
off than the old lady. This appears to be a rational world, for it is a
world that makes science possible; we believe it has a rational
Creator.
We commonly account for our ideals as constructed in a simple,
mechanical way; but the explanation will fail to satisfy the mind of
artist or saint in his exalted moments when he has visions of
perfection. He must conceive of a Being who possesses the
attributes of perfect beauty and goodness. Belief in God consecrates
man’s endeavor to attain the highest standards. Without God the
world has not a home-seeming for man. As in the dream in Vergil,
always he seems to be left alone, always to be going on a long
journey in a desert land, unattended.
Philosophy has spent much time and energy to discover the origin
of evil; a saner quest would be the origin of good in the world. We
know that in accounting for evil there is always an unexplained
remainder—the righteous suffering, and the weak crushed under
burdens too heavy. It may be that Spencer’s age of perfection, seen
away down the vista of evolution, will, when realized, not be inviting.
Some one suggests that then men will be perfect, but perfectly
idiotic. It is the great moral paradox that perfection must be obtained
through struggle with imperfection. Laurels worn but not won are but
a fool’s cap. Freedom is possible only in a world of good and evil, a
world of choice, and with freedom the humblest creature is infinitely
above the most perfect mechanism made and controlled by a blind
necessity. Cease to prate of a life of perennial ease under June
skies; the divinity within us rises in majesty and will not have it so.
After all, those who are overcome in the struggle may have their
reward; at Thermopylæ the Persians won the laurels, the Spartans
the glory.
Does evolution transform the nature of duty into a mere calculation
of the sum of happiness? On the contrary, it adds to duty a practical
way of discovering duties. Evolution affirms the truth that knowledge
of right and wrong is a growth, and that new conditions bring new
problems. The laws of nature and the organization of society
promptly teach us applied ethics. True, we no longer search for
eternally fixed codes; but whatever conduces to happiness and
genuine welfare, whatever conduces to the beauty, dignity, and
goodness of self and others is, as ever, a stern duty. It is not in the
nature of man to bridge over the chasm between right, known as
right, and wrong, known as wrong. The moral imperative, Turn
toward the light, seek to see your duty and perform it, is “a presence
which is not to be put by, which neither listlessness nor mad
endeavor can utterly abolish or destroy.”
“Faith means belief in something concerning which doubt is still
theoretically possible,” says a modern scientific writer. He continues:
“Faith is the readiness to act in a cause the prosperous issue of
which is not certified to us in advance. It is in fact the same moral
quality which we call courage in practical affairs.” We admire
confidence and courage in the world of affairs, even when disaster
may possibly follow. Have we not in our hearts the “substance of
things hoped for, the evidence of things not seen,” which constitute
the faith of St. Paul? And shall we not use the courage of faith to
seek a supreme good, when, though we do not find it, there is a
reward even in the seeking? If I were to define faith I would call it the
X-ray of the soul.
There can be no absolute break between old thought and new.
The history of thought is a history of evolution. Modern science has
not destroyed the old grounds of faith; it enables us to correct the
beliefs built thereon. The next step of science will be a recognition
and examination of subjective problems as such. When discarding
old things, separate the treasure from the rubbish. If you have
ceased to pray selfishly for rain, you need not deny the efficacy of
prayer for change of heart, forgiveness of sins, and communion of
spirit. If you cannot accept certain views of the Trinity, you need not
reject the sublime Christian philosophy, or refuse to pay homage to
the perfection of Christ. If you have discarded some doctrine of
inspiration of the Bible, you need not deny or neglect the value of the
divine ethical teachings of the Hebrews, or their grand sacred poetry
—

“Those Hebrew songs that triumph, trust or grieve,—

Verses that smite the soul as with a sword,
And open all the abysses with a word.”

There is a faith which is a personal and conscious relation of man

to God. It is said that in its true nature faith can be justified by
nothing but itself. Here we enter the temple of the human heart and
approach the holy of holies. This we do with reverent mien, even
with fear and trembling. We quote from Prof. T. H. Green: “That God
is, Reason entitles us to say with the same certainty as that the
world is or that we ourselves are. What He is, it does not, indeed,
enable us to say in the same way in which we make propositions
about matters of fact, but it moves us to seek to become as He is, to
become like Him, to become consciously one with Him, to have the
fruition of his Godhead. In this sense it is that Reason issues in the
life of Faith.... It is our very familiarity with God’s expression of
Himself in the institutions of society, in the moral law, in the language
and inner life of Christians, in our own consciences, that helps to
blind us to its divinity.”
There is a poem, from an author not widely known, entitled “The
Hound of Heaven.” It will affect you according to the education,
experience, and beliefs of each; but appeal to you it will, for in all is
an insistent something that makes for righteousness.

“I fled Him, down the nights and down the days;

I fled Him, down the arches of the years;
I fled Him, down the labyrinthine ways
Of my own mind; and in the midst of tears
I hid from Him, and under running laughter.
Up vistaed hopes I sped;
And shot, precipitated
Adown Titanic glooms of chasmed fears,
From those strong Feet that followed, followed after.
But with unhurrying chase,
And unperturbed pace,
Deliberate speed, majestic instancy,
They beat—and a Voice beat
More instant than the Feet—
‘All things betray thee, who betrayest Me.’”

The poem recounts a life made tragic by many a human error, but
ever forced to listen to the following “Feet.” It closes thus:

“Halts by me that footfall:

Is my gloom, after all.
Shade of His hand, outstretched caressingly?
‘Ah, fondest, blindest, weakest,
I am He Whom thou seekest!
Thou dravest love from thee, who dravest Me.’”

To me it requires greater faith to call the Christian experience an

illusion than to accept its reality and validity.
 The true poet is the living embodiment of instinctive faith. His mind
and heart are keenly alive to God’s revelation of Himself in man and
nature. He is a seer. His themes are the truths that come to him in
visions from the realms of truth. He sees the principle of beauty in
things; and familiar scenes, commonplace experiences are clothed
in a spiritual glory. He accepts the world of facts and of science, but
gives them their real meaning. Poetic insight, a thing so much
contemned, because so little understood, is one of the best
illustrations and evidences of the nature of faith. Wordsworth calls
poetry “the breath and finer spirit of all knowledge.”
A few months ago I chanced to be looking from a railroad train
near Lake Erie in the very early dawn. I beheld, as I supposed, a
beautiful expanse of water, with islands and inlets, and, beyond, a
range of blue hills. I was lost in admiration of the view. As the light
increased, a suspicion, at last growing into certainty, arose that I was
the subject of an illusion, and that my beautiful landscape was but a
changing scene of cloud and open sky on the horizon. But the blue
hills still seemed real; soon they, too, were resolved into clouds, and
only a common wooded country remained to the vision. The analogy
to the dawn of civilization and the flight of superstition, and, finally, of
faith, forced itself upon me, and I was troubled, seeing no escape
from the application. Just then the sun arose, bringing the glory of
light to the eye, and with it came a thrilling mental flash. There was
the solution, the all-revealing light, the greater truth, without which
neither the appearance of the solid earth nor of its seeming aërial
counterpart would have been possible. Both evidenced the greater
existence. Are not our fancies and our facts, our errors in the search
of truth and our truths, our doubts and our faith, our life and activity
and being, proofs of a Universal Existence—the revealer of truth, the
source of truth, and the Truth?

This address has more than a formal purpose. Our beliefs in great
measure determine our practical life. Freedom, God, and Immortality
are conceptions that have ruled in the affairs of men and made the
best products of civilization; they must still rule in the individual, if he
would grow to his full stature. We are in a century of doubt, but I
firmly believe that in the ashes of the old faith the vital spark still
glows, and that from them, phœnix-like, will rise again the spiritual
life in new strength and beauty.
Show your faith by your works; faith without works is dead. A mere
philosophic belief in abstract ideals, not lived in some measure, may
be worse than useless. A mere intellectual faith that does not touch
the heart and brighten life and make work a blessing lacks the vital
element. Follow your ideals closely with effort. Give life breadth as
well as length; the totality will be the sum of your thought, feeling,
and action. When the active conflict is over and the heroes recount
their battles, may you be able to say: “I, too, was there.”
There is still a practical side. Many young men have powers of
growth and possibilities of success beyond their present belief; faith
creates results. Every one has rare insights and rare impulses,
showing his powers and urging him to action; it is fatal to ignore
them. Faith is needed in business; confidence begets confidence. It
is needed in social life; friendship demands to be met on equal
terms. It is a ground of happiness; suspicion creates gloom and
pessimism. It is needed for practical coöperation; suspicion is
isolated. It is needed by the educator; faith and love make zeal in the
calling. It is due even the criminal; in most men there is more of good
than bad. Charity for the sins and misfortunes of humanity, hope for
the best, faith in our endeavor must attend successful effort to aid
men.
After all it is the essential spirit that one cultivates within him that
will determine his manifold deeds. We can invoke no greater
blessing than a character that in all ways will assert the highest
dignity that belongs to a human soul. Be brave in your faith. When
materialism, indifference, doubt, ease, and unseemly pleasure claim
you for theirs (the Devil’s own), let your answer be what is expressed
in Carlyle’s “Everlasting Yea”: “And then was it that my whole Me
stood up, in native God-created majesty, and with emphasis
recorded its Protest: I am not thine, but Free!”
 When I see some grand old man, full of faith, courage, optimism,
and cheerfulness, whose life has conformed to the moral law, who
has wielded the right arm of his freedom boldly for every good
cause, come to the end of life with love for man and trust in God,
seeing the way brighten before him, turning his sunset into morning,
I must believe that he represents the survival of the fittest, that his
ideals are not the mere fictions of a blind nature, serving for the
preservation of his physical being, but that the order of his life has
been in accord with realities.
 EVOLUTION OF A PERSONAL IDEAL.

A famous artist once painted a portrait on a unique plan. He

secured a copy of every photograph of the subject from his
babyhood. When the painting was finished, there appeared in it the
pictures of seven people of different ages, skilfully grouped and
variously employed, but all portraits of the same person, each
representing a stage of growth. We shall not attempt the work of the
artist, but will endeavor to furnish the brush and colors, leaving you
to fill in the sketches, now and at future times, at your leisure.
A tale is told of a man who awoke one night thinking of his past
and groaning in evident mental distress. To the solicitous inquiry of
his guardian angel, he replied: “I am thinking about the people I used
to be.” The angel, smiling, said: “I am thinking seriously about the
people you are going to be”—thinking of

“The soul that has learned to break its chains,

The heart grown tenderer through its pains,
The mind made richer for its thought,
The character remorse has wrought
To far undreamed capacities;
The will that sits a king at ease.
Nay, marvel not, for I plainly see
And joy in the people you’re going to be.”

The gradual realization of higher and higher types is the general

law of evolution in the organic world; it is also the process of the
ideal spiritual development of the individual man. The potency of an
infinitely varied and beautiful world was in the primeval mist. The
potency of each higher type of being lies in the simpler form
preceding. Ideally the potency of a soul of strength and beauty, of
continuous development, is in the child and youth. The self of to-day
is the material of possibility which should grow into the higher self of
to-morrow.
 Growth is not merely gain in knowledge and intellectual power.
The science of education must include a vision of the entire human
soul with its need of sympathy and direction, its vague dreams of
possibility, its ideals half-realized. We must view the scale of feelings
from the lowest animal instinct to the most refined ethical emotions,
the order of their worth from the meanest vindictiveness to the
highest altruism under God and duty, and note the struggle for the
survival of the fittest of the impulses and motives under the guidance
of reason and with the responsibility of freedom.

We see men, yet in the vigor of life, men of learning, of position, of

opportunity, complacent in their attainments, fixed in ideas and
methods adapted to a previous generation or a different
environment, psychically prematurely old, their powers half-
developed, their life work half-done. The men who reach the
complete development of their powers constantly renew their youth,
and march with modern events.
We see young graduates, men of power, who, through degenerate
tendencies, lack of faith, lack of insight or lack of courage, remain
stationary and satisfied in the grade to which their diplomas duly
testify. They have as much life and growth and are as ornamental as
a painted canvas tree in a garden. A lazy indifferent man once said
he would as soon be dead as alive. When asked why he did not kill
himself, he could only explain that he would as soon be alive as
dead.
In the established church is sometimes observed by its devotees a
special season of solitude and silence for religious meditation; it is
called a “retreat.” There is a German tale of an aged grandfather
who, every Christmas season, spent a day alone in meditation upon
the year and the years gone by, making a reckoning with himself,
with his failures and his blessings, and casting a most conscientious
account. On that day the noisy children were hushed by the servants
—“The master is keeping his retreat”—and they went about in silent
wonder and imagined he was making himself Christmas gifts in his
quiet room upstairs. When he reappeared in the evening, after his
day of solitude, he seemed by his quiet, gentle manners and
thought-lit face to have received heaven-sent gifts.
I shall never forget the passage of Vergil which in my school days
gave rise in me to a new sense of beauty in literature; nor shall I
forget the unique and rich experience of the revelation. Every one
has at times a new birth, a disclosure of hitherto unknown capacities
and powers.
The soul must keep its retreats, not necessarily on church-
anniversary days, but at epochs, at periods of dissatisfaction with the
past, at stages of new insight—must have a reckoning with itself and
readjust itself to life. When one reviews the panorama of his own
history, and finds it inartistic, a profitless daub, empty of the ideal or
heroic, he is keeping a retreat. When a new estimate of values and
possibilities appears, he has experienced a conversion, has taken a
new step in the evolution of his ideal life. The revolt of the soul may
be as necessary to its health and growth as the upheaval of a nation
is essential to its development. It is a battle for new principles, for
advance, for freedom.
Tolstoï relates a most striking reminiscence of his own life,
substantially thus: It was in 1872 that the Tolstoï of to-day saw the
light. Then a new insight revealed his former life as empty. It was on
a beautiful spring morning with bright sun, singing birds, and
humming insects. He had halted to rest his horse by a wayside
cross. Some peasants passing stopped there to offer their devotions.
He was touched to the depths by their simple faith, and when he
took up his journey he knew that the Kingdom of God is within us. He
says: “It was then, twenty-three years ago, that the Tolstoï of to-day
sprang into existence.”
President Garfield, when at the head of Hiram College, once
addressed his students, in a way that made a lasting impression, on
the subject of “Margins.” Personal distinction, success, depend, not
on the average bulk of knowledge, power, and skill, but on that
margin that extends a little beyond the reach of one’s fellows, a
margin gained by some extra devotion, by sacrifice and work, by
ideals a little more advanced or more clearly seen.
Some recent and notable inductions of physiological psychology
along the line of evolution reaffirm that without pain there can be no
happiness, that without struggle there can be no positive character,
that at times punishment may be most salutary and that a deadhead
in society degenerates as does a parasite in the animal kingdom.
Since these views are in line with the teachings of instinct and
reason, from old Plato down, we may believe that evolution as
applied to the spiritual nature of man is, indeed, becoming a hopeful
doctrine. We have had somewhat too much of Herbert Spencer’s
pleasure theory, and pursuit of inclination, and the discipline of
natural consequences, and lines of least resistance. The moral
drama must be enacted on a field of conflict.
The principle of personal evolution is “ideals and action.” Mr.
Gladstone’s wonderful character and great career are a pointed
illustration of this fact. Even his fixed standards of conduct were a
contribution to his growth and greatness. He always asked
concerning a policy of state: Is it just? No unworthy motive was ever
known to determine his public or his private acts. While working ever
according to permanent standards of right, his was essentially a life
of change and growth. Mr. Gladstone had a mind always seeking
truth, and, moreover, had a rare capacity for receiving new ideas. In
his history one can discover many distinct stages of development.
He himself acknowledges three great “transmigrations of spirit” in his
parliamentary career. He broke away from his early political
traditions and, in consequence, more than once was obliged to seek
new constituents who “marched with the movement of his mind.” He
was ever “struggling toward the light,” and was ever a fighter. His
political opponents said of him that his foot was always in the stirrup.
His mind rested not by inactivity, but by “stretching itself out in
another direction.” He threw himself into new and important
movements for humanity with tremendous zeal and force.
Lord Macaulay pithily expresses a law of human progress: “The
point which yesterday was invisible is our goal to-day, and will be our
starting post to-morrow.” Maurice Maeterlinck says: “If at the moment
you think or say something that is too beautiful to be true in you—if
you have but endeavored to think or to say it to-day, on the morrow it
will be true. We must try to be more beautiful than ourselves; we
shall never distance our soul.”
In the problem of growth do not neglect Emerson’s principle of
compensation. As men injure or help others, so they injure or help
themselves. Punishment is the inseparable attendant of crime.
Requital is swift, sure, and exact. Vice makes spiritual blindness.
The real drama of life is within. Some one has said that punishment
for misdeeds is not something which happens to a man, but
something which happens in a man. Balzac describes a magic skin,
endowed with power to measure the term of life of its possessor,
which shrank with his every expressed wish. Personal worth grows
or shrinks with the daily life and thought. Every one can will his own
growth in strength and symmetry or can become dwarfed and
degenerate. Wrong takes away from the sum of worth; virtue makes
increase from the source of all good. Emerson says that even a
man’s defects may be turned to good. For instance, if he has a
disposition that fails to invite companionship, he gains habits of self-
help, and thus, “like the wounded oyster, he mends his shell with
pearl.”

If you would see the fulness of God’s revelation in men, look into
the minds of those whose biographies are worth writing—men who in
affairs of the world have shown clear thought and accurate
judgment, and in spiritual things have had visions that may
strengthen and confirm your feeble faith. Study the record of their
words spoken at the fireside in the presence of intimate and
congenial friends, when they showed glimpses of the real self. Learn
in biography the history of great souls and see in them the ideal
which is the ideal of the race, and, hence, your ideal. With the going
out of this century some great lives have ended—lives that
embodied high types of rugged, honest satire, political power, poetic
thought, pure statesmanship, ethical standards, religious faith,
scientific devotion. Their histories have been written, and enough is
in them to stir the semiconscious indolent nature of any young man
to cultivate a high personal ideal. When I left college my first
investment was in a few additional good books. I advise students to
buy a few of the best biographies recently published, and read them
with a reverent mind.
When you see a man of marked power, you may be sure, always
sure, that he has used means of growth which average people
ignore, means without which his strength would never have
appeared. He has been a student, perhaps of Plato, of Shakespeare,
of the Bible, of science or of human nature. He has gone deeply into
the character or writings of master minds in some field of knowledge
or activity. If he has a truly great nature he is able to find in many a
passage of Hebrew writings a power that welled up from the great
hearts of the prophets of old—or a wisdom that gradually evolved
with civilization through experiment, disaster, struggle, and contrition,
and was corrected and formulated with rare understanding by the
few great minds of history. Such writings are a very wellspring of
knowledge and understanding for a young man of this or any age.
Have you read the earlier as well as the later writings of Rudyard
Kipling? What a growth of power! The evolution of his ideal ever
promises and realizes greater things. When recently it seemed that
the riper fruits of his progress would be denied us, the keenest
solicitude was everywhere manifest. It was a spontaneous tribute to
the principle of ideal spiritual evolution in the individual. We now
know Kipling’s secret. In his weakness and his sorrow he has
already turned to a new and more ambitious undertaking and has
gathered to himself all material that may enable him to pluck out
from his subject the heart of its mystery, and reveal it to the world of
thought and culture. It is with the magic of industry that he evolves
the ideal of his life.
The following story is told of Kipling—that it is not authentic does
not rob it of its use: Father and son were on a voyage. The father,
suffering from seasickness, had retired to his cabin, when an officer
appeared and cried: “Your son has climbed out on the foreyard, and
if he lets go he’ll be drowned; we cannot save him.” “Oh, is that all?”
replied Mr. Kipling; “he won’t let go.”

Be men of to-day; the past is useful to make us wise in the

present. The poet Tennyson had a wonderful influence in his
generation. His influence is due not alone to his rich thought and
poetic skill; he had the broad liberal view that could adapt itself to the
changing world of science, philosophy, and religion, and he thus
opened up the avenues of approach to all classes of thinkers. He
was a man with an evolving ideal, a free, sane, healthy mind.
Poetry is not a thing of the past; it has not yet become familiar with
its new themes. Kipling can sing the “Song of Steam” and write the
romance of the “Day’s Work”—can find poetry in a locomotive, a
bridge, a ship or an engine. Kipling is right when he makes
McAndrew, the hard-headed engineer of an ocean liner, see in the
vast motor mechanism an “orchestra sublime,” “singing like the
morning stars,” and proclaiming: “Not unto us the praise, or man.”
“From coupler-flange to spindle-guide I see Thy Hand, O God”—and
this vision is always the ultimate ground of poetry. On a palace
steamer between New York and the New England coast I once
heard an uncultured workman exclaim: “When I watch this mighty
engine, with its majestic, powerful movement, I feel that there is a
God.” At first thought the sentiment was humorously illogical, but his
instinct was right. The works of nature and the works of man alike
suggest a divine origin—God working in nature and working through
man.
If this is a divine world, then there is no claim of the commonplace,
no form of daily labor, no need of the unfortunate, no problem of
society or government that is not a theme of dignity and worthy of
attention and helpful effort. The form of truth is an empty, useless
abstraction, unless it is given a content, unless it adjusts wrongs,
removes evils, improves material conditions, and strengthens growth
among all classes of people to-day. The man who beautifies his
lawn, plants trees, lays good walks or cleans the streets is made