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 Gregorio D’Agostino
Antonio Scala (Eds.)
LNCS 10707

Critical Information
Infrastructures Security
12th International Conference, CRITIS 2017
Lucca, Italy, October 8–13, 2017
Revised Selected Papers

123
Lecture Notes in Computer Science 10707
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Jon M. Kleinberg
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Friedemann Mattern
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Moni Naor
Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
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Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai, India
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TU Dortmund University, Dortmund, Germany
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•

Critical Information
Infrastructures Security
12th International Conference, CRITIS 2017
Lucca, Italy, October 8–13, 2017
Revised Selected Papers

123
Editors
Gregorio D’Agostino Antonio Scala
ENEA “Casaccia” CNR - Institute for Complex Systems (ISC)
and Network of Networks - Netonets Rome, Italy
Rome, Italy

ISSN 0302-9743 ISSN 1611-3349 (electronic)

Lecture Notes in Computer Science
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 Preface

This volume contains the papers presented at CRITIS 2017 – the 12th Inter-
national Conference on Critical Information Infrastructures Security held during
October 8–13, 2017, in Lucca.
CRITIS 2017 continued the tradition of presenting innovative research and
exploring new challenges in the field of critical (information) infrastructures protection
(C(I)IP) and fostering dialogue with stakeholders. CRITIS 2017 renewed efforts to
bring together researchers and professionals from academia, industry, and govern-
mental organizations working in the field of the security of critical (information)
infrastructure systems.
As in previous years, distinguished invited speakers and special events comple-
mented a program of original research contributions. According to the tradition, the
conference invited the different research communities and disciplines involved in the
C(I)IP space, and encouraged discussions and multi-disciplinary approaches to relevant
C(I)IP problems.
This 2017 edition of CRITIS was hosted in Lucca, Italy, by the IMT School for
Advanced Studies Lucca, an Italian public academic institution organized as a graduate
school and research center that focuses on the analysis of economic, social, techno-
logical, and cultural systems.
Two satellite workshops on energy security and on water security took place on the
closing days of the main conference.
Some specific innovations were introduced: beside the traditional sessions where
original works and significant improvements were presented, specific sessions devoted
to ongoing projects and operators took place. The “Projects Dissemination Session”
provided an opportunity for the dissemination of ongoing project results both at the
European and the Member States level for a total of 12 European and three Italian
projects. The operators session in this edition was limited to the ICT sector and was led
by TIM (the former Italian national telecommunication operator).
There were 63 papers submitted. Each submission was reviewed by at least two, and
on average 2.8, Program Committee members. The committee decided to accept 21 full
papers and four extended abstracts with a rejection rate of  67% (  60% accounting
for the extended abstracts). Extended abstracts were selected among the 20 submissions
accepted for poster presentation.
Each accepted full paper was allowed a 20-min slot for oral presentation. The
program also included four keynote talks and one institutional talk; none of the invited
speakers contributed with a non- reviewed proceedings paper.
As in previous editions, CRITIS 2017 awarded three prizes to the best contribution
from young (<32 years) scientists. The winners were selected after a joint evaluation by
both the audience and the academic committee of the Young CRITIS Award (YCA).
CRITIS 2017 received the endorsement of the Presidency of the Italian Council of
Ministers (“patrocinio della Presidenza del Consiglio dei Ministri”) UCE F 735/2017.
VI Preface

The conference was organized by NetONets, a nonprofit organization fostering the

diffusion of interdisciplinary research, especially on complexity science and critical
infrastructures.
The organizers are indebted to IMT Lucca for providing the location of the con-
ference and for supporting the event in several different forms, among which were the
lodgings provided in the beautiful medieval complex of S. Francesco. We also thank
the IMT press office for their support.
We thank our communication chair, Alberto Tofani, for creating and maintaining
the conference’s website and registration services.
The conference organization benefited from the contributions of the program
co-chairs, Cristina Alcaraz and Grigore Havarneanu, of the poster co-chair, Fabiana
Zollo, of the Young CRITIS Award chairs, Bernhard M. Hämmerli and Marco
Santarelli, and of the CRITIS Steering Committee chairs, Bernhard M. Hämmerli,
Javier Lopez, and Stephen D. Wolthusen. We also thank the Program Committee and
all the experts who participated in the reviewing process.
The event was mainly sponsored by TIM with the secondary involvement of the
Kaspersky Lab; the YCA prize was supported by Res On Networks, an international
institute for research and development based in London.
The submission and reviewing process was performed through the EasyChair
platform.

November 2017 Gregorio D’Agostino

Antonio Scala
 Organization

Program Committee
Cristina Alcaraz UMA
Marc Antoni International Union of Railways
Fabrizio Baiardi Dipartimento di informatica, Università di Pisa
Robin Bloomfield City, University of London, UK
Maria Cristina Brugnoli CNIT
Arslan Brömme GI Biometrics Special interest Group (BIOSIG)
Emiliano Casalicchio Blekinge Institute of Technology, Sweden
Simona Cavallini Fondazione Formit, Italy
Michal Choras ITTI Ltd.
Kris Christmann University of Huddersfield, UK
Gregorio D’Agostino ENEA
Myriam Dunn ETH Center for Security Studies Zurich, Switzerland
Mohamed Eid commissariat à l’enrgie atomique et aux energies
alternatives
Angelo Facchini IMT
Adrian Gheorghe Old Dominion University, USA
Dimitris Gritzalis Athens University of Economics and Business, Greece
Stefanos Gritzalis University of the Aegean, Greece
Bernhard Haemmerli Lucerne University of Applied Sciences and Arts,
Switzerland, and Acris GmbH
Chris Hankin Imperial College London, UK
Grigore M. Havarneanu International Union of Railways
Apiniti Jotisankasa Kasetsart University, Bangkok
Sokratis Katsikas Center for Cyber and Information Security, NTNU
Marieke Klaver TNO
Panayiotis Kotzanikolaou University of Piraeus, Greece
Rafal Kozik UTP Bydgoszcz, Poland
Boban Krsic DENIC eG
Elias Kyriakides University of Cyprus, Cyprus
Javier Lopez University of Malaga, Spain
Eric Luiijf TNO
Jose Marti The University of British Columbia, Canada
Richard Mcevoy NTNU, Norway and HPE Ltd.
Maddalen Mendizabal Tecnalia R&I
Iogor Nai Fovino Joint Research Centre
Aristotelis Naniopoulos Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece
Hypatia Nassopoulos EIVP
Eiji Okamoto University of Tsukuba, Japan
VIII Organization

Gabriele Oliva University Campus Biomedico of Rome, Italy

Evangelos Ouzounis ENISA
Stefano Panzieri Roma Tre University, Italy
Alexander Paz-Cruz University of Nevada, Las Vegas, USA
Reinhard Posch UNC Charlotte
Erich Rome Fraunhofer
Vittorio Rosato ENEA
Brendan Ryan University of Nottingham
Andre Samberg TIEMS International Program Committee
Antonio Scala IMT, CNR, Italy
Maria Paola Scaparra The University of Kent, UK
Eric Schellekens ARCADIS
Roberto Setola University Campus Biomedico of Rome, Italy
George Stergiopoulos Athens University of Economics and Business, Greece
Nils Kalstad Svendsen Gjøvik University College, Norway
Dominique Sérafin CEA
André Teixeira Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands
Marianthi Theocharidou European Commission, Joint Research Centre
Alberto Tofani ENEA
William J. Tolone UNC Charlotte
Simona Louise Voronca Transelectrica - POLITEHNICA University Bucharest
René Willems Eindhoven University of Technology
Stephen D. Wolthusen Royal Holloway, University of London, UK
and Norwegian University of Science
and Technology, Norway
Christos Xenakis University of Piraeus, Greece
Jianying Zhou Singapore University of Technology and Design,
Singapore
Enrico Zio Politecnico di Milano, Italy
Fabiana Zollo University of Venice Ca’ Foscari, Italy
Urko Zurutuza Mondragon University, Spain
Inga Žutautaitė Lithuanian Energy Institute, Lithuania

Additional Reviewers

Kasse, Paraskevi
Lykou, Georgia
Lückerath, Daniel
Malatras, Apostolos
Mentzelioti, Despina
Mohammadi, Farnaz
Moulinos, Konstantinos
Virvilis, Nick
Xie, Jingquan
 Contents

Resilience of Electrical Distribution Systems with Critical

Load Prioritization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Zejun Yang and Jose R. Marti

Public Tolerance Levels of Transportation Resilience: A Focus

on the Oresund Region Within the IMPROVER Project. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Laura Petersen, Laure Fallou, Elisabete Carreira, and Andrei Utkin

Towards a Common Vocabulary for Crisis Management Scenarios . . . . . . . . 25

Jingquan Xie, Betim Sojeva, Erich Rome, and Daniel Lückerath

Analysis and Classification of Adaptation Tools for Transport Sector

Adaptation Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Georgia Lykou, George Iakovakis, George Chronis,
and Dimitris Gritzalis

Timing-Based Anomaly Detection in SCADA Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

Chih-Yuan Lin, Simin Nadjm-Tehrani, and Mikael Asplund

Operational Resilience Metrics for a Complex Electrical Network . . . . . . . . . 60

Alberto Tofani, Gregorio D’Agostino, Antonio Di Pietro,
Giacomo Onori, Maurizio Pollino, Silvio Alessandroni,
and Vittorio Rosato

The Influence of Load Characteristics on Early Warning Signs

in Power Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Steffen O. P. Blume and Giovanni Sansavini

DMA Optimal Layout for Protection of Water Distribution Networks

from Malicious Attack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Simeone Chianese, Armando Di Nardo, Michele Di Natale,
Carlo Giudicianni, Dino Musmarra,
and Giovanni Francesco Santonastaso

Role of Urban Interactions and Damage in Seismic Resilience

of Historical Centers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Anna Bozza, Domenico Asprone, Fulvio Parisi, and Gaetano Manfredi

Towards Blockchain-Based Collaborative Intrusion Detection Systems. . . . . . 107

Nikolaos Alexopoulos, Emmanouil Vasilomanolakis,
Natália Réka Ivánkó, and Max Mühlhäuser
X Contents

Analysis of Cybersecurity Threats in Industry 4.0: The Case

of Intrusion Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Juan E. Rubio, Rodrigo Roman, and Javier Lopez

De-Synchronisation Attack Modelling in Real-Time Protocols Using Queue

Networks: Attacking the ISO/IEC 61850 Substation Automation Protocol . . . 131
James G. Wright and Stephen D. Wolthusen

Assessing Urban Rail Transit Systems Vulnerability:

Metrics vs. Interdiction Models. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Stefano Starita, Annunziata Esposito Amideo,
and Maria Paola Scaparra

Automatically Generating Security Models from System Models

to Aid in the Evaluation of AMI Deployment Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Michael Rausch, Ken Keefe, Brett Feddersen, and William H. Sanders

A Gamified Approach to Participatory Modelling of Water System Risks. . . . 168

Alex Coletti, Antonio De Nicola, Giordano Vicoli,
and Maria Luisa Villani

Managing Gas and Electric Power Network Dependencies to secure

Energy Supply: Application to the UK System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Dominique Wassermann, Andrea Antenucci, and Giovanni Sansavini

What the Stack? On Memory Exploitation and Protection in Resource

Constrained Automotive Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Aljoscha Lautenbach, Magnus Almgren, and Tomas Olovsson

Dealing with Functional Safety Requirements for Automotive Systems:

A Cyber-Physical-Social Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Mohamad Gharib, Paolo Lollini, Andrea Ceccarelli,
and Andrea Bondavalli

Side-Channel Based Intrusion Detection for Industrial Control Systems . . . . . 207

Pol Van Aubel, Kostas Papagiannopoulos, Łukasz Chmielewski,
and Christian Doerr

Security Evaluation of Cyber-Physical Systems Using Automatically

Generated Attack Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Laurens Lemaire, Jan Vossaert, Bart De Decker, and Vincent Naessens

Faulty or Malicious Anchor Detection Criteria

for Distance-Based Localization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Federica Inderst, Gabriele Oliva, Stefano Panzieri,
Federica Pascucci, and Roberto Setola
 Contents XI

One Step More: Automatic ICS Protocol Field Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241

Yeop Chang, Seungoh Choi, Jeong-Han Yun, and SinKyu Kim

Motion Magnification for Urban Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253

Vincenzo Fioriti, Ivan Roselli, Angelo Tati, Roberto Romano,
and Gerardo De Canio

Reputation Systems to Mitigate DoS Attack in Vehicular Network . . . . . . . . 261

Gianpiero Costantino, Fabio Martinelli, and Ilaria Matteucci

On the Security of Aircraft Communication Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266

Paul Berthier, Corentin Bresteau, and José Fernandez

Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271

 Resilience of Electrical Distribution Systems
with Critical Load Prioritization

Zejun Yang and Jose R. Marti(&)

The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada

{zyang,jrms}@ece.ubc.ca

Abstract. In the highly interdependent environment of a large city, failures in

the electrical distribution system can cause direct or indirect consequences to
other critical infrastructures and to the Human Well-being Level (HWL) of the
citizens. This paper discusses the electrical distribution system in terms of how
topological reconfiguration, together with prioritized system recovery can
maintain a high level of Human Well-being resilience during system failures.
The Infrastructure Interdependencies Simulator (i2SIM) is used to prioritize load
restoration and load shedding algorithms. To validate the proposed approach,
spanning tree search algorithms, load shedding schemes and optimization
methods are applied to find optimal restoration strategies on a standard IEEE 30-
node system and on a 70-node distribution system with critical loads.

Keywords: Electrical distribution system restoration
i2SIM

Human Well-being Level
Smart city resilience
Load shedding
Spanning tree algorithms

1 Introduction

Society is strongly dependent on a resilient electricity supply to maintain its Human

Well-being Level (HWL) [1]. Electricity supply interruptions lead to direct conse-
quences for the HWL and will in general have an impact on other dependent critical
infrastructures, such as water supply, emergency services, and information and com-
munication technologies (ICT) [2]. For instance, in the Italian blackout of 2003,
unexpected failures of a power station caused the simultaneous shutdown of the tele-
communications and supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) network of the
power system; the failures in the tele-communications system, in turn, caused further
failures in the power supply network resulting in a large cascading event [3]. Another
example of such interdependencies-related event happened in the same year in the USA
[4]. In this event, smaller partial power system failures as well as computer and human
mistakes led to cascading effects that ultimately resulted in a large magnitude event.
These examples illustrate the need to consider critical infrastructure interdependencies
when assessing the whole system resilience.
The Human Well-being Level - Distribution System Restoration (HWL-DSR)
method proposed in this paper combines optimal topological reconfiguration with
system recovery according to the criticality of the loads.

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2018

G. D’Agostino and A. Scala (Eds.): CRITIS 2017, LNCS 10707, pp. 1–12, 2018.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99843-5_1
2 Z. Yang and J. R. Marti

A number of solutions including mixed integer non-linear programming [5, 6] and

heuristic search [7] have been proposed for the reconfiguration problem. However,
previous research [8–10] indicates that the Spanning Tree Search algorithm requires
less computing time and fewer operations of the reconfiguration switches.
Resilience oriented critical loads’ restoration has been proposed in [11, 12]. Gen-
erally, these approaches aim at measuring the adequacy of the electrical system to
supply the demand of electricity after the contingency. Alternatively, critical infras-
tructure interdependencies for DSR have been considered and analyzed, for example, in
[13–15]. The concept proposed here of Human Well-being Level (HWL) [1] considers
both the power system’s performance and performance of the other interdependent
networks, simultaneously.
The paper makes the following contributions:
• The concept of resilience using the HWL-DSR is proposed. The Infrastructures
Interdependencies Simulator (i2SIM) is used to establish the criticality of the loads’
restoration sequence;
• A Shortest Path Tree Search and a Hybrid Load Shedding Scheme are proposed to
minimize the number of switching operations while maximizing the HWL-DSR
resilience;
• The importance of considering the interdependencies in DSR is illustrated by
analyzing the results of two alternative optimization algorithms.
The remainder of this paper is organized as follows. Section 2 presents the problem
formulation and implementation procedure. Graph search schemes are described in
Sect. 3. Section 4 tests load shedding schemes and electrical constraints in the
MATPOWER simulation environment. i2SIM is introduced in Sect. 5 to take into
account the criticality of the loads. Section 6 presents simulation results using the
standard IEEE 30-node distribution system and a 70-node 4-feeder system together
with i2SIM. Conclusions and future work are presented in Sect. 7.

2 Problem Formulation

The resilience of the system of Critical Infrastructures (CI) considering the interde-
pendencies among these CI can be measured in terms of the Human Well-being
Table (HWT) [1]. The HWT is an example of the input-output HRT table concept [16]
that relates an output resource or index value to a series of inputs. Table 1 shows an
example of an HWT for some sample city. The output column y of the table gives the
level of well-being, which in this simple example depends on the availability of
electricity, water, services, and ICT. The least available resource determines the output
level. To bring the level of well-being to 50%, we first need to restore services to
14 hr/day. Then restoring electricity to 22 hr/day, services to 18 hr/day, and ICT to
12 hr/day will bring the well-being level to 75%.
In mathematical terms, the HWL is defined as a function of N-nonlinear, inde-
pendent eigenvectors, one for each human need, and its value is determined by the
output level that corresponds to the least available input resource, as follows,
 Resilience of Electrical Distribution Systems with Critical Load Prioritization 3

Table 1. Human Well-being Table.

Human Well-being Table (HWT)

(HWL) (electricity) (water) (service) (ICT)
(%) (hr/day) (hr/day) (hr/day) (hr/day)
100 24 24 24 24
75 22 20 18 12
50 18 16 14 6
25 12 12 12 2
0 0 0 0 0

yn ¼ minðxn1 ; xn2 ; . . .; xnmax Þ ð1Þ

Resilience index (2) is a measure of for how long and by how much the HWL stays
below the “normal” value (100% in Table 1) before the system is restored.
PM
y Dtm
R¼ 0 n ð2Þ
tM  t0

The better the restoration strategy, the less time the well-being level will stay below
the normal level and the higher the R value will be.
In this paper, the electrical distribution network is assumed to be radial and a
number of simultaneous faults are assumed (Fig. 1).
For the electrical service to be considered “available”, the electrical constraints of
operation need to be satisfied:

Vimin \Vi \Vimin ; i 2 I ð3Þ

 min   
I \jIl j\I max ; l 2 L ð4Þ
l l

2
P2f þ Q2f \ðSmax
f Þ ;f 2 F ð5Þ

R Resilience of the HWL for the N Total number of independent eigenvectors

restoration strategy (columns) of the HWL
yn Particular HWL value m m-th time step
t0 Initial time when contingency n n-th independent eigenvector (column) of
occurs the HWL
M Total number of time steps Dt Time step for each restoration process
tM Time when restoration process Vi Voltage at node i
completes
Il Current at line l Pf Active power injected into feeder m
Qf Reactive power injected into Smax
f Maximum capacity of feeder m
feeder m
I Set of all nodes L Set of all lines
F Set of all feeders
4 Z. Yang and J. R. Marti

Start

Fault Occurrence

Substation Breaker Open Generate New Trees

that tries to connect all
the nodes with
Fault Isolation minimum weights Weight the Edges

Reconfiguration & Find Optimal

Substation Breaker Close Reconfiguration

Check the I2Sim

Electrical New Configuration
Constraints

Power Flow Hybrid Load

No
Calculation Shedding
Yes

Optimal Reconfiguration Calculate the HWL

Multiple Critical
Yes Repair Algorithms
nodes failed

No

End

Fig. 1. Interdependent- infrastructures Fig. 2. Flow chart of proposed algorithm

resilience index in terms of the Human
Well-being Level

In the paper, the following variables are defined:

The HWL-DSR algorithm follows these steps (Fig. 2):
1. Map the initial configuration of the distribution network into a graph G using an
adjacency matrix;
2. The failure locations are isolated by the remotely controlled switches (RCS) and the
status of the line switches is updated to G;
3. The optimal connection is found using a spanning tree search. The network
switches are opened or closed accordingly;
4. Power flow calculations are performed to check the electrical constraints (3)–(5),
using the MATPOWER toolbox in MATLAB;
5. If there are no electrical constraints violations, a candidate post-contingency
reconfiguration is obtained; otherwise, a load shedding scheme is applied;
6. If the number of faults is larger than the number of repair crews, prioritization of
repair is applied, according to i2SIM. After all faults are repaired, the HWL returns
to the normal state.
 Resilience of Electrical Distribution Systems with Critical Load Prioritization 5

To simplify the problem, the following assumptions are made:

1. A balanced three-phase network is considered; hence the system is represented by
single-phase circuit;
2. Repairing time for per crew is constant for each fault removal;
3. Load demands are constant during restoration period;
4. Each branch and bus is equipped with a remotely controlled switch and optimal
allocation of a limited number of switches is not considered in this paper.

3 Graph Search Schemes

Using graph theory, we can map each bus and each branch in the electrical distribution
system into a vertex and an edge. The system can then be represented as a graph G (V,
E) using a sparse adjacency matrix. The reconfiguration of the distribution system is
essentially the reconnection of the graph G (V, E).
Distribution systems are normally operated in radial configurations [17], with the
primary substation in the root node and all other nodes connected without loops. The
resulting structures correspond to spanning trees in graph theory, containing all the
vertices without any loops [18]. Compared with mixed integer non-linear programming
and heuristic searches, the spanning tree search requires fewer switches’ commutations
and less computational time [9]. For a multi-feeder system, the tree graph can be
viewed as a forest (a graph with more than one tree). If all the roots of the trees can be
centralized and viewed as one main root, as in [9], then the multi-feeder system
optimization problem can be reduced into a single feeder problem.
When a fault occurs, the circuit breaker at the primary substation of the faulted
feeder will disconnect the supply to the feeder and all loads in the feeder will stop being
supplied. If reclosing is unsuccessful, the substation breaker will stay open until the
fault is isolated. With the substation breaker open, sectionalizing breakers along the
feeder can be opened to isolate the faulted section. The substation breaker can then be
reclosed and supply can be restored to the loads upstream from the faulted section
towards the substation. If next the normally-open tie switches between feeders are
closed, the downstream feeder load can be fed from a different primary substation.
Spanning tree search schemes can be used to restore most of the load without violating
electrical constraints. The distribution system is required to maintain a radial structure
during the reconfiguration process.
Two different search schemes were tested in this work: (a) The Minimum Spanning
Tree (MST) Search, and (b) The Shortest Path Problem.
The minimum spanning tree search aims at connecting all nodes in such a way as to
achieve the least total weight in a connected graph, following Prim’s algorithm [19].
Certain edges can be weighted so as to force the structure of the tree. For example, we
can assign a higher weight to a line with normally open switches, which reduces the
possibility of electrical and operational violations.
The shortest path problem aims at finding a path between two nodes (or vertices) in
a graph such that the summation of the weights of its candidate path is minimized [20].
6 Z. Yang and J. R. Marti

A Shortest Path Tree (SPT), rooted at a specific vertex, is a spanning tree T of G.

This tree ensures that the path distance from root to any other vertex in T is the shortest.
The original SPT is modified in our strategy according to the criticality of the vertices.
The nodes connected to critical infrastructures, such as hospitals, water stations, ICT-
network, etc., are defined as critical nodes. In contrast, those with low criticality, such
as most of the residential, commercial and industrial loads, are pre-defined as non-
critical nodes.
In this paper, instead of searching for all equally-weighted vertices in the shortest
fashion, the SPT searches for the critical nodes at the beginning. This presents two
advantages: it prevents the supply of the critical loads from being shed and, at the same
time, it reduces the computational time.

4 Load Shedding Schemes

During faults, load shedding schemes are needed to maintain the electrical operating
limits. There are typically two load shedding approaches: load curtailment and pruning.
Load Curtailment is characterized by the ability to alter the amount of electrical
power consumed by a specific load bus [21]. This traditional approach seeks to opti-
mize the power flow so that load and generation match precisely, and prevents elec-
trical violations (3)–(5) as well as transient voltage stability conditions. If electrical
violations occur at critical loads, non-critical loads should be curtailed. This paper adds
a fast voltage stability index from [22] to determine the sequence of curtailment of non-
critical loads. This strategy helps to preserve the critical loads and eliminate the
unstable lines.
However, this approach requires extra network reconfiguration switches, with
corresponding additional capital costs to install these breakers, and additional opera-
tions for each breaker, with a corresponding increase in breaker wear, malfunctioning,
and deceased reliability [23].
We propose a hybrid load shedding scheme that combines load curtailment and
pruning (Fig. 3). Pruning alone aims at isolating functional sections of the power
system so that a contingency does not cascade [24] and avoids violations from
reconfiguration. The required switching operations are comparatively lower than with
the load curtailment approach. However, the disadvantage is that critical load preser-
vation may not be guaranteed if there is not an adequate placement of the pruned buses.
In our proposed hybrid scheme, the system always tries to remove the leaf nodes
first (nodes with degree one) until all remaining leaf nodes are critical nodes. Then load
curtailment is performed. This results in reduced switching operations while preserving
the critical loads.

5 The Infrastructure Interdependencies Simulator (i2SIM)

i2SIM [16] is a tool for modelling interdependencies among complex critical infras-
tructures. In this work, i2SIM is used to determine the sequence in which critical loads
must be restored (if required) after the topological reconfiguration is achieved. Two
 Resilience of Electrical Distribution Systems with Critical Load Prioritization 7

different optimization methodologies are tested, a global optimization algorithm

(GOA) and a greedy algorithm.
The GOA tries to maximize the resilience for the entire time line of the event, while
the Greedy Algorithm chooses what appears to be the optimal immediate choice at
every moment [25]. The computational complexity for GOA increases exponentially
with the number of critical loads as well as with the number of vertices and edges in the
graph. However, since there is a low possibility of there being a large number of
unsupplied critical nodes [26], and this possibility is further reduced by load recon-
figuration, it is possible to simplify the GOA algorithm as follows:
• Not all critical nodes are considered in the GOA;
• Multiple critical nodes with no faults between them are viewed as one group and
these nodes are restored simultaneously;
• Critical nodes of the same type, or nodes within a certain area, can be categorized
into one group.

6 Test Cases and Simulation Results

In this section, the proposed reconfiguration strategy is applied to two systems: (a) an
IEEE 33-bus one-feeder system to validate the reconfiguration scheme, and (b) a 70-
bus four-feeder system that illustrates the importance of infrastructure interdependen-
cies in recovering the Human Wellness Level.
Multiple line faults and multiple critical nodes are generated for each test system.
The computational tasks are performed on a personal computer with an Intel Core i5
Processor (2.66 GHz) and 8-GB of RAM.

6.1 Test System A—IEEE 33-Bus System

This test uses the IEEE 33-bus 12.66 kV radial distribution system, with 5 tie switches.
The specific data, including active loads, reactive loads, branch impedances, etc. are
identical with [27]. Two scenarios, with different fault locations and optimization
methodologies, are studied:
Scenario (1) Validation of the Proposed Reconfiguration Scheme. The proposed
reconfiguration scheme using the MST search, without a load shedding scheme and
without i2SIM, is compared with case 3) of test system A of [13]. The results, using the
methodology in this paper and the methodology of [13], present identical profiles,
including loads, branches, fault locations (line 5–6, 8–9, 3–23, and 15–16), critical load
locations (node 5, 11, 3, 15, 19, 21, 26, 28, and 29). The results are also almost
identical regarding the total weighted and supplied active load after reconfiguration:
83.62% for our result and 83.42% for [13]’s, respectively. These results validate our
basic reconfiguration scheme (Fig. 4).
Scenario (2) Validation of the Hybrid Load Shedding Scheme and the Spanning
Tree Search Algorithm. In this scenario, in order to make the results more obvious,
we assign the critical load busses (16, 17, 18, 29, 30, and 32) far away from the root
8 Z. Yang and J. R. Marti

Fig. 3. Demonstration of hybrid load shedding Fig. 4. Initial configuration of IEEE

33-Bus System

Table 2. Comparison of reconfiguration solutions

Load Pruning Hybrid load Hybrid load
curtailment with MST shedding with shedding with
with MST [9] MST SPT
Critical load 100 67.9 100 100
preservation
(%)
Shed load (kW) 3027.9 1975.1 3018.7 2920.2
Number of 28 8 22 17
switch
operations*
Minimum nodal 0.9021 0.9024 0.9050 0.9099
voltage (pu)
*Every single tie, sectionalizing and curtailment switch operation accounts in the total number of
switch operations

node, we set one failure location (line 2–3) close to the root node, and we include an
extra line (line 16–17) between the critical nodes.
The results from Table 2 are based on four different reconfiguration methodologies.
For the more severe scenario, the pruning scheme with MST cannot preserve the
critical loads, although it has the lowest amount of shedded loads and switching
operations. The rest of the three methodologies are capable of preserving the critical
loads with almost the same amount of shedded loads. The hybrid load shedding with
SPT has the best performance in terms of the least number of switching operations, and
will be the strategy adopted for improving the Human Wellness Level.
 Resilience of Electrical Distribution Systems with Critical Load Prioritization 9

Residential Residential Residential Residential Residential Residential

11 12 18 38 58 62

ICT 1
Hospital 1 Hospital 2
ICT
Master
Water Water
Station 1 Station 2
Electricity Supply

Communication

Water Supply ICT 2

Fig. 5. Scenario (4) i2SIM interdependencies Fig. 6. 70-node radial distribution of

Scenario (3)

6.2 Test System B - 70-Node System

This system is an 11-kV radial distribution system with two substations, 4 feeders, 70
nodes, and 78 branches (including 11 normally open tie switches) [28], as shown in
Fig. 6. In this case, we assume there are 6 critical nodes (12, 18, 27, 38, 58, and 62) and
that a severe natural disaster causes 30 failure locations on different lines selected
randomly. We consider two cases: (a) Without i2SIM (Scenario 3), and (b) With i2SIM
(Scenario 4). The scenario without i2SIM corresponds to the “standard” reconfiguration
strategies. The result is that not all critical loads get reconnected, that is, no tie switches
can help the restoration of some of the critical loads. The scenario with i2SIM includes
6 critical interdependent nodes, including 2 hospitals, 2 water stations, 2 ICT agents, 1
ICT master agent, and 6 residential loads. With respect to Table 1, yn represents the
availability of each infrastructure. This system is shown in Fig. 5.
Two optimization methodologies (Global and Greedy) are tested.
In the GOA methodology, the electricity supply is set as the only input (binary) to
i2SIM, i.e. the status of each supply node is 1 or 0, and a binary number can be used for
10 Z. Yang and J. R. Marti

the node status. For example, given five critical nodes 01000 indicates that the second
critical node has service “on”.
Each binary status of the node supplying electricity is transferred into a decimal
number before implementing the shortest path algorithm to find the global optimal
operation sequences. The simplified scheme is as described in Sect. 4, that is, the
adjacent critical nodes (11, 12) are regarded as one variable. Figure 7 gives the repair
sequence (2–3–4–5–1) for each failure location to prioritize the post-contingency
response when emergency crews are limited.

3 11011

11111
1
11010
11110 GOA
2
01011

0.8 Greedy Algorithm

01010 01111
11001

01110
1 11101
11000 10011

10010
11100 10111 0.6
01001
0
10110

HWL
01101
01000 00011

01100 00111
0.4
-1 10001 00010

10000 00110
10101

-2
10100
0.2
00001
00101

00000

-3 00100
0
0 1 2 3 4
-4 Time (hour)
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

Fig. 7. Results of simplified critical-node Fig. 8. HWL results for GOA and
repairing sequence from i2SIM based on greedy algorithm
GOA

For comparison, a greedy algorithm was also implemented to find the local optimal
solution. The outputs from the HWL in i2SIM are shown in Fig. 8 throughout the
recovery process. The global optimized repair sequence with i2SIM has the highest
overall resilience index, which validates our proposed strategy (Fig. 8).

50 40
Results from Greedy Algorithm

40
30
Results from GOA

30
20
20

10
10

0 0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
Distribution of Resilience Indices Distribution of Resilience Indices

Fig. 9. Results of objective R from two optimization algorithms

Randomly Distributed Failure Locations. To test the effect of the fault location on
the optimization results, the failure locations are randomly selected for 200 different
cases. The Gaussian distribution results of the resilience objective R are shown in
Fig. 9. The mean values for the GOA and Greedy Algorithms are 0.7211 and 0.6439,
respectively. This result validates that for the interdependent DSR, the GOA enhances
the resilience of the HWL better than the greedy algorithm.
 Resilience of Electrical Distribution Systems with Critical Load Prioritization 11

7 Conclusion and Future Work

The proposed strategy for Human Well-being Level based Distribution System
Restoration (HWL-DSR) combines a shortest path tree search algorithm and a priority-
load load-shedding scheme, scheduled by i2SIM, to find an optimal distribution
reconfiguration and restoration sequence that maximizes the availability of the most
critical loads without electrical system violations. By using the HWL table, the pro-
posed solution maximizes the Human Well-being resilience. The proposed framework
can be applied both for long term planning and for optimal fast response during
extreme contingencies.
The study cases assume radiality of the distribution system network, which is the
most common scheme in current electrical distribution systems (DS). As technology
improves, smart DS of the future will incorporate islanded sub-regions and mesh
schemes. Further work is needed to extend this work for more complex interdependent
schemes.
The paper assumes that the load demand and the generation are constant during the
restoration period. A more accurate scenario will have to consider the variability of the
load during the daily cycle, as well as the effect of the intermittence of the renewable
energy sources (e.g., wind and solar).
In current electrical distribution systems, not all load nodes are equipped with
remotely-controlled disconnect switches, and many of these switches have to be
operated manually. This brings about the additional dimension of optimizing the repair
crew transportation time needed to open or close the disconnect switches.

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 Public Tolerance Levels of Transportation
Resilience: A Focus on the Oresund Region
Within the IMPROVER Project

Laura Petersen1(&), Laure Fallou1, Elisabete Carreira2,

and Andrei Utkin2
1
EMSC, Arpajon, France
{petersen,fallou}@emsc-csem.com
2
INOV, Lisbon, Portugal
elisabete.carreira@inov.pt

Abstract. Maintaining a minimum level of service and recovering quickly after

a crisis event are key components of infrastructure resilience. While no con-
sensus exists on the precise meaning of these two terms, one way to measure
them is to examine public tolerances of service levels and recovery time.
However, few studies have empirically investigated public tolerance levels. This
paper sets out to address this gap by examining Swedish public tolerance levels
of the transportation sector through the use of an online questionnaire and
comparing the results to the change in habits following the change in service of
the Oresund Crossing due to the implementation of border controls in 2016 in
response to the migrant crisis. The findings suggest that the public are willing to
tolerate service reductions. Furthermore, declared expectations are well reflected
in the habits of Oresund Crossing users, demonstrating the resilience of citizens
in crisis situations.

Keywords: Resilience
Infrastructure
Public tolerance

1 Introduction

Maintaining a minimum level of service and recovering quickly after a crisis event are
key components of infrastructure resilience. While no consensus exists on the precise
meaning of these two terms, one way to measure them is to examine public expecta-
tions of service levels and recovery time. While research often points to an “expectation
gap” between what the public expect and what operators are capable of [1, 2], few
studies have empirically investigated these aspects. The EU Horizon 2020 project
IMPROVER (Improved risk evaluation and implementation of resilience concepts to
critical infrastructure), makes use of Living Labs, or clustered regions of different types
of infrastructure which provide specific services to a city or region. One such Living
Lab is the Oresund region. This paper discusses the above expectation gap by exam-
ining Swedish public tolerance levels of the transportation sector through the use of an
online questionnaire. The obtained results were then compared to the changes in
population habits caused by an alternation in the Oresund Crossing service due to the

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2018

G. D’Agostino and A. Scala (Eds.): CRITIS 2017, LNCS 10707, pp. 13–24, 2018.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99843-5_2
14 L. Petersen et al.

migrant crisis. This paper first presents a brief literature review on public expectations
of transportation operators in times of crisis. It then describes the Oresund Crossing
case study. After which, the methodology of the questionnaires and case study are
explained. This is followed by a presentation of the questionnaire results, and an
overview of the public reaction to the Oresund Crossing service change, accompanied
by a comprehensive discussion on the subject. The most important outcome of the
work is stated in the conclusion section.

2 General Expectations of Transportation Operators

in a Crisis

Overall, expectations for transportation infrastructure during and after a crisis appear
high. Some minimum level of mobility is highly expected to be achieved, even if this
requires a change in the means of transportation (for example bicycling instead of
taking the subway), as was the case during the 2012 Hurricane Sandy when NYC
subway users walked, biked or carpooled to maintain mobility [3]. There also appears
to be an expectation for operators to help in long term recovery, as was made evident
by survey results from victims of both the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake and the
2010–11 Queensland Floods who had lost access to their private vehicles. They
reported an expectation for public transportation to be available to make up for the loss
of their private vehicles due to flood or tsunami waters [4, 5].

3 Background on the Oresund Crossing

The Oresund Crossing is a combined railway and roadway bridge across the Oresund
strait between Sweden and Denmark, connecting Copenhagen, the Danish capital city,
and the Swedish city of Malmö. As well as linking two large communities by road and
rail, allowing commuters to live on one side and work in the other, the crossing (along
with other bridges in Denmark) is the primary road and rail link between Scandinavia
and mainland Europe [6]. The Oresund Institute, a non-profit Danish-Swedish organ-
isation founded to promote integration in the Oresund Region, states that 95,900 people
cross the Oresund Strait daily, both directions included, with 42,900 of them by car and
32,100 by train [7]. The BBC estimates that 20,000 commuters cross the bridge daily
[8]. With a total population of 3.2 million people, the region is an excellent example of
European cross-border collaboration and also includes the 6th largest air transportation
hub in Europe (Copenhagen airport) [6].
In December 2015, due to the drastic increase in refugees and asylum seekers
entering Sweden and Europe, commonly referred to as the ongoing “migrant crisis”, the
Swedish government made adjustments to its refugee policy and instituted a temporary
(and thus Schengen compliant) 6-month program to check the documents of all trav-
ellers reaching its border by train, and a fraction of those arriving by car [9]. A fine of
SEK 50,000 was established for travel companies serving clients without such identity
documents [10]. In compliance with these requirements, the Øresundsbro Konsortiet,
the company responsible for the Oresund Crossing infrastructure, as well as other
 Public Tolerance Levels of Transportation Resilience 15

transportation infrastructure operators, began identity checks. While originally stipu-

lated for 6 months, Sweden extended the identity checks multiple times, finally ending
them in May 2017 [8].
The main change in service was increased journey times. The BBC reports that the
border control added an extra 30 min to the commute, whereas the Oresund Institute
estimates that travel time increased by 10–60 min [10, 11]. Rail operators also reduced
the daily number of trips between the two countries and there were fewer train
departures in peak hours [10, 11]. However, it is difficult to get an overall picture of
how the ID checks in conjunction with the internal Swedish border controls affected
commuting across the Oresund region as it greatly depended on from and to where one
was traveling. The commuters who work at the airport in Kastrup and get off at the first
Swedish railway station in Hyllie experienced an increase in travel time of about ten
minutes. On the other hand, the travel time increased by about 30–60 min for a
commuter who works inside Copenhagen and lives in Lund. Furthermore, the Danish
long-distance trains from Funen and Jutland ceased direct traffic to the Copenhagen
airport soon after the Swedish identity checks were introduced. For motorists on the
Oresund Crossing it is reported that ID checks generally operate without major delays.
The same was observed for another alternative to the Oresund Crossing, the ferry route
between Helsingborg and Helsingör, known under the trademark Scandlines
Helsingborg-Helsingör.

4 Methodology
4.1 Research Questions
Specifically, three Research Questions emerged from the literature reviewed above:
1. What do Swedish citizens consider as an acceptable level of disruption to trans-
portation infrastructure during a crisis?
2. How have Oresund region residents reacted to the change in service of the Oresund
Crossing?
3. How do these declared expectations compare to the change in habits following the
initiation of the ID checks at the Oresund Crossing?
An online questionnaire and case study-based study was designed to investigate
these questions. Ethics approval was sought and obtained from the respective
authorities prior to data collection.

4.2 Questionnaire
The target population for the questionnaire was adults aged 18 years and over who
were familiar with the Oresund region. Convenience sampling was used. The ques-
tionnaire was translated into the three main languages spoken around the Oresund
region (English, Danish, and Swedish). It was structured as follows: First, a brief
description of the project was provided and participants were informed of their right to
withdraw from the project at any time, as well as how all data would be handled during
16 L. Petersen et al.

the project. For the purposes of this questionnaire, respondents were presented with the
following definition of a disaster: “an event which has catastrophic consequences and
significantly affects the quality, quantity, or availability of the service provided by the
infrastructure.” Regarding the minimum acceptable level of service, respondents were
presented with four below normal service level scenarios. These were: Transportation
for emergency services only; Alternative means (for example, trains as opposed to
private car, ferry instead of bridge); Local diversion; or Reduced capacity or frequency
of service (for example, trains going every half hour instead of every ten minutes).
They had to state whether they were willing to accept the given reduction in service.
Then they then had to choose the maximum amount of time they would be willing to
tolerate a given disruption (from “years,” “months,” “weeks,” “days,” to “hours,” or
“not at all”). The questionnaire also asked about the participants’ demographics. Data
from the questionnaire was collected between 28 March 2016 and 30 April 2016. The
questionnaire answers were translated back into English at the data entry stage. The
questionnaire was disseminated through the IMPROVER consortium partners’ contacts
as well as through the Living Lab.

4.3 Questionnaire Sample Characteristics

A total of 88 participants completed the online questionnaire. 80 respondents were of
Swedish nationality and 24 declared to live near the Oresund region. A variety of
nationalities claimed to live in the Oresund region, including French, Italian, Russian,
Icelandic, and Danish. The majority (66%) however were Swedish. Due to the dis-
semination method, this self-selected sample was not broadly representative of the
Swedish population, nor of the Living Lab population. Sample characteristics of
Swedish respondents showed that 51% of the respondents were men, 48% were women
and 1% chose not to answer that question. Most were highly educated, with 71%
reporting that they have a university degree or higher qualification. Both young and old
people appeared to be underrepresented in the study. Respondents aged 18–24
accounted for only 4% of the total sample (for comparison, Swedish 15–24 year olds
make up 12%), with 16% identifying themselves as aged 55 years and above (for
Swedish population it is over 30%) [12].

4.4 Case Study Development

This preliminary study on the transportation infrastructure in the Oresund region
examined a relatively recent event. As such, the event has yet to be duly addressed by
sociologists. Therefore, the adapted methodology comprises the collection, synthesis,
and subsequent analysis of news and other pertinent materials published on the
Internet. The data was collected between November 2015 and May 2016. Due to
language constraints of the researches, English was the search language. 24 newspapers
were analysed. Key words were used to establish boundaries to our research. These
included border ID checks, Oresund bridge, asylum seekers, refugee crisis, public
reaction, reactions to change in service, commuters. Social media sites for relevant
public entities that were created to deal with the introduction of border controls as well
as social media accounts of transport entities (those intended to provide information to
 Public Tolerance Levels of Transportation Resilience 17

commuters) were also examined, as well as online reviews of the Oresund Crossing.
Information was collected from the PR department of Øresundsbro Konsortiet. The
same was done for the HH Ferries Group, the company that runs the ferry route
Scandlines Helsingborg-Helsingör.

5 Questionnaire Results

Findings suggest that Swedish and Oresund region respondents were willing to tolerate
service reductions in the transportation sector during crises (see Fig. 1). When pre-
sented with the four scenarios, no respondent selected “I would not tolerate any
reduction in service.” It turned out that Local diversion was the most tolerated option,
as it was the most chosen option by both Swedish (93%) and Oresund region (88%)
respondents. Alternative means was the next most selected, by 90% of Swedish and
79% of Oresund region respondents. Reduced capacity was chosen by 85% of Swedish
respondents and 71% of Oresund region respondents. Transportation for emergency
services only was the least chosen option by both Swedish (64%) and Oresund region
(63%) respondents.

100% 90% 93% 88%

85%
Percentage of respondents

79%
80% 71%
64% 63%
60%
40%
20%
0%
Emergency Alternative Diversion Reduced capacity
services only means or frequency
Type of service reduction

Sweden Oresund region

Fig. 1. Acceptability of service reduction for Swedish and Oresund region respondents

When asked for how long the respondents would be willing to tolerate the reduction
in service, differences appeared among Swedish respondents (see Fig. 2). Most
Swedish respondents were only willing to tolerate Transportation for emergency ser-
vices only for days (47%). For Alternative means, Swedish respondents chose both
months and weeks (35% each). Most Swedish respondents chose months for Diversion
(38%) and for Reduced capacity (37%). Responses were similar for those who came
from the Oresund region in regards to Transportation for emergency services only
(divided equally for most responses between hours and days at 36% each) and
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
approbation to some beautiful copies prepared by the nuns, of the
works of Origen.[72] In St. Gall, where the literary activity of the
monks has already been referred to, the nuns in the convent of S.
Catharine were, in the thirteenth and in the first half of the fourteenth
centuries, also engaged in preparing transcripts of holy books.
Monkish Chroniclers.—In addition to the services
rendered by the monks in the preservation of classic literature, and
in addition also to the great amount of work required of them in the
routine of their monastery for the preparation of books of devotion
and instruction, a most valuable task was performed by many of the
monastic scribes in the production of the records or annals of their
times. The work of the literary monks included the functions not only
of scribes, but of librarians, collectors, teachers, and historians. The
records that have come down to us of several centuries of mediæval
European history are due almost exclusively to the labours of the
monastic chroniclers. Even those who did not compose books which
can properly be described as historical, have left in their cartularies
documents by the help of which the archæologists can to-day solve
the most important problems relating to the social, civil, domestic,
and agricultural life of their ancestors. The cartularies, says M. C.
Giraud, were the most curious monuments of the history of the
time.[73]
Without the monks, says Marsham (a Protestant writer), we should
have been as ignorant of our history as children.[74] England,
converted by her monks, has special reason to be proud of the
historians furnished by her abbeys.[75] One chronicler, Gildas, has
painted with fiery touches the miseries of Great Britain after the
departure of the Romans. To another, the Venerable Bede, author of
the ecclesiastical history of Britain, we owe the detailed account of
the Catholic Renaissance under the Saxons. Bede’s chronicle
extends to the year 731. Its author died four years later. Among later
monkish chroniclers may be mentioned Ingulphus, Abbot of
Croyland, whose history extends to 1091; Vitalis, a monk of
Shrewsbury, whose chronicle reached to 1141, and many others.
The chronicle of Vitalis gives an animated picture of the struggle
between the Saxons and the Normans, and of the vicissitudes during
this period of the Church of England. Later monastic historians were:
William of Malmesbury (circa 1095-1143), Geoffrey of Monmouth
(circa 1090-1154), Henry of Huntingdon (circa 1120-1180), Roger of
Wendover (circa 1169-1237), Matthew Paris (circa 1185-1259), and
Ralph Higden (circa 1280-1370). Further reference to the work of
these English chroniclers is made in the chapter on Books in
England during the Manuscript Period. This series of monkish
chronicles presents, says Montalembert, an inexhaustible amount of
information as to the manners, laws, and ideas of the times, and
unites with the important information of history the personal
attractiveness of biography.[76]
Among the chroniclers of France are to be noted S. Gregory of
Tours; S. Abbon, of St. Germain des Prés, who wrote the history of
the wars of King Eudes and an account of the sieges of Paris by the
Normans; Frodoard, who died in 968, and who wrote the annals of
the tenth century; Richer, whose history covers the period between
880 and 995; Helgaud, who wrote the life of King Robert; Aimoin, a
monk of Fleury, who died in 1008, and who wrote a very curious life
of S. Abbon and a record of the miracles at Fleury of S. Bénoît;
Chabanais, a monk of St. Cybar in Angoulême, who died in 1028,
and whose record reaches to 1025. It has been republished by Pertz
in the fourth volume of the Scriptores. Raoul Glaber, a monk of St.
Germain d’Auxerre, wrote a history of his own time in five books,
which covers the period from the accession of Hugh Capet to 1046.
Hugh, Abbot of Flavigny, wrote with considerable detail the history of
the eleventh century. These various monkish chronicles have served
as a basis for the first national and popular monuments of French
history. The famous chronicles of S. Denys, which were written very
early in Latin, were translated into French in the beginning of the
thirteenth century. They contain the essence of the historic and
poetic traditions of old France.
The mediæval history of Italy is in like manner dependent almost
entirely upon the records of the literary monks. The great collection
of Muratori is based upon the monkish chronicles, especially of those
of Volturna, Novalese, Farfa, Casa Aurio, and of Monte Cassino.
From the latter abbey, there sprang a series of distinguished
historians: Johannes Diaconus, the biographer of S. Gregory the
Great, who wrote during the reign of Charlemagne; Paulus
Diaconus, the friend of Charlemagne; Leo, Bishop of Ostia, first
author of the famous chronicle of Monte Cassino, and Peter
Diaconus, who continued its chronicle. Another monk of Monte
Cassino recounts the wonderful story of the conquest gained by the
Norman chivalry in the two Sicilies, a story reproduced and
completed by the Sicilian monk Malaterra.
The list of the learned historians in the German monasteries is
also an important one. The German collections of scriptories, such
as those of Eckard, Pez, Leibnitz, and others, present an enormous
mass of monastic chronicles. Among the earlier chroniclers were to
be noted Eginard, Theganus, and Rodolphus of Fulda, who
preserved the records of the dynasty of the Carlovingians. One of
the earlier historians of Charlemagne was a monk of St. Gall, while
the chronicles of that abbey, carried on by a long series of its writers,
have left a most valuable and picturesque representation of
successive epochs of its history. Regino, Abbot of Prüm, wrote a
history of the ninth century. Wittikind, a monk of Corvey, wrote the
chronicles of the reign of Henry I., and of Otho the Great. Ditmar,
who was at first a monk of Magdeburg and later Bishop of
Mersebourg, has left a detailed chronicle, extending from 920 to
1018, of the emperors of the House of Saxony. Among the eleventh-
century writers, is Hermannus Contractus, son of the Count of
Woegen, who was brought up at St. Gall but was later attached to
Reichenau. The history of the great struggle between the Church
and the Empire was written by Lambert, a monk of Hersfeld, and
continued by Berthold of Reichenau, Bernold of St. Blaise, and by
Ekkhard, Abbot of Aurach.[77] The first historian of Poland was a
French monk named Martin, while another monk of Polish origin,
named Nestor, who died in 1116, composed the earliest annals of
Russia (then newly converted to Christianity) which were known to
Europe. Among the monkish historians of the eleventh century, the
most noteworthy were William of Malmesbury, Gilbert of Nogent,
Abbot Suger, and Odo of Deuil.
 The persistent labour given by these monkish chroniclers to works,
the interest and importance of which were largely outside the routine
of their home monasteries and had in many cases no direct
connection with religious observances, indicates that they were
looking to a larger circle of readers than could be secured within the
walls of their own homes. While the evidences concerning the
arrangements for the circulation of these chronicles are at best but
scanty, the inference is fairly to be drawn that through the
interchange of books between the libraries of the monasteries, by
means of the services of travelling monks, and in connection with the
educational work of the majority of the monasteries, there came to
be, as early as the ninth century, a very general circulation of the
long series of chronicles among the scholarly readers of Europe.
Even the literary style in which the majority of the chronicles were
written gives evidence that the writers were addressing themselves,
not to one locality or to restricted circles of readers, but to the world
as they knew it, and that they also had an assured confidence in the
preservation of their work for the service and information of future
generations. The historian Stenzel (himself a Protestant) points out
that these monkish historians wrote under certain exceptional
advantages which secured for their work a larger amount of
impartiality and of accuracy of statement than could safely be
depended upon with, for instance, what might be called Court
chronicles, that is to say, histories which were the work of writers
attached to the Courts. The monks, said Stenzel, in daring to speak
the truth of those in power, had neither family nor property to
endanger, and their writings, prepared under the eye of their
monastic superiors and under the sovereign protection of the
Church, escaped at once the coercion or the influence of
contemporary rulers and the dangers of flattery for immediate
popular appreciation.[78] In the same strain, Montalembert contends
that the literary monks worked neither for gain nor for fame, but
simply for the glory of God. They wrote amidst the peace and
freedom of the cloister in all the candour and sincerity of their minds.
Their only ambition was to be faithful interpreters of the teaching
which God gives to men in history by reminding them of the ruin of
the proud, the exaltation of the humble, and the terrible certainty of
eternal judgment. He goes on to say that if princes and nobles never
wearied of founding, endowing, and enriching monasteries, neither
did the monks grow weary of chronicling the services and the
exploits of their benefactors, in order to transmit these to posterity.
Thus did they pay to the Catholic chivalry a just debt of gratitude.[79]
This pious opinion of Montalembert is a little naïve in its
expression when taken in connection with his previous conclusion
that the records of the monks could be trusted implicitly for candour,
sincerity, and impartiality. It is difficult to avoid the impression that in
recording the deeds of the noble leaders of their time, the monks
would naturally have given at least a full measure of attention and
praise to those nobles who had been the greatest benefactors to
their Order or to the particular monastery of the writer. The converse
may also not unnaturally be assumed. If a monarch, prince, or noble
leader should be neglectful of the claims of the monastery within his
realm, if there might be ground to suspect the soundness of his faith
to the Catholic Church, or doubt in regard to the adequacy of his
liberality to his ecclesiastical subjects, it is probable that his exploits
in war or in other directions were minimised or unrecorded. It is safe
to assume also that after the Reformation, the Protestant side of the
long series of complicated contests could hardly have been
presented by the monkish chroniclers with perfect impartiality.
Bearing in mind, however, how many personal influences may have
operated to impair the accuracy and the impartiality of these
chroniclers, they are certainly entitled to a full measure of
appreciation for the inestimable service rendered by them in the long
ages in which, outside of the monasteries, there were no historians.
It seems also to have been the case that with many of the monks
who devoted the larger portion of their lives to literary work, their
ambition and ideals as authors overshadowed any petty monkish
zeal for their Order or their monastery, and that it was their aim to
present the events of their times simply as faithful historians.
An example of this high standard of work is presented by
Ordericus Vitalis, who, as an English monk in a Norman abbey,[80]
was able to say: “I will describe the revolutions of England and of
Normandie without flattery to any, for I expect my reward neither
from the victors nor the vanquished.”[81]

The Work of the Scriptorium.—The words employed at

the consecration of the scriptorium are evidence of the spirit in which
the devout scholars approached their work: Benedicere digneris,
Domine, hoc scriptorium famulorum tuorum, ut quidquid scriptum
fuerit, sensu capiant, opere perficiant. (Vouchsafe, O Lord, to bless
this work-room of Thy servants, that they may understand and may
put in practice all they write.)[82]
Louis IX. took the ground that it was better to transcribe books
than to purchase the originals, because in this way the mass of
books available for the community was increased. Louis was,
however, speaking only of religious literature; he could not believe
that the world would be benefited by any distribution of the works of
profane writers. Ziegelbauer is in accord with Montalembert and
others in giving to the Benedictines of Iceland the credit for the
collections made of the Eddas and for the preservation of the
principal traditions of the Scandinavian mythology. He also confirms
the conclusion arrived at by the Catholic historians generally, that the
literary monuments of Greece and Rome which escaped the
devastation of the barbarians were saved by the monks and by them
alone. He cites, as a few examples from the long list of classics that
were thus preserved, five books of the Annals of Tacitus, found at
Corbie; the treatise of Lactantius on the Death of Persecutors,
preserved at Moissac; the Auluraria of Plautus, and the
Commentaries of Servius on Virgil, preserved in Fleury; the Republic
of Cicero, found in the library of Fleury in the tenth century, etc.[83]
In confirmation of the statement that the classics were by no
means neglected by the earlier monastery collectors, Montalembert
cites Alcuin, who enumerated among the books in his library at York
the works of Aristotle, Cicero, Pliny, Virgil, Statius, Lucan, and
Trogus Pompeïus. A further reference to this library will be found in
the chapter on the Monastery Schools. In Alcuin’s correspondence
with Charlemagne, he quotes Ovid, Horace, Terence, and Cicero,
and acknowledges that in his youth he had been more moved by the
tears of Dido than by the Psalms of David.[84] Loup de Ferrières
speaks of having borrowed from his friends the treatise De Oratore
of Cicero, a Commentary on Terence, the works of Quintilian,
Sallust, and Suetonius. He says further that he was occupying
himself in correcting the text of the oration of Cicero against Verres,
and that of Macrobius.[85] Abbot Didier of Monte Cassino, who later
became Pope, succeeding Gregory VII., had transcripts made by his
monks of the works of Horace and Seneca, of several treatises of
Cicero, and of the Fasti of Ovid.[86] S. Anselm, Abbot of Bec in the
time of Gregory VII., recommends to his pupils the careful study of
Virgil and of other profane writers, “omitting the licentious passages.”
Exceptis his in quibus aliqua turpitudo sonat.[87] It is not clear what
method the abbot proposed to have pursued in regard to the
selection of the passages to be eliminated. It is hardly probable that
at this time there had been prepared, either for the use of the monks
or of any other readers, anything in the form of expurgated editions.
S. Peter Damian seems to have expressed the true mind of an
important group at least of the churchmen of his time, when he
referred to the study of pagan writers. He says: “To study poets and
philosophers for the purpose of rendering the wit more keen and
better fitted to penetrate the mysteries of the Divine Word, is to spoil
the Egyptians of their treasures in order to build a tabernacle for
God.[88]”
Montalembert is of opinion, from his study of monastic history in
France, that, at least during the eleventh and twelfth centuries,
classic writers were probably more generally known and more
generally appreciated than at the present day. He points out that the
very fact of the existence of various ordinances and instructions
intended to repress any intemperate devotion to the pagan writers is
sufficient evidence of the extent of the interest in or passion for
pagan literature. He cites among other rulers of the Church who
issued protests or cautions against pagan literature, S. Basil, S.
Jerome, S. Gregory, S. Radbert, S. Peter Damian, Lanfranc, etc.,
etc.[89] In the Customs of Clugni, there is a curious passage
prescribing the different signs that were to be used in asking for
books during the hours of silence, which indicates at once the
frequency of these pagan studies, and also the grade of esteem in
which they ought to be held by the faithful monk. The general rule,
when asking for any book, was to extend the hand, making motions
similar to those of turning over the leaves. In order, however, to
indicate a pagan work, a monk was directed to scratch his ear as a
dog does, because, says the regulation, unbelievers may well be
compared to that animal.[90]
As before indicated, the work of transcribing manuscripts was held
under the monastic rules to be a full equivalent of manual labour in
the fields. The Rule of S. Ferreol, written in the sixth century, says
that, “He who does not turn up the earth with the plough ought to
write the parchment with his fingers.”[91] It is quite possible that for
men of the Middle Ages, who had little fondness for a sedentary life,
work in the scriptorium may have been a more exacting task than
work that could be carried on out-of-doors. There were no fires in the
cells of the monks, and in many portions of Europe the cold during
certain months of the year must, in the long hours of the day and
night, have been severe. Montalembert quotes a monk of St. Gall
who, on a corner of one of the beautiful manuscripts prepared in that
abbey, has left the words: “He who does not know how to write
imagines it to be no labour, but although these fingers only hold the
pen, the whole body grows weary.” It became, therefore, natural
enough to use this kind of labour as a penitential exercise.[92] Othlo,
a monk of Tegernsee, who was born in 1013, has left an
enumeration of the work of his pen which makes it difficult to
understand how years enough had been found for such labour. The
list includes nineteen missals, written and illuminated with his own
hand, the production of which, he tells us, nearly cost him his
eyesight.[93]
Dietrich or Theodoric, the first Abbot of St. Evroul (1050-1057),
who was himself a skilled scribe (Ipse manu propria scribendo
volumina plura), and who desired to incite his monks to earnest work
as writers, related to them the story of a worldly and sinful Brother,
who, notwithstanding his frivolities, was a zealous scribe, and who
had, in industrious moments, written out an enormous folio volume
containing religious instruction. When he died, the devil claimed his
soul. The angels, however, brought before the throne of judgment
the great book, and for each letter therein written, pardon was given
for one sin, and behold, when the count was completed, there was
one letter over; and, says Dietrich naïvely, it was a very big book.
Thereupon, judgment was given that the soul of the monk should be
permitted again to enter his body, in order that he might go through a
period of penance on earth.[94]
In the monastery of Wedinghausen, near Arnsberg in Westphalia,
there was a skilled and zealous scribe named Richard, an
Englishman, who spent many years in adding to the library of the
institution. Twenty years after his death, when the rest of his body
had crumbled into dust, the right hand, with which this holy work had
been accomplished, was found intact, and has since been preserved
under the altar as a holy relic.[95]
There has been more or less discussion as to whether in the
scriptoria, it was the practice for monks to write at dictation.
Knittel[96] takes the ground that the larger portion of the work was
done so slowly, and probably with such a different degree of rapidity
on the part of the different scribes, that it would have been as
impracticable for it to have been prepared under dictation as it would
be to do copper engraving under dictation. Ebert,[97] confirming
Knittel’s conclusions, points out that when works were needed in
haste, it was probably arranged to divide up the sheets to be copied
among a number of scribes. He finds evidence of this arrangement
of the work in a number of manuscripts, the different portions of
which, put together under one cover, are evidently the work of
different hands. Wattenbach specifies manuscripts in which not only
are the different pages in different script, but the divisions have been
written with varying arrangements of space; in some cases the
space, which had been left for an interpolated chapter having
evidently been wrongly measured, so that the script of such
interpolated chapter had to be crowded together instead of having
the same spacing as that of the body of the work. Sickel presents
examples of the letters of Alcuin which are evidently the work of a
number of scribes. Each began his work with a new letter, and
where, at the end of the divisions, leaves remained free, other letters
were later written in. In the later Middle Ages, however, there is
evidence of writing at dictation, and this practice began to obtain
more generally as the results of the work of the scribes came to have
commercial value. When the work of preparing manuscripts was
transferred from the monasteries to the universities, dictation
became the rule, and individual copying the exception. West finds
evidence that as early as the time of Alcuin, the monks trained by
him or in his schools, wrote from dictation. “In the intervals between
the hours of prayer and the observance of the round of cloister life,
come hours for the copying of books under the presiding direction of
Alcuin. The young monks file into the scriptorium and one of them is
given the precious parchment volume containing a work of Bede or
Isidore or Augustine, or else some portion of the Latin Scriptures, or
even a heathen author. He reads slowly and clearly at a measured
rate while all the others, seated at their desks, take down his words;
thus perhaps a score of copies are made at once. Alcuin’s observant
eye watches each in turn and his correcting hand points out the
mistakes in orthography and punctuation. The master of Charles the
Great, in that true humility that is the charm of his whole behaviour,
makes himself the writing-master of his monks, stooping to the
drudgery of faithfully and gently correcting many puerile mistakes,
and all for the love of studies and for the love of Christ. Under such
guidance and deeply impressed by the fact that in the copying of a
few books they were saving learning and knowledge from perishing,
and thereby offering a service most acceptable to God, the copying
in the scriptorium went on in sobriety from day to day. Thus were
produced those improved copies of books which mark the beginning
of a new age in the conserving and transmission of learning. Alcuin’s
anxiety in this regard was not undue, for the few monasteries where
books could be accurately transcribed were as necessary for
publication in that time as are the great publishing houses to-day.”[98]
Among the monasteries which, as early as the time of
Charlemagne, developed special literary activity, was that of S.
Wandrille, where the Abbot Gerwold (786-806) instituted one of the
earlier schools of the empire. A priest named Harduin took charge of
this school. He was said to be in hac arte non mediocriter doctus. It
was further stated that, plurima ecclesiæ nostræ proprio sudore
conscripta reliquit volumina, id est volumen quatuor evangeliorum
Romana litera scriptum.[99] (He had left for one church many books
written by the sweat of his brow, that is to say, a volume of the four
Evangelists written in the “Roman letter.”) This expression, litera
Romana, occurs frequently in the monastery chronicles and appears
to indicate the uncial script. The scriptorium of St. Gall, in which was
done some of the most elaborate or important of the earlier literary
work of the monks, is frequently referred to in the chronicles of the
monasteries. Another important scriptorium was that in the
monastery of Tournai, which, under the rule of the Abbot Odo, won
for itself great fame, so that its manuscripts were sought by the
Fathers of the Church far and wide, for the purpose of correcting by
them copies with less scholarly authority.[100]
The work of the scribes was not always voluntary; there is
evidence that it was not unfrequently imposed as a penance. In a
codex from Lorch[101] occur after the words, Jacob scripsit, written in
by another hand, the lines: Quandam partem hujus libri non
spontanea voluntate, sed coactus, compedibus constrictus sicut
oportet vagum atque fugitivum vincire.[102] (Jacob wrote ... a certain
portion of this book not of his own free will but under compulsion,
bound by fetters, just as a runaway and fugitive has to be bound.)
The aid of the students in the monastery schools was not
unfrequently called in. Fromund of Tegernsee wrote under a codex:
Cœpi hunc libellum, sed pueri nostri quos docui, meo juvamine
perscripserunt.[103] (I began this book, but the students whom I
taught, finished transcribing it with my help.)
The monk who was placed in charge of the armarium was called
the armarius, and upon him fell the responsibility of providing the
writing materials, of dividing the work, and probably also of
preserving silence while the work was going on, and of reprimanding
the writers of careless or inaccurate script. In some monasteries the
armarius must also have been the librarian, and, in fact, as much of
the work done in the writing-room was for the filling up of the gaps in
the library, it would be natural enough for the librarian to have the
planning of it. It was also the librarian, who, being in correspondence
with the custodians of the libraries of other monasteries, was best
able to judge what work would prove of service in securing new
books in exchange for duplicates of those in his own monastery.
Upon the librarius or armarius, or both, fell the responsibility of
securing the loans of the codices of which copies were to be made.
On such loans it was usually necessary to give security in the shape
of pledges either of other manuscripts or of property apart from
manuscripts.
The scribes were absolved from certain of the routine of the
monastery work. They were called into the fields or gardens only at
the time of harvest, or in case of special need. They had also the
privilege of visiting the kitchen, in order to polish their writing tablets,
to melt their wax, and to dry their parchment.[104]
The custom of reading at meals, while a part of the usual monastic
routine, was by no means confined to the monasteries. References
to the use of books at the tables of the more scholarly noblemen are
found as early as the time of Charlemagne. Eginhart records that
Charlemagne himself while at supper was accustomed to listen to
histories and the deeds of ancient kings. He delighted also in the
books of S. Augustine and especially in the Civitate Dei.[105]
In England, after the Norman conquest, there was for a time a
cessation of literary work in the Saxon monasteries. The Norman
ecclesiastics, however, in taking possession of certain of the older
monasteries and instituting also new monasteries of their own,
carried on the production of manuscripts with no less zeal. One of
the most important centres of literary activity in England was the
monastery of St. Albans, where the Abbot Paul secured, about the
year 1100, funds for instituting a scriptorium, and induced some
wealthy friends to present some valuable codices for the first work of
the scribes. As the monks at that time in St. Albans were not
themselves skilled in writing, Paul brought scribes from a distance,
and, through the liberality of his friends, secured funds by which they
were paid daily wages, and were able to work undisturbed. It would
appear from this description that some at least among these scribes
were not themselves monks.
In the thirteenth century, Matthew Paris compiled his chronicles,
the writing in which appears to have been, for the greater part at
least, done by his own hand, but at this time, in a large proportion of
the literary work carried on in the English monasteries, the
transcribing was done by paid scribes. This, however, was much less
the case in the Continental monasteries. In Corbie, towards the latter
half of the century, there is a record of zealous writing on the part of
a certain Brother Nevelo. Nevelo tells us that he had a penance to
work off for a grave sin, and that he was allowed to do this by work in
the scriptorium.[106] During this century, the monasteries of the
Carthusians were particularly active in their literary work, but this
work was limited almost entirely to theological and religious
undertakings. An exception is presented in the chronicles of the
Frisian monk Emo. While Emo was still a school-boy, he gave the
hours which his companions employed in play, to mastering
penmanship and the art of illuminating. Later, he was, with his
brother Addo, a student in the schools in Paris, Orleans, and Oxford,
and while in these schools, in addition to their work as students, they
gave long hours of labour, extending sometimes through the entire
night, to the transcribing of chronicles and to the preparation of
copies of the so-called heathen literature.
Emo was the first abbot of the monastery in Wittewierum (1204-
1237), and it is recorded that the abbot, while his brothers were
sleeping, devoted his nights to the writing and illuminating of the
choir books. In this monastery, Emo succeeded in bringing together
in the armarium librorum an important collection of manuscripts, and
he took pains himself to give instructions to the monks in their work
as scribes.
The quaint monastic record entitled the Customs of Clugni was
written by Ulrich, a monk of Clugni, some time between the years
1077 and 1093 at the request or under the instructions of William,
Abbot of Hirschau. This was the Abbot William extolled by Trithemius
as having restored the Order of S. Benedict, which had almost fallen
into ruin in Germany. Trithemius speaks of his having founded eight
monasteries and restored more than one hundred, and says that
next to the reformation wrought by the foundation and influence of
Clugni, the work done by Abbot William was the most important
recorded in the annals of his Order.
William trained twelve of his monks to be excellent writers, and to
these was committed the office of transcribing the Holy Scriptures
and the treatises of the Fathers. Besides these, there were in the
scriptorium of Hirschau a large number of lesser scribes, who
wrought with equal diligence in the transcription of other books. In
charge of the scriptorium was placed a monk “well versed in all kinds
of knowledge,” whose business it was to assign the task for each
scribe and to correct the mistakes of those who wrote negligently.
William was Abbot of Hirschau for twenty-two years, and during this
time his monks wrote a great many volumes, a large proportion of
which were distributed to supply the wants of other and more needy
monasteries.
There was often difficulty, particularly in the less wealthy
monasteries, in securing the parchment required for their work. It is
evident from such account-books as have been preserved, that
throughout the whole of Europe, but particularly in the north of the
Continent and in England, parchment continued to be a very costly
commodity until quite late in the thirteenth century. It was not
unnatural that, as a result of this difficulty, the monastic scribes
should, when pressed for material, have occasionally utilised some
old manuscript by cleaning off the surface, for the purpose of making
a transcript of the Scriptures, of some saintly legend, or of any other
religious work the writing of which came within the range of their
daily duty.
There has been much mourning on the part of the scholars over
the supposed value of precious classics which may thus have been
destroyed, or of which but scanty fragments have been preserved in
the lower stratum of the palimpsest. Robertson is particularly severe
upon the ignorant clumsiness of the monks in thus destroying, for the
sake of futile legends, so much of the great literature of the world.
Among other authors, Robertson quotes in this connection
Montfaucon as saying that the greater part of the manuscripts on
parchment which he had seen (those of an ancient date excepted),
are written on parchment from which some former treatise had been
erased. Maitland, who is of opinion that the destruction of ancient
literature brought about by the monks has been much overestimated,
points out that Robertson has not quoted Montfaucon correctly, the
statement of the latter being expressly limited to manuscripts written
since the “twelfth century.” It is Maitland’s belief that a large
proportion of the palimpsests or doubly written manuscripts which
bear date during the twelfth, thirteenth, or fourteenth centuries,
represent, as far as they are monastic at all, not monastery writings
placed upon classic texts, but monastery work replacing earlier
works of the monastery scriptoria. Partial confirmation of this view is
the fact that so large an interest was taken by monks in all parts of
Europe in the preservation and transcribing of such classical works
as came into their hands. In fact, as previously pointed out, the
preservation of any fragments whatsoever of classical literature is
due to the intelligent care of the monks. To the world outside of the
monastery, the old-time manuscripts were, with hardly an exception,
little more than dirty parchments.
It seems probable that a great part of such scraping of old
manuscripts as was done was not due to the requirements of the
legends or missals, but was perpetrated in order to carry on the
worldly business of secular men. An indication of the considerable
use of parchment for business purposes, and of instances of what
we should to-day call its abuse, is the fact that, as late as the
fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, notaries were forbidden to practise
until they had taken an oath to use none but new parchment.[107]
The belief that the transcribing of good books was in itself a
protection against the wiles of the evil one, naturally added to the
feeling of regard in which the writer held his work, a feeling under the
influence of which it became not unusual to add at the close of the
manuscript an anathema against any person who should destroy or
deface it. A manuscript of St. Gall contains the following:
 Auferat hunc librum nullus hinc omne per ævum
Cum Gallo partem quisquis habere cupit.[108]

[Let no one through all ages who wishes to have any part with
Gallus (the Saint or the Abbey) remove (or purloin) this book.]
In a Sacramentary of the ninth century given to St. Bénoît-sur-
Loire, the donor, having sent the volume as a present from across
seas, devotes to destruction like to that which came upon Judas,
Ananias, and Caiaphas any person who should remove the book
from the monastery.[109] In a manuscript of S. Augustine, now in the
Bodleian Library is written: “This book belongs to S. Mary of Robert’s
Bridge; whosoever shall steal it or sell it, or in any way alienate it
from this house, or mutilate it, let him be anathema maranatha.
Amen.” A later owner had found himself sufficiently troubled by this
imprecation to write beneath: “I, John, Bishop of Exeter, know not
where the aforesaid house is, nor did I steal this book, but acquired it
in a lawful way.”[110]
In an exhortation to his monks, delivered in 1486, by John of
Trittenheim (or Trithemius), Abbot of Sponheim, the abbot, after
rebuking the monks for their sloth and negligence, goes on to say: “I
have diminished your labours out of the monastery, lest by working
badly you should only add to your sins; and have enjoined on you
the manual labour of writing and binding books.... There is, in my
opinion, no labour more becoming a monk than the writing of
ecclesiastical books, and preparing what is needful for others who
write them, for this holy labour will generally admit of being
interrupted by prayer and of watching for the food of the soul no less
than of the body. Need also urges us to labour diligently in writing
books if we desire to have at hand the means of usefully employing
ourselves in spiritual studies. For you will recall that all the library of
this monastery, which formerly was so fine and complete, had been
dissipated, sold, and made away with by the disorderly monks before
us, so that when I came here, I found but fourteen volumes. It is true
that the industry of the printing art, lately, in our own day, discovered
at Mentz, produces many volumes every day; but depressed as we
are by poverty, it is impossible for us to buy them all.”[111]
It was certainly the case that, after the invention of printing, there
was a time during which manuscripts came to be undervalued,
neglected, and even destroyed by wholesale, but Maitland is of
opinion that this time had been prepared for by a long period of
gradually increasing laxity of discipline and morals in many monastic
institutions. This view is borne out by the history of the Reformation,
the popular feeling in regard to which was undoubtedly very much
furthered by the demoralisation of the monasteries, a demoralisation
which naturally carried with it a breaking down of literary interests
and pursuits. There had, for some time, been less multiplication, less
care, and less use of books, and many a fine collection had
mouldered away. According to Martene and Mabillon, the destruction
due to the heedlessness of the monks themselves was largely a
matter of the later times, that is, of the fifteenth century and the last
half of the fourteenth century.
Maitland is of the opinion that in the later portions of the Middle
Ages the work of the monastic scribes was more frequently carried
on not in a general writing-room, but in separate apartments or cells,
which were not usually large enough to contain more than one
person. Owing to the fact that writing was the chief and almost only
in-doors business of a monk not engaged in religious service, and
because of the great quantity of work that was done and the number
of cells devoted to it, these small rooms came to be generally
referred to as scriptoria, even when not actually used or particularly
intended for the purpose of writing. Thus we are told that Arnold,
Abbot of Villers in Brabant, from 1240 to 1250, when he resigned his
office, occupied a scriptorium (he called it a scriptoriolum or little
writing cell), where he lived as a private person in his own
apartment.[112] These separate cells were usually colder and in other
ways less comfortable than the common scriptorium. Lewis, a monk
of Wessobrunn in Bavaria, in an inscription addressed to the reader,
in a copy he had prepared of Jerome’s Commentary on Daniel, says:
Dum scripsit friguit, et quod cum lumine solis scribere non potuit,
perfecit lumine noctis.[113] (He was stiff with cold, while he wrote,
and what he could not write by the light of the sun, he completed by
the light of night.) There is evidence, however, in some of the better
equipped monasteries, of the warming of the cells by hot air from the
stove in the calefactory. Martene mentions that when S. Bernard,
owing to the illness produced by his early austerities, was compelled
by the Bishop of Chalons to retire to a cell, he could not be
persuaded to relax the severity of his asceticism so far as to permit
the introduction of any fireplace or other means of warming it. His
friends, however, contrived, with pious fraud, to heat his cell without
his knowledge, by introducing hot air through the stone floor under
the bed.[114]
The scriptorium of earlier times was, however, as previously
described, an apartment specially set aside as a general workroom
and capable of containing many workers, and in which many
persons did, in fact, work together, usually under the direction of a
librarius or chief scribe, in a very business-like manner, in the
transcription of books. Maitland quotes from a document, which is,
he states, one of the very few existing specimens of French
Visigothic manuscripts in the uncial character, and which dates from
the eighth century, the following form of consecration or benediction,
entitled (in monastic Latin) Orationem in scriptorio: “Vouchsafe, O
Lord, to bless this scriptorium of Thy servants and all that work
therein: that whatsoever sacred writings shall be here read or written
by them, they may receive with understanding and may bring the
same to good effect.”[115] (see also page 61).
In the more carefully constructed monasteries, the scriptorium was
placed to adjoin the calefactory, which simplified the problem of the
introduction of hot air.
A further evidence, if such were needed, that the larger literary
undertakings were carried on in a scriptorium common room and not
in separate cells, is given by the regulation of the general Chapter of
the Cistercian Order in 1134, which directs that the same silence
should be maintained in the scriptorium as in the cloister: In omnibus
scriptoriis ubicunque ex consuetudine monachi scribunt, silentium
teneatur sicut in claustro.[116]
 Odo, who in 1093 became Abbot of S. Martin at Tournai, writes
that he confided the management of the outside work of the
monastery to Ralph, the prior. This left the abbot free to devote
himself to reading and to supervising the work in his scriptorium.
Odo exulted in the number of writers whom the Lord had given to
him. “If you had gone into the cloister during the working hours, you
would have seen a dozen scribes writing, in perfect silence, at tables
constructed for the purpose.” Odo caused to be transcribed all of
Jerome’s Commentaries on the Prophets, all the works of S.
Gregory, and all the works that he could find of S. Augustine, S.
Ambrose, Bishop Isidore, the Venerable Bede, and Anselm, then
Abbot of Bec and afterwards Archbishop of Canterbury. Odo’s
successor, Heriman, who gives this account, says with pride that
such a library as Odo brought together in S. Martin could hardly be
paralleled in any monastery in the country, and that other
monasteries were begging for texts from S. Martin’s with which to
collate and correct their own copies.[117]
Maitland mentions that certain of the manuscripts written in Odo’s
scriptorium, including the fourth volume of the Gregorialis of Alulfus,
were (in 1845) in the library of Dr. Todd, of Trinity College,
Dublin.[118]
In estimating the extent of book production of the manuscript
period, we may very easily place too large a comparative weight on
the productive power of the Press. Maitland points out that although
the power of multiplication of literary productions was, of course,
during the Dark Ages infinitely below that which now exists, and
while the entire book production of the two periods may not be
compared, yet as regards those books which were considered as the
standard works in sacred literature and in the approved secular
literature, the difference was not so extreme as may easily be
supposed. He enquires, to emphasise his point, what proportion the
copies of Augustine’s City of God and of Gregory’s Morals, printed
between the years 1700 and 1800, bear to those written between the
years 1100 and 1200.[119]
 I think, with Maitland, that, according to the evidence on record, for
books such as those given above as typical examples, the written
production during the century selected would probably have
exceeded the number of copies of the same books turned out by the
printing-presses during the eighteenth century. We must recall to
ourselves that for a term of six or seven centuries, writing was a
business, and was also a religious duty; an occupation taken up by
choice and pursued with a degree of zeal, persistence, and
enthusiasm for which in the present day there is no parallel.
Mabillon speaks of a volume by Othlonus, a monk of S.
Emmeram’s at Ratisbon, who was born about the year 1013. In this
book, which is entitled De ipsius tentationibus, varia fortuna, et
scriptis, the monk gives an account of his literary labours and of the
circumstances which led to his writing the various works bearing his
name.
“For the same reason, I think proper to add an account of the great
knowledge and capacity for writing which was given me by the Lord
in my childhood. When as yet a little child, I was sent to school and
quickly learned my letters, and I began, long before the usual time of
learning and without any order from the master, to learn the art of
writing. Undertaking this in a furtive and unusual manner, and
without any teacher, I got a habit of holding my pen wrongly, nor
were any of my teachers afterwards able to correct me on that point;
for I had become too much accustomed to it to be able to change.
Those who saw my earlier work unanimously decided that I should
never write well. After a short time the facility came to me, and while
I was in the monastery of Tegernsee (in Bavaria) I wrote many
books.... Being sent to Franconia while I was yet a boy, I worked so
hard at writing that before I returned I had nearly lost my sight....
After I became a monk in the monastery of S. Emmeram, I was
appointed the schoolmaster. The duties of this office so fully
occupied my time, that I was able to do the transcribing in which I
was interested only by night and on holidays.... I was, however, able,
in addition to writing the books which I had myself composed, and
the copies of which I gave away for the edification of those who
asked for them, to prepare nineteen missals (ten for the abbots and