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Advances in Natural and Technological Hazards Research

S.P. Pradhan · V. Vishal · T.N. Singh

Editors

Landslides:
Theory,
Practice and
Modelling
Advances in Natural and Technological
Hazards Research

Volume 50
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/6362
S. P. Pradhan • V. Vishal • T. N. Singh
Editors

Landslides: Theory, Practice

and Modelling
Editors
S. P. Pradhan V. Vishal
Department of Earth Sciences Department of Earth Sciences
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee Indian Institute of Technology Bombay
Roorkee, India Mumbai, Maharashtra, India

T. N. Singh
Department of Earth Sciences
Indian Institute of Technology Bombay
Mumbai, Maharashtra, India

ISSN 1878-9897 ISSN 2213-6959 (electronic)

Advances in Natural and Technological Hazards Research
ISBN 978-3-319-77376-6 ISBN 978-3-319-77377-3 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77377-3

Library of Congress Control Number: 2018942530

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2019

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the
material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation,
broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information
storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
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The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
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claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Printed on acid-free paper

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer International Publishing AG part of
Springer Nature.
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Foreword

I am happy to learn that Springer Publishing Company is bringing out a book on

landslides under the NTHR series on natural hazards. The book is jointly edited by
S. P. Pradhan, V. Vishal, and T. N. Singh who are eminent scholars and researchers
in the field of geo-mechanics.
Landslides are associated with surface excavations in opencast mines, transpor-
tation routes (rail–road cuts), canals, tailing dams, urban cuts for buildings, power
houses, and other civil constructions. With the advent of the larger excavation
machineries, there is a tremendous increase in the size of the cuts particularly in
surface mining. Therefore, stability of open pit slopes both in soil and rock must be
properly ensured. These excavations should be designed and constructed to be
absolutely safe at all times due to the great cost of failure.
As compared to soil, rock is a more complicated material. It is inhomogeneous,
anisotropic, and inelastic. Strength parameters vary considerably and are difficult to
determine precisely. Field conditions are complex and difficult to duplicate in a
laboratory.
The book Landslides: Theory, Practice and Modelling is a compilation of
fourteen chapters dealing with the different aspects of the subject. The chapters are
grouped in five parts, based on the major themes of subject matter of the book. Each
chapter is written by a group of authors who are eminent researchers in their own
field of specialization.
Part I provides “Introduction to Landslides Dynamics”. It deals with dump
stability and shear strength parameters of rock mass and gives the details of a specific
case of a landslide.
Part II discusses “Landslide Monitoring and Prediction”. It also includes infrared
thermography for the study of jointed and weathered rock mass and wireless
instrumentation for landslide prediction.
Part III deals with landslides risk and hazard mitigation and gives the case study
assessment in Iran. The development of early warning system in India is also
described. A chapter on bio-engineering is included. The authors stress that it is an
effective eco-friendly slope stabilization method. Soil nailing is described.

v
vi Foreword

Part IV gives the details of various landslide numerical modeling techniques

where as Part V deals with selected case studies in different countries.
It is a cohesive effort of a number of authors, researchers, and experts in the rock
engineering across the country and other parts of the world. The editors have done
exemplary job in collecting the papers, compiling, and editing them in a book form. I
extend my warm greetings to all those associated with the publications and congrat-
ulate the Springer Publishing Company for the launch of the book.

Distinguished Professor D. P. Singh

Rock Mechanics
Indian Institute of Technology
(Banaras Hindu University)
Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
Former Vice Chancellor
Awadhesh Pratap Singh University
Rewa, Madhya Pradesh, India
University of Lucknow
Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
U.P. Rajarshi Tandon Open University
Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh, India
Preface

The subject of landslides has always been fascinating from both theoretical and
practical context that has gained attention of geologists, engineers, model devel-
opers, professionals and researchers, and students of geosciences worldwide. Land-
slides represent one of the most destructive geo-hazards, which can reach
remarkably long distances and velocities, and are also susceptible of wiping out
human communities and settlements. Landslides are more frequent nowadays due to
extreme climatic conditions and intervention of human with the nature. The aug-
mentation of human settlements and rapid developments that break the natural
geomorphic equilibrium contribute to landslides. Even small slopes are prone to
landslides and have potential to break the infrastructure, disrupt the traffic and bring
loss to lives. The economic distress induced by landslides makes terrible impact on
socio-economic conditions of human race.
This book is not an attempt to review the field of landslides, rather an attempt to
have a better understanding of the subject, and the need was felt during our teaching
exercises. In this book, the emphasis is placed on the dynamics of landslide research,
its monitoring and prediction, landslide risk and hazard mitigation, landslide numer-
ical modelling techniques and analysis of a few selected case studies. Each chapter is
self-consistent, with questions and arguments introduced from the beginning.
The book is broadly categorised into five parts, which include fourteen chapters
from contributors across the globe. The first part of the book introduces to landslide
dynamics comprising four chapters that focus on basic understanding of slope
stability, different types of mass movement, shear strength behaviour of jointed
rock mass and introduces to rock fall and man-made slope instabilities. The second
part of the book discourses about the modern monitoring and prediction techniques
for landslides and consists of two chapters. These chapters highlight on infrared
thermography and ground-based real time monitoring system using wireless instru-
mentation for prediction of slope instabilities. The third section of the book is
dedicated to risk and mitigation of landslides. There are four chapters in this part,
which discusses on landslide susceptibility assessment, mapping, vulnerability and
risk assessment. This also includes innovative and eco-friendly stabilisation methods

vii
viii Preface

by using bioengineering and soil-nailing techniques. Soil-reinforcement by plant is

an innovative way of stabilising the landslide prone slope area. Section four of the
book comprises one chapter on review of optimisation techniques in slope stability.
The concluding part consists of few case specific landslides from Italy, Turkey and
permafrost regions of Russia in which the processes involving from slope instabil-
ities, monitoring at length specific to site are discussed.
We thank all the contributing authors for supplementing interesting chapters to
this book, and for contributing their expertise and knowledge as authors. We are also
much indebted to reviewers for their valuable suggestions and comments.
And above all, we express our exuberant gratitude to Springer Publication Ltd.
For believing in our work and enabling it for publication.
We are much beholden to Anasuya P. Pradhan for offering her editorial assis-
tantship in the making of the book.

Roorkee, India Sarada Prasad Pradhan

Mumbai, Maharashtra, India Vikram Vishal
Mumbai, Maharashtra, India Trilok Nath Singh
Contents

Part I Introduction to Landslide Dynamics

1 Mass Wasting: An Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
S. P. Pradhan and Tariq Siddique
2 Dump Slope Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Tushar Gupta, T. N. Singh, and Dhananjay Verma
3 Shear Strength Behaviour of Jointed Rock Masses . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Mahendra Singh
4 Rockfall: A Specific Case of Landslide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Tariq Siddique, S. P. Pradhan, and V. Vishal

Part II Landslide Monitoring and Prediction

5 Study of Jointed and Weathered Rock Slopes Through the Innovative
Approach of InfraRed Thermography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Giovanna Pappalardo and Simone Mineo
6 Ground Based Real Time Monitoring System Using Wireless
Instrumentation for Landslide Prediction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
D. P. Kanungo

Part III Landslide Risk and Hazard Mitigation

7 Presentation of RFFR New Ensemble Model for Landslide
Susceptibility Assessment in Iran . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Aiding Kornejady, Hamid Reza Pourghasemi,
and Sayed Fakhreddin Afzali

ix
x Contents

8 Landslide Susceptibility Mapping, Vulnerability and

Risk Assessment for Development of Early Warning
Systems in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Sudesh Kumar Wadhawan
9 Soil Nailing: An Effective Slope Stabilization Technique . . . . . . . . . 173
Mahesh Sharma, Manojit Samanta, and Shantanu Sarkar
10 Bioengineering as an Effective and Ecofriendly Soil Slope
Stabilization Method: A Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Piyush Punetha, Manojit Samanta, and Shantanu Sarkar

Part IV Landslide Numerical Modelling Techniques

11 Optimization Techniques in Slope Stability Analysis Methods . . . . . 227
Koushik Pandit, Shantanu Sarkar, and Mahesh Sharma

Part V Selected Case Studies

12 Integration of Terrestrial Laser Scanning and GIS Analysis for
Multi-temporal Landslide Monitoring: A Case Study
of the Mont de La Saxe (Aosta Valley, NW Italy) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Gianpiero Amanzio, Ashwani Kumar Tiwari, Muriel Lavy,
and Marina De Maio
13 Machine Learning Techniques in Landslide Susceptibility
Mapping: A Survey and a Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Taskin Kavzoglu, Ismail Colkesen, and Emrehan Kutlug Sahin
14 Landslides in Permafrost Zone of Russia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Stanilovskaya Julia
About the Editors and Authors

Editors

Sarada Prasad Pradhan is currently working as an Assistant Professor at the

Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Roorkee, India. He obtained his M.Sc. (Applied
Geology) and Ph.D. from the IIT Bombay (India). He subsequently worked as a
Reservoir Engineer for the Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Ltd. (ONGC) for
5 years, during which he was involved in many projects of national importance.
He received the Young Scientist Award from CAFET INNOVA Technical Society,
and the Asset Manager Award for his excellent performance in Gas Field Develop-
ment from ONGC Ltd. His research findings have been published in leading national
and international journals, book chapters and conference proceedings. His major
research interests are Rock Mechanics, Engineering Geology, Reservoir Geo-
mechanics, Petroleum Geo-science and Carbon Dioxide Sequestration, and he is
currently participating in three major research projects on slope stability.

Vikram Vishal is an Assistant Professor at the Department of Earth Sciences, IIT

Bombay, Mumbai. He completed his bachelor’s degree at Presidency College,
Kolkata, and his master’s degree at the IIT Bombay. After a brief stint as a geologist
at Tata Steel, he pursued his Ph.D. degree from 2010 to 2012, jointly at the IIT
Bombay and Monash University (Australia). He worked as DST Inspire Faculty at
the Department of Earth Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Roorkee
from 2013 to 2015, then went on to pursue further research as a Fulbright-Nehru
Postdoctoral Fellow at Stanford University, California, USA, in 2015. He is
a recipient of the National Geosciences Award – Young Researcher by the
Government of India, the Young Scientist Award by the Indian Science Congress
Association, the Excellence in PhD Thesis Award by the IIT Bombay and Monash
University, and the Best Undergraduate Gold Medal by Presidency College,
Kolkata. He has produced more than 40 publications on various aspects of
geomechanics, engineering geology and unconventional petrophysics in journals,

xi
xii About the Editors and Authors

book chapters and conference proceedings. Recently, he co-edited the book

Geologic Carbon Sequestration: Understanding Reservoir Concepts for Springer.
He also serves as an Associate Editor for the Journal of Natural Gas Science and
Engineering (Elsevier) and is currently investigating three research projects funded
by the Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India.

Trilok Nath Singh is the Institute Geoscience Chair Professor at the Department of
Earth Sciences, IIT Bombay, Mumbai, and an expert in the fields of rock mechanics,
mining geology, and clean energy. He received his Ph.D. from the Institute of
Technology BHU, Varanasi, in 1991, where he subsequently worked until 2003.
He has been honored with many prestigious awards such as the National Mineral
Award, the first P. N. Bose Mineral Award, the SEAGATE Excellence Award for
Geo-Engineering, and the GSI Sesquicentennial Commemorative Award. He has
nearly 28 years of experience in research and education and has authored more than
350 publications in various journals and for national and international conferences.
He serves on the governing and advisory councils of several national institutes and
universities and is currently leading projects of immense scientific and industrial
importance on, e.g. coalbed methane, carbon sequestration, shale gas, nuclear waste
repositories and mine slope stability.

Authors

Sayed Fakhreddin Afzali is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Natural

Resource and Environmental Engineering at the University of Shiraz, where he has
been a faculty member since 2008. He completed his PhD and undergraduate studies
at Isfahan University of Technology (IUT) and his MSc studies at Shiraz University.
His research interests lie in the area of soil management, especially in soil erosion
and conservation, carbon sequestration and medicinal plants stress. In recent years,
he has focused on wind erosion and carbon sequestration especially works with
some mulches. He has collaborated actively with researchers in several other
disciplines of environmental science, particularly sustainable management and
pollution.

Ismail Colkesen received the PhD degree from the Istanbul Technical University,
Istanbul, Turkey, in 2015. He is currently an Assistant Professor in the Department
of Geomatics Engineering, Gebze Technical University, Gebze, Turkey. His major
research areas are land use and land cover classification, image processing, machine
learning techniques, landslide susceptibility mapping and application of artificial
intelligence techniques in various engineering and environmental applications. He
gives remote sensing courses at graduate levels and continues research about raster
data analysis, digital image processing and natural hazard modelling.
About the Editors and Authors xiii

Marina De Maio is working as an Associate Professor in the Department of

Environmental Engineering, Land and Infrastructure at Politecnico di Torino,
Italy. She received her master’s degree in Geology from the University of Catania
and PhD degree in Applied Hydrogeology from Politecnico di Torino, Italy. She has
nearly 19 years of experience in research and teaching, and has authored more than
55 articles in the field of aquifer vulnerability, water pollution, geological risk
assessment, hydro-geochemistry and remote sensing and GIS.

Gianpiero Amanzio was born on October 1, 1982, in Turin. Dr. Gianpiero holds a
master’s degree in Environmental Engineering in July 2009. During his studies, he
has acquired skills in remote sensing, geophysics, geotechnical, geomatics and
hydrogeology. He worked with engineering office dealing with risk analysis, CAD
project, acquisition and processing of points clouds collected by laser scanner and
drones (photogrammetry acquisition) in order to generate 3D models. He has
acquired the necessary qualifications for the drone flight in noncritical areas, as
required by the Civil Aviation Authority (ENAC). Since 2010, he is a research
fellow at the Politecnico di Torino, and in April 2014, he received a PhD in
Environmental Engineering in the field of Applied Geology. During his PhD, he
developed some statistical method in order to study the groundwater vulnerability of
mountain spring by the implementation of several algorithms in Matlab
environment.

Tushar Gupta is a final year research scholar presently under the joint PhD
programme of IITB-Monash Research Academy in IIT Bombay. His present
research is in the field of utilisation of coal fly ash in haul roads and other applica-
tions in open-cast coal mines. He has completed his bachelors in technology (BTech)
from Indian Institute of Technology (BHU), Varanasi, in mining engineering disci-
pline, and worked on dump slope and coal rib stability problems in open-cast mines
of NCL as his final year projects. Later, he has worked in underground coal mines of
Coal India Limited for 3 years as assistant manager (mining) before joining the joint
PhD programme at IIT Bombay.

Stanilovskaya Julia serves as a Research Associate of Permafrost Laboratory at the

Sergeev Institute of Environmental Geoscience (IEG RAS) since 2007. During the
last 10 years, she and her colleagues have established the long-term monitoring
networks for permafrost studying in the Northern Transbaikalia (southern part of
Siberian platform) about temperature regime of frozen ground and ground ice (ice
wedges). In the meantime, their permafrost monitoring station in Chara provides
data on permafrost diversity of cryogenic phenomena that are useful in scientific
programmes and engineering projects. The permafrost-related hazard assessment
along pipelines and roads is one of her research topics. She is interested in new
techniques and devices that could be useful in permafrost research. She has partic-
ipated in mountain expeditions to investigate permafrost on Kilimanjaro (5895 m),
Qinghai Plateau on Tibet (4900 m), Elbrus (4200 m), Kodar and Udokan (2000 m)
and Verkhoyan’e (2000 m). She has about more than 50 research articles in reputed
journals and conference proceedings.
xiv About the Editors and Authors

D. P. Kanungo born in 1967, is a Senior Principal Scientist in Geotechnical

Engineering Group at CSIR-Central Building Research Institute, India. He is also
a Professor of Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), India, in the
Faculty of Physical Sciences. He did his Masters of Technology in Applied Geology
in 1990 from the University of Roorkee, India (now IIT Roorkee), and PhD in Earth
Sciences in 2006 from IIT Roorkee, India. He has professional experience of more
than 23 years in the field of engineering geology and landslide disaster mitigation.
He has contributed more than 90 research papers in books, journals and conferences.
His research interests are engineering geological investigations, landslide hazard and
risk assessment, landslide dynamics through instrumentation and monitoring, land-
slide modelling and remote sensing and GIS applications. He has carried out a large
number of infrastructure and landslide disaster mitigation-related projects in India.
He is the recipient of Raman Research Fellowship Award in the year 2010 from
Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), India, and carried out his post-
doctoral research at Research Centre on Landslides, Disaster Prevention Research
Institute, Kyoto University, Japan.

Taskin Kavzoglu received the MSc degree in Geographical Information Science

and the PhD degree in Remote Sensing from the University of Nottingham, UK, in
1997 and 2001, respectively. In 2001, he joined the Geomatics Department of Gebze
Institute of Technology in Turkey as a faculty member. He is currently a full
professor in Gebze Technical University. He received best PhD Thesis Award
from RSPSoc, UK. He is an internationally acknowledged researcher in remote
sensing and computer vision with a particular focus on machine learning and their
applications to various fields. He has active interdisciplinary collaborations with
geologists, geomorphologists, foresters, geodesists and photogrammetrists.

Aiding Kornejady was born in Bandar Torkaman, Golestan Province, Iran, in

1989. He graduated in 2011 with his BSc degree in Rangeland and Watershed
Management from Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran. He earned his MSc degree
in 2013 at the Gorgan University of Agricultural Sciences and Natural resources,
with a focus on assessing landslide susceptibility and semi-quantitative risk. He
continued to pursue the same concept for his future scientific career. At this
meantime, he is studying for a PhD in Watershed Management Science and Engi-
neering specialises in developing a landslide management strategic plan. He dedi-
cated his scientific career to the landslide issue and presented some articles and
projects devoted to this field.

Muriel Lavy (1987) is an environmental engineer, graduated in 2012 at the Poly-

technic of Turin in the protection of the territory engineering. In 2013, she started her
PhD in Environmental Engineering, focussing on GIS geospatial analysis and
environmental modelling based on digital elevation models. During her PhD, she
took a summer internship in Esri Inc. (2014) in California, working with ArcGIS and
Esri water-oriented applications, where she was awarded at the Esri Young Scholar
Award. In 2016, she won a fellowship for an Erasmus Mundus programme in
About the Editors and Authors xv

Australia where she worked with the Airborne Research Australia. In 2017, she
earned her PhD and started working for a company focusing on ICT in the geospatial
and GIS market.

Simone Mineo is a geologist working in cooperation with University of Catania

and University of Naples Federico II (Italy). He recently accomplished a PhD course
in Earth, Environmental and Resources Sciences, with a thesis on the study of
unstable rock slopes, for the assessment of rockfall risk, through traditional and
innovative approaches.
He is author and co-author of several scientific articles dealing with rock mechan-
ics and engineering geology, with particular reference to the characterisation of
physico-mechanical behaviour of rocks at different scales, also through infrared
thermography. He is a member of the Italian Geological Society (SGI) and of the
Italian Association of Applied and Environmental Geology (AIGA), as well as a
reviewer for some of the most relevant journals in his scientific fields.

Koushik Pandit is presently working as a Scientist in Geotechnical Engineering

Group at CSIR – Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee, and is pursuing PhD
in Geotechnical Engineering from IIT Roorkee. He is also an Assistant Professor in
Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), New Delhi. He has
obtained his BTech in Civil Engineering from Jalpaiguri Government Engineering
College, West Bengal, and MTech in Engineering of Infrastructure and Disaster
Mitigation from CSIR-CBRI Roorkee campus of AcSIR. His current research
interests include rock mechanics, slope stability and foundation engineering.

Giovanna Pappalardo is a geologist researcher at University of Catania (Italy)

since 2003, where she teaches hydrogeology, rock mechanics, environmental geol-
ogy and applied geology. She is author and co-author of numerous scientific
publications focused on the study of rock masses, intact rock characterisation,
slope stability in cultural heritage sites, application of infrared thermography to the
geomechanics and hydrogeological modelling. She is currently part of the board of
directors of the Italian Association of Applied and Environmental Geology (AIGA)
and member of the Italian Geological Society (SGI) and of the International Asso-
ciation for Engineering Geology and the Environment. She recently organised
scientific meetings on the remote survey of rock slopes and rock mechanics princi-
ples, and reviewed several papers for the most relevant journals in her scientific field.

Hamid Reza Pourghasemi is an Assistant Professor of Watershed Management

Engineering in the College of Agriculture, Shiraz University, Iran. He has a BSc in
watershed management engineering of the University of Gorgan (2004), Iran; an
MSc in watershed management engineering, from Tarbiat Modares University, Iran
(2008); and a PhD in watershed management engineering from the same university
(2014). His main research interests are GIS-based spatial modelling using machine-
learning/data mining techniques in different fields, such as landslide susceptibility
and hazard, flood, gully erosion, forest fire and groundwater. Also, Hamid Reza
xvi About the Editors and Authors

works on multi-criteria decision-making methods in Natural Resources and

Environmental Engineering. He has published more of 55 research papers in differ-
ent international journals environmental engineering.

Piyush Punetha holds MTech from Academy of Scientific and Innovative

Research in Building Engineering and Disaster Mitigation and BTech from Kumaon
Engineering College, Dwarahat, in Civil Engineering. He is a University Silver
Medallist in Civil Engineering during his bachelor’s degree. He currently works as
a Senior Research Fellow at CSIR-Central Building Research Institute Roorkee. He
has research publications in reputed international/national journals and conferences.
He received the Best Paper Award (BPA) in 6th Indian Young Geotechnical
Engineers Conference (6IYGEC-2017), organised by NIT, Trichy, India. His
research interests include geotechnical earthquake engineering, disaster mitigation,
soil-geosynthetic interaction, ground improvement, bio-engineering, image-based
damage assessment and constitutive modelling.

Emrehan Kutlug Sahin is a Research Assistant of Geomatics Engineering at the

Gebze Technical University. His research focuses on the landslide susceptibility
mapping, operation of GIS/CAD, spatial analysis and statistics, mapping and car-
tography tools, particularly ArcGIS and other open source tools, and developing
basic program tools and scripts for GIS applications. His recent work examines the
effect of landslide-related factors and automatic selection to define the best factor for
the landslide susceptibility modelling. He has a master’s degree from Gebze Tech-
nical University and a PhD from İstanbul Technical University.

Manojit Samanta currently works as a Scientist in CSIR-Central Building

Research Institute Roorkee and an Assistant Professor in Academy of Scientific
and Innovative Research. He did his MTech from Indian Institute of Technology
Roorkee (IITR) in Geotechnical Engineering and BE from Indian Institute of
Engineering Science and Technology, Shibpur (formerly Bengal Engineering Col-
lege), in Civil Engineering. His research interests include ground improvement,
geotechnical earthquake engineering, deep foundation, slope-stabilisation, soil-
structure interaction and bio-engineering. He is a lifetime member of many presti-
gious professional bodies. He has several research publications in well-known
international/national journals and conferences. He has received several Best Paper
Awards for publications in national and international conference.

Shantanu Sarkar is a Senior Principal Scientist and Group Leader of Geotechnical

Engineering Group at CSIR-Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee. He is also
a Professor in Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR). He did his
PhD and MSc from the Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee (IITR) and MTech
from Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad. He has 27 years of professional experience
in the field of engineering geology and geotechnical engineering. He has carried out
very extensive geological and geotechnical studies in Western and Eastern
Himalayas in various projects for landslide disaster mitigation. His research interests
About the Editors and Authors xvii

include landslide investigation, slope stability assessment, hazard and risk assess-
ment, slope-stabilisation and remote sensing and GIS application. He has published
more than 80 research publications in journals and conferences. He has been
awarded prestigious National Geoscience Award in the area of Disaster Management
by the Government of India and BOYSCAST Fellow by DST for post-doctoral
research at EPFL, Switzerland.

Mahesh Sharma is currently working as a Trainee Scientist at CSIR-Central

Building Research Institute, Roorkee, India. He holds MTech from Academy of
Scientific and Innovative Research and BTech from Jaypee University of Informa-
tion and Technology. He has research publications in reputed international/national
journals and conferences. He has received the Best Paper Award in International
Geotechnical Engineering Conference on Sustainability in Geotechnical Engineer-
ing Practices and Related Urban Issues, Mumbai, India, and also the Best Paper
Award and Outstanding Paper Award in 6th Indian Young Geotechnical Engineers
Conference (6IYGEC-2017), NIT, Trichy, India. His research interests include
geotechnical earthquake engineering, slope stabilisation, disaster mitigation, ground
improvement, constitutive/numerical modelling and foundation engineering.

Tariq Siddique is an Assistant Professor in Department of Geology, Aligarh

Muslim University, India. He is also working as a part-time doctoral researcher in
Department of Earth Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee, India.
Presently, he is working on slope stability assessment of road cut slopes in the
Himalayan terrain. He has four publications in international and national journals of
repute. He has presented many research papers in national conferences. He has
worked on a project entitled “Reservoir Characterization of Sandstone” during a
summer internship at Oil and Natural Gas Corporation. He has attended three
outreach programmes on different aspects of remote sensing and its applications
conducted by Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) under the Department of
Space, Government of India. He has participated in industry-academia workshop on
“Recent Trends and Challenges in Oil and Gas Drilling Technology” conducted by
Oil and Natural Gas Corporation. He has been awarded gold medals for outstanding
performance and securing highest grades during his post-graduation at Aligarh
Muslim University, India.

Mahendra Singh is currently Professor of Civil Engineering at IIT Roorkee. He

earned his Bachelor degree in Civil Engineering in 1983, MTech in Hydraulic and
Water Resources Engineering in the year 1985 and PhD in the year 1997. Dr Singh is
actively engaged in teaching, research and consultancy in the field of geotechnical
engineering in general and in rock engineering in particular. His research interests
include strength and deformation behaviour of jointed rocks, stability analysis of
underground opening and rock slopes, and probabilistic analysis in rock engineer-
ing. He has supervised nine PhD Theses and more than fifty-five M Tech disserta-
tions. He has published more than 100 papers in journals and conferences mainly in
the area of rock mechanics. His research contribution is directly related to field
xviii About the Editors and Authors

problems in rock engineering projects, for example, bearing capacity of shallow

foundation in rocks, squeezing potential of rocks in tunnels and nonlinear failure
criteria for intact and jointed rocks. He has organised several conferences including
prestigious Indian Geotechnical Conferences in various capacities. Some of these
conferences are IGC-2002, IGC-2003, INDOROCK-2011 and IGC-2013.

Ashwani Kumar Tiwari obtained his MPhil and PhD degrees in Environmental
Sciences. Currently, he is working as a Post-PhD Researcher at Politecnico di
Torino, Italy. He was awarded Erasmus Mundus Scholarship, one of the meritorious
and prestigious awards in Europe, and finished his research work as exchange
doctoral researcher in Politecnico di Torino, Italy. He holds to his credit a total of
37 publications on different domains of hydro-geochemistry, aquifer vulnerability,
water quality, health risk assessment, water resource management and remote
sensing and GIS in various journals. He has contributed one research book and
five chapters in the edited book volumes.

Dhananjay Verma is a Senior Geologist and is currently working in Geological

Survey of India (GSI), Gandhinagar, India. He has completed his master’s degree in
Applied Geology from Allahabad University and MTech in Mineral Exploration
from IIT Bombay, Mumbai. He has more than 8 years of experiences in the field of
Engineering Geology, particularly in slope stability of cut slope as well as dumps
slope. He is having more than 20 published papers in engineering geology and
mineral exploration. He is also acting as associate editor and reviewer in number of
international and national journals. His research interests are slope stability of hill
slope, road cut and dump slope.

Sudesh Kumar Wadhawan is a former Director General, Geological Survey of

India (GSI). He is a Gold Medallist MSc Applied Geology scholar from Gwyer Hall,
University of Delhi. After serving as a Lecturer for a year in prestigious Delhi
College of Engineering, Delhi, he joined GSI as a professional geologist and served
in various capacities for 36 years with exceptional merit and commitment in different
terrain conditions. Besides writing 40 technical reports in GSI, he has published over
50 scientific papers in peer-reviewed national and international journals and
co-authored three books. He has played a crucial role in establishing an exclusive
Geohazards Research and Management (GHRM) Cell in GSI CHQ with five
regional units in India devoted to research in landslides and launched a National
Program on Landslide Susceptibility Mapping on 1:50,000 scale on GIS platform
utilising remote sensing and field survey data sets in 2014. Presently, he is a Visiting
Faculty and nominated Geoscience Advisor and Expert Member of the Search-Cum-
Selection Committee for Atomic Minerals Directorate for Exploration and Research,
Department of Atomic Energy and other Government Departments/ Commissions.
 Part I
Introduction to Landslide Dynamics
Chapter 1
Mass Wasting: An Overview

S. P. Pradhan and Tariq Siddique

Abstract Mass wasting is a natural phenomenon by which rock, soil and/or debris
move downwards due to the action of gravity. It describes all the processes that act
continuously with varied intensity on all type of slopes to lower the ground surface.
The mass wasting process is controlled by the interaction of geological agents and
processes with the geo-materials. The degree and type of movements depend upon a
few aspects of geology, environment, geomorphology, hydrology, and some addi-
tional environmental stress factors, including biotic factors. It is more active in hilly
regions like Himalayas, Western Ghats, Alps, and some other extensive mountain
chains of the world. Sometimes it becomes disastrous to lives, property and econ-
omy. This chapter gives an overview of mass wasting processes and its classifica-
tion. Some widely used mass movement classification schemes have been
documented.

Keywords Mass wasting · Landslides · Slope failures · Natural hazards

1.1 Introduction

Mass wasting is also termed as “Mass Movement” and it is a downslope movement

of rock, debris, soil, regolith etc. near the earth’s surface under the action of gravity.
The rate of mass wasting may be imperceptibly slow to rapid which involves the
transfer of microscopic fractions as well as the mega-sized detritus down the slope.
The triggering factors that assist mass movement are heavy precipitation, seismicity,
volcanic activities, flooding and are often linked with slope failure at local and

S. P. Pradhan (*)
Department of Earth Sciences, IIT Roorkee, Roorkee, India
e-mail: sppradhanfes@iitr.ac.in
T. Siddique
Department of Earth Sciences, IIT Roorkee, Roorkee, India
Department of Geology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2019 3

S. P. Pradhan et al. (eds.), Landslides: Theory, Practice and Modelling,
Advances in Natural and Technological Hazards Research 50,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77377-3_1
4 S. P. Pradhan and T. Siddique

regional scales. Mass wasting can also be defined as the continuum of erosional
processes that exist between weathering and transportation. Sediment wasting pro-
cess on continental slopes transfers significant volume of sediments in submarine
environment leading to lowering of the ground surface [1, 2]. It is a significant part of
the process of erosion as it transfers the material from higher elevation to lower
elevation. A landslide may be defined as the downward movement of mass rock,
earth, or debris [3]. According to Varnes [4] landslides include all types of mass
movement on the slope which includes sliding, rockfalls, topples, debris flows etc.
Brusden [5] defined landslide as a unique way of mass transport which does not
require transportation agent for slope movement. According to Cozier [6] landslide
is a downward and outward movement of slope forming material without the
involvement of surface runoff as transporting medium under the influence of gravity.
Hutchinson [7], Cruden [8] and Cruden and Varnes [9] described landslide as a rapid
mass wasting process that causes down slope movement of the mass of rock, debris
or earth which are induced by a variety of external stimulus. In the recent times, it has
been noted that the term mass movement is used interchangeably with landslide.
Mass movements, floods, tsunamis, cyclones, earthquakes are the most common
natural hazards and their impacts are very disastrous when they occur in clusters. In
India, one such event was Kedarnath disaster of June 2013 in Uttarakhand. The Flash
floods accompanied by mass movements in the various parts of the region devastated
the economy, lives and ecosystem of the region. Such hazards significantly affect
humans including loss of property and lives, cause severe injuries and sometimes
fatalities as well. Large scale mass wasting events also affect certain elements of
environment viz. topography of marine and terrestial landforms, quality of surface
runoff, groundwater flow, forest cover and habitats, destruction of biotic components
etc. In many countries, the number of casualties and economic losses occur because
landslides are more frequent than the other commonly occurring hazards like
earthquake, floods, windstorms [10–13].
Comprehensive understanding of mass movement in slopes require sound knowl-
edge of factors associated with groundwater [14]. Scheidegger [15] reviewed
surface-slips, deep seated soil creep, rock mass creep, surficial landslides, mudflows,
Alpine debris flows and illustrated some recent developments in the field of mass
movement. Mass movement occurs when the driving forces exceeds resisting forces
to pull slope forming material down the slope [16]. This stability of a slope is
quantified in terms of Factor of Safety (FoS) (Eq. 1.1). Prediction of mass movement
in space and time is very difficult; the area may be categorized into homogeneous
domains and can be ranked according to the degree of potential hazard.
In these years, landslides have grabbed the attention due to the growth of
urbanization and its socio-economic consequences [17]. For monitoring and evalu-
ation of mass movements, significant number of techniques are available and
few widely used such techniques are Global Positioning System (GPS), Geograph-
ical Information System, aerial photography, inclinometers, acoustic emission [18];
ground based geodetic techniques, satellite based geodetic techniques, geophysical
and geotechnical methods [19, 20]. The real time monitoring of landslides can be
done by wireless sensor network (WSN) [21].
1 Mass Wasting: An Overview 5

1.2 Factor of Safety (FoS)

Factor of safety is the capacity of a system beyond the expected or actual load. It may
be defined as the ratio of resistive to driving forces.

Resistive forces
FoS ¼ ð1:1Þ
Driving forces

If FoS  1 slope is unstable

If FoS > 1 slope is stable
However, if FoS is slightly greater than 1, even small disequilibrium with the
slope may cause slope failure. For example, FoS is 1.05, slope is marginally stable
and it means that resistive forces are only 5% greater than driving forces. In such
conditions, slight undercutting, heavy rainfall, seismicity etc. may cause the failure
of the slope.

1.2.1 Resistive Forces

Resistive forces act opposite to the direction of the motion which tends to resist the
movement. The resistive force can be defined in terms of shear strength of the
material which is a function of cohesion and angle of internal friction. Cohesion is
the ability of the particles to hold together. For example the clays and granites are
cohesive, whereas the dry sand is non-cohesive. Angle of internal friction is the
measure of frictional forces acting between constituent grains.

1.2.2 Driving Forces

Driving force acts in the direction of the motion and promotes the down slope
movement. The major driving force is gravity, which plays a significant role in
guiding or initiation of mass wasting phenomena. Gravitational force pulls every
material or body downward, towards the centre of the earth. As depicted in Fig. 1.1,
on flat surface gravitational force acts perpendicular to the ground. Hence, ground
forming material will remain intact and will not move. In slopes gravitational force
can be resolved into two components (Fig. 1.1):
(a) Acting perpendicular to the slope (gp): Resistive force or shear strength which
hold the object and resist movement.
(b) Acting tangential to the slope (gs): Driving force or shear stress that promote
down slope movement of the object.
6 S. P. Pradhan and T. Siddique

Fig. 1.1 Gravitational force

and its components

When the shear stress (driving force) exceeds the shear strength (resistive force),
the slope forming material will fail. Thus, on steeper slopes, the tangential compo-
nent of gravity is greater than the resistive component and cause down slope
movement of the mass. Slope angle, height of the slope, climatic conditions, types
of slope materials, runoff and groundwater etc. are some other significant factors that
affect the magnitude of the driving force. Water plays an important role in slope
instability. When water is added to a slope, it causes slope failure due to the
additional loading on the slope, accelerating erosion rates and increasing pore
pressure that ultimately led to the reduction in shear strength of the slope forming
material. Considering the above parameters FoS can be calculated from Eq. 1.2.

c0 þ hg cos 2 θðρr  ρw Þ tanφ

FoS ¼ ð1:2Þ
ρr hg sinθ cosθ

where,
1 Mass Wasting: An Overview 7

Crown cracks
Crown

Minor scarp Ma
in s
car
He p
Transverse cracks ad

Transverse ridges

Radial
cracks

Surface of rupture
Toe
Main body
Foot Toe of surface of rupture

Surface of separation

Fig. 1.2 Parts of slump-earth type landslide taken form Highland and Bobrowsky (Taken from
[22])

0
c : Effective cohesion
h: Thickness of potential slide
g: Acceleration due to gravity
θ: Dip angle of potential sliding plane
ρr: Material density of potential sliding plane
ρr: Density of water
φ: Angle of internal friction

1.3 Parts of Landslide

In real practice, the different parts of a landslide depend upon the type of mass
movement. Various parts of typical slump-earth flow type landslide have been
depicted in Fig. 1.2.

1.4 Types of Mass Movement

Different classifications have been proposed worldwide, most of them consider

different parameters viz. types of movement (falling, sliding, flows etc.), material
involved (rock, soil or debris) and rate of movement (rapid or slow). Some other
classification schemes incorporate certain additional variables such as the rate of
movement and water, air and ice contained in wasted material. Some major
8 S. P. Pradhan and T. Siddique

Table 1.1 Some significant contributions in framing classification of mass movements

Authors Year Parameters considered
Baltzer [23] 1875 Basic modes of motion: fall, slide, flow
Stini [24] 1910 Different types of debris movement
Sharpe [25] 1938 Type of movement, material involved and velocity of movement
Savage [26] 1951 Size of the material, water condition and speed of the movement
Varnes [27, 28] 1954, Extension of Sharpe’s classification by considering type and rate of
1978 movement
Hutchinson 1968, Material involved, morphology of slope, water content, failure and
[7, 29] 1988 propagation mechanism
Cruden and 1996 Introduced velocity scale
Varnes [9]
Sassa [30] 1999 Liquefaction and pre-shearing clays

Table 1.2 Classification of landslide taken from Savage [26]

Kind of Condition Relative speed of Term applied to
material Size of material of material movement phenomena
Blocky, angu- Cubic foot or Wet, dry Fast: free fall or Rockfall or rockslide
lar rock larger or frozen slide
Blocky, angu- Cubic foot or Wet, dry Fast: free fall or Debris fall avalanche
lar rock with larger or frozen slide Debris slide
snow
Cobbles, peb- Less than a Wet, dry Rapid slide Slump slide
bles and soil cubic foot to or frozen
rock flour
Cobbles, peb- Less than a Wet Visible flow Earthflow
bles and soil cubic foot to
rock flour
Fine slit and 1/16 mm and Wet Visible flow Slumgullion flow,
clay less mudflow
Fine slit and 1/16 mm and Wet or Imperceptible Solifluction, soil creep
clay less semi- flow or slide
frozen
Blocky, angu- Usually cobbles Wet or Imperceptible Talus creep, rock creep
lar rocks and boulders semi- flow or slide
frozen
Cobbles, peb- Less than a Wet or Rapid drop to Sink, wallow, slump
bles and soil cubic foot to semi- imperceptible depression, compaction
rock flour frozen subsidence depression

contributions in classifying varieties of mass movement have been illustrated in

Tables 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, and 1.6.
In mass movement, material moves at different rate ranging from imperceptible as
creep to extremely rapid as rock fall. On the basis of velocity of movement, Cruden
and Varnes [9] classified landslides into seven classes (Table 1.4).
Classification schemes given by Varnes [28] and Cruden and Varnes [9] have
been extensively acknowledged and widely accepted in varying scenario. Hungr
1 Mass Wasting: An Overview 9

Table 1.3 Classification of landslides based on Varnes [28]

Type of material
Engineering Soils
Type of Predominantly Predominantly
movement Bedrock coarse fine
Falls Rockfall Debris fall Earth fall
Topples Rock topple Debris topple Earth topple
Slides Rotational Rock slump Debris slump Earth slump
Translational Rock block Debris block slide Earth block slide
slide
Lateral spreads Rock slide rock spread Debris slide Earth slide
Debris spread Earth spread
Flows Rock flows Debris flow Earth flow
Complex Combination of two or more principal types of movements

Table 1.4 Classification of landslides based on Cruden and Varnes [9]

Velocity Velocity
class Description (mm/s) Probable destructive significance
7 Extremely >5  103 Catastrophe of major violence, building destroyed by
Rapid impact of displaced material, many deaths, escape
unlikely
6 Very Rapid <5  103 Some lives lost, velocity too great to permit all persons to
escape
5 Rapid <5  101 Escape evacuation possible, structures, possessions and
equipment destroyed
4 Moderate <5  101 Some temporary and insensitive structures can be tem-
porarily maintained
3 Slow <5  103 Remedial construction can be undertaken during move-
ment, insensitive can be maintained by frequent mainte-
nance if total movement is not large during particular
acceleration phase
2 Very slow <5  105 Some permanent structures undamaged by movement
1 Extremely <5  107 Imperceptible without instruments, construction possible
Slow with precautions

[31] classified landslide forming materials (Table 1.5) and published an updated
classification of landslides (Table 1.6) by modifying definitions of landslide forming
materials and compatibility with geotechnical and geological terminologies of rock
and soil.
British Geological Survey (BGS) also presented a comprehensive classification of
mass movements by following classification scheme (Fig. 1.3) suggested by
UNESCO [32, 33]. The classification criterion involves the type of movement and
materials involved. Carson and Kirkby [34] proposed a ternary classification of mass
movements on the basis of pure slide, heave and flow type of movement (Fig. 1.4).
10 S. P. Pradhan and T. Siddique

Table 1.5 Types of landslide forming material from Hungr et al. [31]
Character Specified field description Corresponding
description for the purpose of unified soil Laboratory indices
Material if important classification classes (if available)
Rock Strong Strong-Broken with hammer – UCS > 25 MPa
Weak Weak-peeled with a knife – 2 < UCS < 25 MPa
Clay Stiff Plastic can be molded into GC, SC, CL, Ip > 0.05
Soft standard thread when moist, MH, CH, OL
Sensitive has dry strength and OH
Mud Liquid Plastic, unsorted remolded CL, CH, CM Ip > 0.05
and close to liquid limit
Silt, Dry Non-plastic (or very low ML Ip < 0.05
sand, Saturated plasticity), granular, sorted, SW, SP and
gravel silt particles cannot be seen SM
and Partly by eye GW,GP and
boulders saturated GM
Debris Dry Low plasticity, unsorted and SW-GW Ip < 0.05
Saturated mixed SM-GM
Partly CL, CH and
saturated CM
Peat – Organic – –
Ice – Glacier – –
GC Clayey gravels, gravelsand-clay mixtures, SC Clayey sands, sand-clay mixtures, CL Inorganic
clays of low to medium plasticity, gravelly/sandy/silty/lean clays, MH Inorganic silts, micaceous or
diatomaceous fine sands or silts, elastic silts, CH Inorganic clays or high plasticity, fat clay, OL
Organic silts and organic silty clays of low plasticity, OH Organic clays of medium to high
plasticity, CM Silt-clay mixture, ML Inorganic silts, very fine sands, rock four, silty or clayey
fine sands, SW Well-graded sands and gravelly sands, little or no fines, SP Poorly graded sands and
gravelly sands, little or no fines, SM Silty sands, sand-silt mixtures, GW Well-graded gravels and
gravel-sand mixtures, little or no fines, GP Poorly graded gravels and gravel-sand mixtures, little or
no fines, GM Siltygravels, gravel-sand-silt mixtures, UCS Uniaxial compressive strength, Ip Point
load index

The following description of some principal types of the mass movements are
based on Varnes [28], Hutchinson [7], Hungr et al. [35], Cruden and Varnes [9],
Highland et al. [22] and Hungr et al. [31].
Falls A fall occurs with the detachment of mass from a steep slope or cliff with no
shear displacement. The movement involves free fall through air, bouncing and or
rolling. Physical weathering, presence of interstitial water, seismic activity trigger
falls.
Flows Flow is a type of mass movement which is characterised by downward and
outward movement of ground/slope under water saturated condition in which mate-
rial moves as a viscous fluid. Depending upon the type of material involved and
degree of water saturation, variety of flows can be categorized as debris flow, mud
flow, and avalanche flow. Flows type of mass movement has been widely noticed in
slopes having finer material (silt and clay) at least 50% or more [28]. Such slopes
become extremely susceptible to failure under saturated conditions. Failure is
1 Mass Wasting: An Overview 11

Table 1.6 New version of the Varnes classification from Hungr et al. [31]
Type of movement Rock Soil
Fall Rock/ice fall Boulder/debris/silt fall
Topple Rock block topple Gravel/silt/sand topple
Rock flexural topple
Slide Rock rotational slide Clay/silt rotational slide
Rock planar slide Clay/silt planar slide
Rock wedge slide Gravel/sand/debris slide
Rock compound slide Clay/silt compound slide
Rock irregular slide
Spread Rock slope spread Sand/Silt liquefaction spread
Sensitive clay spread
Flow Rock/ice avalanche Sand/silt/debris dry flow
Sand/silt/debris dry flowslide
Sensitive clay flowslide
Debris flow
Mudflow
Debris flood
Debris avalanche
Earth flow
Peat flow
Slope deformation Mountain slope deformation Soil slope deformation
Rock slope deformation Soil creep
Solifluction

generally initiated from tension cracks at crown portion and forms nearly circular
failure scarp.
Topples It is the movement of rock that involves forward rotation about a point or
axis below the centre of gravity of the displaced mass. In jointed rock mass, closely
spaced and steeply dipping discontinuity sets that dip opposite to the slope surface
are necessary prerequisites for toppling failure.
Slides For landslides many technical terms have been proposed. However, slide is
restricted where there is a distinct zone of weakness that separates the slide material
from more stable underlying material. There are two types of slides i.e. rotational
slide and translational slide or combination of both. In rotational slides, material
slide outward and downward on one or more concave failure surfaces that impart a
backward tilt to the slipping mass. In this type of mass movement, the slide
movement is roughly rotational about an axis that is parallel to the ground surface
and traverse across the slide. In translational slides, material moves along planar
failure surface or discontinuities that may run more or less parallel to the slope.
Spreads Spread involves fracturing and lateral movement of rock or soil masses.
This occurs due to the plastic flow or liquefaction of material. Usually they occur on
gentle slopes that are triggered by rapid ground motion induced by earthquake or
artificially induced seismic waves.
Another random document with
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The muscle-scars in this family (Fig. 323, A, B) are most remarkable for the
development of the so-called “crescent,” (q.r.s.) which skirts the posterior
margin of both valves as a sub-cardinal impression. It is believed to be the
trace of a strong post-parietal muscular wall, analogous in position to that of
Lingula. The three pairs of “lateral” muscle-scars in the latter genus seem to
be represented by the “terminal” (s) and “lateral” (r) scars on the crescent of
the Trimerellidae. A pair of “transverse” scars (t) occurs in each valve between
the “terminals” and the antero-lateral edge of the “platform” (j). “Cardinal” (v),
“sub-cardinal” (w), and “umbo-lateral” (x) scars also occur. The median
impression which covers the “platform” (j) consists of a central, lateral, and
usually an anterior pair of scars; and the impressions of the genital organs,
according to Davidson and King, lie medianly posterior to the “platform.” The
“platform” itself is a more or less conspicuous central calcareous elevated area
occurring in each valve, but most developed in the dorsal; in some cases it is
double-chambered with tubular cavities (“platform vaults,” Fig. 323, A, B, k), in
others it is more or less solid. It appears to have originated through a posterior
shifting of the central muscular bands, that they might be inserted behind the
liver; at the same time a deposition of shelly material, to form fulcra to work the
heavy valves, took place at these points. The tunnelling-out of the platform
was probably due to the continual pressure of the lobes of the liver. The
division of the umbonal cavity into definite chambers in Monomerella, and to a
less extent in other members of this family, appears, according to Davidson
and King, to have been caused by pressure of the ovarian lobes.
In connexion with the foregoing remarks on the development of the
“platform,” it may be mentioned that the paths along which the muscle-bands
move, as the shell of Brachiopods increases in size, are marked by elongated
scars, and often by shelly deposits; and when the members of a muscle-pair
come into juxtaposition these shelly deposits (which act as fulcra for the
muscles) combine, and by the growth of the shell form a septum, as in the
case of the median septum of Lingulepis.
The Obolidae show some important features in the internal impressions.
Obolella crassa (Hall) may be taken as a well-known type of the family. In this
species a pair of small scars, one on each side of the pedicle-groove, lies
close under the hinge line in the ventral valve. There is also a well-marked
scar for the insertion of the pedicle-muscle at the end of the pedicle-groove. A
pair of much elongated lateral impressions extending forward from the
“cardinals” may be homologous with the “laterals” of Lingula; and the two small
central scars between them may be compared with the “centrals” of Lingula
which are in a somewhat similar position. In the dorsal valve of O. crassa a
pair of “cardinals” is found, and on each side of a low median rounded ridge
are two small “central” scars. Indistinct “lateral” scars arise close to or in the
central area, and diverge anteriorly.
Sometimes a great concentration of muscle-scars occurs round the foramen
in the ventral valve, as in Siphonotreta.
As regards the minute structure and composition of the shell in the
Ecardines, we find that the Lingulidae and Discinidae have their shell
composed of alternating layers of phosphate of lime and a corneous
substance; the former layers are pierced by microscopic canals. The Craniidae
have calcareous shells traversed by tubules, which divide into many fine
branches near the external surface; a thin periostracum covers the exterior.
The Trimerellidae have heavy thick calcareous shells, for which they required
the previously-described elaborate arrangement of muscles to open and shut
them.

II. TESTICARDINES

External Characters

It is to this division that the great majority of the Brachiopoda belong; and
the diversity of form, of ornamentation, and of internal characters is
correspondingly greater than in the Ecardines.
A transversely or longitudinally oval shape of shell is the commonest; but
sometimes it is triangular, as in Rhynchonella (Fig. 327), or bilobed, as in
Pygope (= Terebratula diphya). The ventral valve is usually more convex than
the dorsal, and the former may be prolonged into a tube by the accelerated
growth and infolding of the anterior and lateral margins, producing a very
abnormal form (Proboscidella). The external surface of the valves is frequently
ornamented with more or less prominent radiating ribs; and fine concentric
growth-lines are commonly shown, and may be developed into coarse ridges
or wrinkles, particularly in old individuals. The members of the family
Productidae are usually furnished with tubular spines, which are sometimes of
great length, and served to anchor the free shells in the mud, or were twisted
round Crinoid stems and similar objects.
In the ventral valve of many genera there is a median sinus, with a
corresponding fold in the dorsal valve, and rarely vice versâ; sometimes the
fold and sinus are double.
The hinge line is either curved or straight, and the valves are articulated by
means of a pair of “hinge-teeth” (Fig. 329, t) in the ventral valve, which fit into
corresponding sockets in the opposite valve. Some genera have the teeth very
rudimentary, or have lost them altogether. The teeth are frequently supported
by “dental plates,” and the sockets by “socket plates” (e.g. Conchidium, Figs.
324, 325). A few genera with a long hinge line have the whole of it
denticulated (Stropheodonta). In the dorsal valve medianly close under the
hinge line is a shelly protuberance—the “cardinal process”—to which the
diductor muscles are attached. It is sometimes of great length and forked
(Stringocephalus, Fig. 326), or tripartite, or even quadripartite; but in
Rhynchonella and some other genera it is rudimentary.

Fig. 324.—Conchidium
galeatum. Wenlock
Limestone.

Fig. 325.—Conchidium galeatum.

Transverse section. d, Dorsal
valve; d.s, dorsal septum; s,
socket plate; v, ventral valve; v.s,
ventral septum; d.p, dental plate.
 Fig. 326.—Stringocephalus Burtini. (Modified from Woodward.)
Devonian. A, Interior of dorsal valve. B, Side view of interior
of shell; a, adductor (= occlusor) scars; c, crura; c.p, cardinal
process; d.s, dorsal septum; h.p, hinge plate; l, brachial loop;
s.p, shelly processes; t.s, dental sockets; v.s, ventral
septum.
A “hinge area” (Fig. 334, c.a) is often present on one or both valves, and
may be of great size, as in Clitambonites, but in Productus it is wholly absent.
In those genera that possess it a triangular fissure—the “deltidial fissure”—
frequently traverses it on both valves; in the dorsal valve the fissure is merely
the space between the dental sockets, and may be occupied by the cardinal-
process (Fig. 334, C) or covered by a shelly plate—the “chilidium.” In the
ventral valve it gives passage to the pedicle, and may be partly or entirely
closed by a similar plate (Fig. 334, d) known as the “pseudo-deltidium,”
especially large in Clitambonites, or remain open (Orthis). This pseudo-
deltidium is a primitive character, and arises in an early stage of the
development as a shell-growth on the dorsal side of the animal, becoming
attached to the ventral valve subsequently. The pedicle in many genera
passes out through a special foramen in the beak of the ventral valve; and its
proximal portion is often embraced by a pair of small plates—the deltidial
plates or “deltidium”—which are formed on lateral extensions of the ventral
mantle lobe, according to Beecher. These plates lie on each side of the
pedicle, or grow round and unite in front of it (Rhynchonella, Fig. 327), or
constitute merely its anterior border (Terebratula, Fig. 328). In some cases this
foramen becomes closed in old age.
 Fig. 327.—Rhynchonella
Boueti. (Cornbrash.) d,
Deltidium; f, foramen.

Fig. 328.—Terebratula
sella. (Lower
Greensand.) d,
Deltidium; f, foramen.
The dorsal valve in a few cases has its beak perforated by a foramen—the
“visceral foramen.” This foramen is in no way connected with the pedicle
foramen, but points perhaps to the existence in the early Testicardinate genera
of an anal aperture. In Athyris concentrica (Devonian) this foramen is
connected internally with a cylindrical tube, which extends longitudinally to
about one-third the length of the valve. In Centronella the aperture in the
cardinal plate is rounded and complete; and in Strophomena and its allies the
opening lies between the cardinal processes. If this feature is correctly
interpreted, it suggests a retrogression of the group since Palaeozoic times not
only in numbers, but in structure; and other evidence points the same way.

Internal Characters
The interior of the shell is sometimes more or less divided up by septa. A
median septum occurs in one or both valves of many genera as a low ridge or
strongly developed partition (Waldheimia, Fig. 329, ss; and Stringocephalus,
Fig. 326, B, v.s). Conchidium (Fig. 325) has its dental plates of great size, and
uniting to form a V-shaped chamber or “spondylium,” supported by a median
double septum; and by means of these with a pair of septa and the large
socket-plates in the dorsal valve the interior of the shell of this genus is divided
up into several chambers.
The interiors of several other genera are somewhat similarly divided up.

Fig. 329.—Waldheimia (Magellania) flavescens. A, Interior of

ventral valve: a, adductor scars; v.a, ventral adjustors; d,
divaricators; a.d, accessory divaricators; p, peduncular
muscle; dm, deltidium; f, foramen; t, teeth. B, Interior of
dorsal valve: a.a, anterior adductor (occlusor) scars; a.p,
posterior adductor (occlusor) scars; c.p, cardinal process;
cr, crura; d.s, dental sockets; hp, hinge-plate; l, brachial
loop; ss, septum. (After Davidson.)
In the Carboniferous genus Syringothyris two special plates, situated
between the dental plates, are rolled into an incomplete tube, so as to enclose
probably the anal extremity of the alimentary canal; and in several genera a
sub-umbonal “cardinal plate” is present, which is perforated (Athyris) or slit in
some cases for the passage of the anal tube.
For the support of the fleshy “spiral arms” the calcareous structures forming
the “brachial apparatus” are of two main types—(1) the loop type; (2) the
spiral-cone type. In the Strophomenidae no special calcareous support seems
to have been usually present (Fig. 334), though in some species of Leptaena
spirally-grooved elevated areas supported the fleshy arms; in the Productidae
it is probable that the ridges enclosing the “reniform impressions” (Fig. 333, i)
served for a similar purpose.
 The Terebratulidae show the “loop type” of brachial apparatus. In
Waldheimia (Fig. 329), which may be taken as an example, we notice first in
the dorsal valve the “crura” (cr), from which arise the two “descending
branches” which run forwards and then are bent back to form the “ascending
branches” which are united by the “transverse band.” In some genera the
“ascending branches” may be reduced to mere points, and the “transverse
band” become a median vertical plate; the “crura,” too, may be fused so as to
form a “crural band”; and the “descending branches” may be connected by a
cross band—the “jugal band.” In Stringocephalus (Fig. 326, l, s.p) the loop is
furnished on its inner edge with radiating processes; and in Argiope the loop is
simple, not reflected, and fused with marginal septa; while in the Thecidiidae it
is more or less fused with the shell itself, and with the mass of calcareous
spicules secreted by the mantle.
The “spiral-cone type” of brachial apparatus is found in the Spiriferidae,
Atrypidae, and Koninckinidae, and consists of two spirally-enrolled calcified
lamellae, forming two cones with their apices directed laterally (Spirifera, Fig.
330), or towards the interior of the dorsal valve (Atrypa, Fig. 332), or towards
each other (Glassia); or forming two flat spirals in the same plane
(Koninckinidae). A “jugal band” is generally present, but varies much in
position, and in some genera has complicated posterior processes.
The Rhynchonellidae have no loop or spiral cones, but merely a pair of
short “crura.”

Fig. 330.—Spirifera striata. (Carboniferous

Limestone.) Showing brachial spires.
The principal modifications in the attachments of the muscles in the
Testicardines are illustrated by Productus giganteus (Fig. 333), Leptaena
rhomboidalis (Fig. 334), and Waldheimia flavescens (Fig. 329).
In Productus (Fig. 333) we see in the ventral valve a pair of dendritic
occlusor, often called adductor, impressions and a pair of large flabellate
divaricator impressions. In the dorsal valve the large “cardinal process” served
for the attachment of the divaricator, and a low median septum separated the
dendritic occlusor scars, which are rarely divisible into anterior and posterior
pairs.

Fig. 331.—Atrypa
reticularis. (Wenlock
Limestone.)

Fig. 332.—Interior of the

same, seen from the
dorsal side, showing
brachial spires. (After
Hall.)
In Leptaena (Fig. 334) the occlusor scars (a) in the ventral valve are narrow
and median, and are enclosed by a pair of flabelliform divaricator impressions
(d.v); in the dorsal valve two pairs of occlusor scars (a.a, p.a) are well marked,
and accessory posterior occlusor scars are traceable in some specimens. The
vascular sinuses (v.s) and genital areas are conspicuous in many species of
this and other genera.
 Fig. 333.—Productus giganteus. (After Woodward.) Carboniferous
Limestone. A, Interior of dorsal valve. B, Interior of ventral valve.
C, Transverse section of valves. D, Hinge line of A: a, occlusor
scars; d, divaricator scars; i, “reniform impressions”; ca, cardinal
process; h, hinge line; p, brachial prominence; s, cavity for spiral
arms; do, dorsal valve; ve, ventral valve.
In Waldheimia (Fig. 329) a sub-umbonal “peduncular muscle” scar (p) in the
ventral valve has before it a pair of “accessory divaricator” scars (a.d) flanked
by a pair of “ventral adjustor” (v.a) and a pair of “divaricator” impressions (d),
between which lie the two occlusor scars (a). In the dorsal valve anterior and
posterior pairs of occlusor scars (a.a, a.p) are visible.
The minute structure of the calcareous shell of the Testicardines is of
flattened fibrous prisms inclined at a very acute angle to the surfaces. In many
forms minute tubes more or less closely arranged pierce through the fibrous
shell-substance; but in some genera (Productus) they do not reach the outer
surface (see p. 468). Allied genera, however, differ much in the punctate or
impunctate character of the shell.
 Fig. 334.—Leptaena rhomboidalis. (Silurian.) A, External view of ventral
valve. B, Interior of ventral valve: a, occlusor scars; d, pseudo-deltidium;
d.v, divaricator scars; c.a, hinge area; t, teeth. C, Interior of dorsal valve:
a.a, anterior occlusor scars; p.a, posterior occlusor scars; c.a, hinge
area; c.p, cardinal process; d, chilidium; s, dental sockets; v.s, vascular
sinuses.
Synopsis of Families

I. Ecardines
Family. Lingulidae
Shell elongated, composed of alternating chitinous and calcareous layers, the
latter of which are perforated. Attached by a pedicle passing between apices of
valves.
Arms have no calcified supports.
(For muscles see Fig. 322.)
Range.—Lower Cambrian to Recent.
Principal Genera.—Lingula, Lingulella, Lingulepis.
Family. Obolidae
 Shell varies in shape. Ventral valve provided with pedicular groove or
foramen. Cardinal border thickened. No brachial supports. Shell composed of
alternating chitinous and calcareous layers.
(For muscles see p. 496.)
Range.—Lower Cambrian to Devonian.
Principal Genera.—Obolus, Obolella, Kutorgina, Linnarssonia,
Siphonotreta, Acrotreta, Neobolus.
Family. Discinidae
Shell rounded, valves more or less conical, fixed by pedicle passing through
slit or tubular foramen in ventral valve. No calcified brachial supports. Shell
structure chitino-calcareous.
Range.—Ordovician to Recent.
Principal Genera.—Discina, Orbiculoidea, Trematis.
Family. Craniidae
Shell calcareous, subcircular; fixed by surface of ventral valve; dorsal valve
the larger, depressed-conical. Shell structure punctate.
Four principal muscular scars in each valve, with central triangular
protuberance in ventral valve (see p. 476).
Range.—Ordovician to Recent.
Principal Genus.—Crania.
Family. Trimerellidae
Shell thick, calcareous, inequivalve; beak of ventral valve usually prominent;
rudimentary teeth maybe present; hinge area well developed, with pseudo-
deltidium. In interior of valves muscular platform, “crescent,” and sometimes
sub-umbonal chambers (see p. 494, Fig. 323).
Range.—Ordovician and Silurian; maximum in Wenlock.
Principal Genera.—Trimerella, Monomerella, Dinobolus, Rhinobolus.

II. Testicardines
Family. Productidae
Shell entirely free, or fixed by ventral valve or spines. Concavo-convex, more
or less covered with tubular spines. Hinge line straight. Hinge-teeth absent or
rudimentary.
Cardinal process prominent.
Reniform impressions in dorsal valve.
(For muscular impressions see p. 501, Fig. 333.)
Range.—Silurian to Permian. Genus Productus very characteristic of the
Carboniferous.
 Principal Genera.—Productus, Chonetes, Strophalosia, Proboscidella,
Aulosteges.
Family. Strophomenidae
Shell very variable in shape; concavo-convex, plano-convex, or biconvex;
hinge line usually straight; frequently with an area on each valve; foramen may
or may not be present. Shell structure near always punctate. Ventral valve
usually furnished with hinge-teeth; and dorsal valve with cardinal process.
Brachial supports completely absent or very rudimentary.
(For muscular impressions see p. 502, Fig. 334.)
Range.—Wholly Palaeozoic.
Principal Genera.—Orthis, with many sub-genera, Clitambonites,
Skenidium, Strophomena, Orthothetes, Leptaena, Stropheodonta,
Plectambonites.
Family. Koninckinidae
Shell plano-convex or concavo-convex. Brachial apparatus composed of two
lamellae spirally enrolled in the same plane, or in the form of depressed cones,
with the apices directed into the ventral valve.
Range.—Silurian to Lias.
Principal Genera.—Koninckina, Koninckella, Coelospira, Davidsonia.
Family. Spiriferidae
Shell biconvex. Brachial apparatus consisting essentially of two descending
calcareous lamellae which by spiral enrolment form a pair of laterally-directed
cones (Fig. 330).
Range.—Chiefly Palaeozoic, but a few forms pass up into the Lias.
Principal Genera.—Spirifera, Cyrtia, Uncites, Athyris, Merista.
Family. Atrypidae
Brachial apparatus consists of two descending calcareous lamellae which
bend outwards at the extremity of the crura and are coiled into two spiral cones,
the apices of which either converge towards each other (Glassia) or towards the
dorsal valve (Atrypa, Fig. 332), or diverge towards the dorsal valve (Dayia); shell
structure impunctate.
Range.—Ordovician to Trias.
Principal Genera.—Atrypa, Dayia, Glassia.
Family. Rhynchonellidae
Shell biconvex, hinge line usually curved.
Beak of ventral valve incurved, with foramen.
Calcareous brachial supports reduced to a pair of short curved crura.
The septa, dental and socket plates may be highly developed and divide up
the cavity of the shell into chambers (Stenochisma, Conchidium).
 Shell structure fibrous, rarely punctate; muscular impressions as in
Terebratulidae.
Range.—Ordovician to Recent: majority of the genera are Palaeozoic.
Principal Genera.—Rhynchonella (Fig. 327), Stenochisma, Stricklandia,
Conchidium.
Family. Terebratulidae
Shell structure punctate.
Arms supported by a calcareous loop, usually bent back on itself.
(For muscular impressions see p. 502, Figs. 328, 329.)
Beak of ventral valve perforated by foramen, furnished with deltidium.
Range.—Devonian to Recent; maximum development in Mesozoic times.
Principal Genera.—Terebratula, Terebratulina, Waldheimia, Terebratella,
Kingena, Magas, Centronella.
Family. Argiopidae
Large foramen for passage of pedicle. Marginal septa present in both valves.
Calcareous brachial loop follows margin of shell and is more or less fused with
the septa. Shell structure punctate.
Range.—Jurassic to Recent.
Principal Genera.—Argiope, Cistella.
Family. Stringocephalidae
Shell subcircular, punctate. Cardinal process highly developed, bifid. Brachial
apparatus composed of two calcareous free lamellae, prolonged at first
downwards, then bent back, upwards and outwards to run parallel to margin of
shell and to unite in front, thus constituting a wide loop.
Range.—Silurian and Devonian.
Sole Genus.—Stringocephalus.
Family. Thecidiidae
Shell usually fixed by beak of ventral valve, plano-convex. Sub-cardinal
apophysis in ventral valve for attachment of occlusors. Marginal septa in dorsal
valve. Calcareous brachial loop more or less fused with shell, and with
calcareous spicules of mantle. Shell structure: inner layer fibrous, outer layer
tubulated.
Range.—Carboniferous to Recent.
Principal Genera.—Thecidium, Oldhamina.

Stratigraphical Distribution of Brachiopoda

It is remarkable that some of the earliest types of Brachiopoda exist
generically unchanged at the present day. Such are Lingula, ranging from the
Cambrian; Discina and Crania, ranging from the Ordovician; and amongst the
hinged forms Terebratula from the Devonian, and Rhynchonella from the
Ordovician.
In the lowest Cambrian (Olenellus beds) the most important genera are
Linnarssonia and Kutorgina. The hinged forms appear in the Cambrian, being
represented by Orthis; but the majority in this formation belong to the
Ecardines. Lingula, Lingulella, and Obolella are characteristic.
In the Ordovician many new genera of the Testicardines make their
appearance, such as Strophomena, Leptaena, Atrypa, Rhynchonella,
Clitambonites, etc., but the extraordinary abundance and variety of Orthis is
most remarkable. The Ecardines are reinforced by such forms as Trematis and
Siphonotreta. It is, however, in the Silurian that the Testicardinate Brachiopoda
attain their maximum, for in addition to a great development of species
amongst the older forms, a host of new genera for the first time occur here
(Spirifera, Athyris, Conchidium, Stricklandia, Chonetes, Cyrtia, etc.); and the
Trimerellidae are especially characteristic of the Wenlock.
With the commencement of Devonian times many species and genera
become extinct, but new forms come in (Terebratula, Orthothetes, Productus,
etc.), and some genera are wholly confined to this formation (Uncites,
Stringocephalus). The Carboniferous is marked by the maximum development
of Productus and Spirifera; Orthothetes, Stenochisma, and Athyris are also
abundant, but there is a considerable extinction of the older genera and
species, and a great diminution in the number of individuals and species of
those that persist.
A further reduction occurs in the Permian, where the most important genera
are Productus, Strophalosia, and Stenochisma; but Aulosteges is a new form
peculiar to this period. In the Trias a new era commences; the principal
families and genera of the older rocks disappear entirely; a few spire-bearing
genera persist (Spiriferina, Athyris), and the genus Koninckina is restricted to
this formation.
The enormous development of species of the Terebratulidae and
Rhynchonellidae is the most noticeable feature in Jurassic times; and a few
ancient types linger on into the Lias (Spiriferina, Suessia, a sub-genus of
Spirifera); Koninckella here occurs.
The Cretaceous Brachiopoda are closely allied to the Jurassic; Magas and
Lyra are peculiar to the period, and the Terebratulidae and Rhynchonellidae
are very abundant, together with the Ecardinate genus Crania.
With the commencement of Tertiary times the Brachiopoda have lost their
geological importance, and have dwindled down into an insignificant
proportion of the whole Invertebrate fauna.

The distribution of the Brachiopoda in past time is shown in the following

table:—
Palaeozoic Mesozoic
C
a
r
O b C
r o r
C d S D n J e T
a o i e i P u t e
m v l v f e r a r R
b i u o e r T a c t e
r c r n r m r s e i c
i i i i o i i s o a e
a a a a u a a i u r n
ECARDINES n n n n s n s c s y t
Lingulidae Lingula ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___
Lingulella ___
Obolidae Obolus ___ ___
Obolella ___ ___
Kutorgina ___ ___
Linnarssonia ___
Trematis ___ ___
Siphonotreta ___ ___
Acrotreta ___
Discinidae Discina ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___
Craniidae Crania ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___
Trimerellidae Trimerella ___
Dinobolus ___
TESTICARDINES
Productidae Productus ___ ___ ___
Chonetes ___ ___ ___
Strophalosia ___ ___ ___
Strophomenidae Orthis ___ ___ ___ ___ ___
Skenidium ___ ___
Clitambonites ___
Strophomena ___ ___
Stropheodonta ___ ___ ___
Leptaena ___ ___ ___ ___
Orthothetes ___ ___ ___
Davidsonia ___
Koninckinidae Koninckina ___
 Koninckella ___
Spiriferidae Spirifera ___ ___ ___ ___
Spiriferina ___ ___ ___ ___ ___
Cyrtia ___ ___ ___
Syringothyris ___
Uncites ___
Athyris ___ ___ ___ ___ ___
Merista ___ ___
Retzia ___ ___ ___ ___ ___
Atrypidae Atrypa ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___
Dayia ___
Coelospira ___
Rhynchonellidae Rhynchonella ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___
Stenochisma ___ ___ ___
Stricklandia ___
Conchidium ___ ___
Terebratulidae Terebratula ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___
Terebratulina ___ ___ ___ ___
Waldheimia ___ ___ ___ ___
Terebratella ___ ___ ___ ___
Kingena ___ ___
Magas ___
Centronella ___ ___ ___
Argiopidae Argiope ___ ___ ___ ___
Cistella ___ ___ ___ ___
Stringocephalidae Stringocephalus ___
Thecidiidae Thecidium ___ ___ ___ ___ ___
Oldhamina ___

PHYLOGENY AND ONTOGENY

Wherever successive stages in the life history of an individual resemble in

important anatomical features the adult individuals of other species occurring
in successive members of a stratigraphical series, the development of the
individual may be regarded as an epitome of the development of the species;
it also generally throws light on the origin and relationships of allied genera
and families.
In the case of the fossil Brachiopoda comparatively little work has yet been
done in tracing their ontogeny or phylogeny, though the abundance, variety,
and excellent state of preservation of the extinct species offer a promising field
for investigation. It is to Dr. C. E. Beecher and other recent American
palaeontologists that we owe our advance in this branch of the subject.
In the first place, in about forty genera, representing nearly all the leading
families of the group, the important fact has been established of the presence
of a common form of embryonic shell, termed the “protegulum,” which is
“semicircular or semielliptical in shape with a straight or arcuate hinge line and
no hinge area” (Beecher).[431] Its minute size and delicate texture cause its
preservation to be rare, but its impression is not uncommonly left on the beak
of the adult shell.
The main features of this embryonic shell are exhibited in the adult Lower
Cambrian Brachiopod Obolus (Kutorgina) labradoricus (Billings); the sub-equal
semielliptical valves have lines of growth running concentrically and parallel to
the margin of the shell, and ending abruptly against the straight hinge line; and
this indicates that there has been no change in the outline and proportions of
the shell during its stages of growth, but only a general increase in size. It is
very significant that we have here a mature type possessing the common
embryonic characters of a host of widely separated genera, and we may
therefore regard it as the most primitive form known.
Many genera pass through this so-called “Paterina” stage either in the case
of both their valves, or more generally in the case of the dorsal valve only; but
modifications in the form of the protegulum arise, which are due to the
influence of accelerated growth, by which features belonging to later stages
become impressed on the early embryonic shell. The most variable and
specialised valve—the ventral or pedicle valve naturally exhibits the effect of
this influence first and to the greatest extent. The Palaeozoic adult forms of
many species represent various pre-adult stages of the Mesozoic, Tertiary, and
Recent species, as is especially well shown in the genera Orbiculoidea and
Discinisca.
In the Strophomenoid shells the protegulum in the dorsal valve is usually
normal, but in the ventral valve abbreviation of the hinge and curvature of the
hinge line are produced by acceleration of the “Discinoid stage” in which a
pedicle notch is present.
No marked variation has yet been noticed in the spire-bearing, or
Terebratuloid, or Rhynchonelloid genera.
The form of the shell and the amount of difference in shape and size of the
valves seem to be largely due to the length of the pedicle and its inclination to
the axis of the body, as evidenced by the development of Terebratulina. A
series showing progressive dissimilarity of the two valves arising from these
causes can be traced from Lingula to Crania. The greater alteration that takes
place in the ventral valve appears to be due to its position as lower and
attached valve. If the pedicle is short a transversely-expanded shell with long
hinge line results when the plane of the valves is vertical or ascending, but
when the latter is horizontal a Discinoid form is found. This mode of
attachment is often accompanied by a more or less plainly developed radial
symmetry. Shells with long pedicles, on the other hand, are usually longer than
wide.
 The character of the pedicle-opening is of great significance from an
evolutional and classificatory point of view, for the successive stages through
which it passes in embryonic growth are chronologically paralleled by different
genera, and are likewise accompanied by the successive acquisition of other
important anatomical characters, as has been shown by Beecher and others.
The first and simplest type of pedicle opening is in shells with a posterior
gaping of the valves, where the pedicle protrudes freely between them in a line
with the axis, and the opening is shared by both valves, though generally to a
greater extent by the ventral valve. Paterina (= Obolus labradoricus) and
Lingula furnish examples of this type. In the second type the pedicle opening
is restricted to the ventral valve, and the direction of the pedicle makes a right
angle with the plane of the valves; in the lower forms the pedicle lies in a slit or
sinus (Trematidae), but by further specialisation it becomes enclosed by shell
growth so as to lie within the periphery, and finally becomes sub-central in
some genera (Discinidae). The third type shows the pedicle opening confined
to the ventral valve and sub-marginal. A pseudo-deltidium may preserve the
original opening (Clitambonites); or this shelly plate may become worn away
or reabsorbed in the adult so that the deltidial fissure through which the
pedicle passes remains quite open (Orthidae). In the fourth type the incipient
stage marks a return to the simple conditions of the first type; but ultimately a
pair of deltidial plates develop, and may completely limit the pedicle opening
below. Examples of this type are Spirifera and Rhynchonella. By means of
these four types the Brachiopods have been divided into four Orders: the
Atremata (type i.); the Neotremata (type ii.); the Protremata (type iii.); and the
Telotremata (type iv.).
The Telotremata were the last to appear, but the four types of pedicle-
opening with the various forms of calcareous brachial apparatus were in
existence in the Bala period of the Ordovician.
As Paterina is the most primitive form of all, we may place it at the root of
the phylogenetic tree. From it sprang the Atremata, which gave off the
Neotremata and Protremata; the most primitive Neotremata seem to be the
Trematidae, while the connecting link between the Protremata and Atremata is
furnished by the Kutorginidae. From the genus Conchidium and its allies we
may see how the Rhynchonellidae ushered in the Telotremata as an offshoot
from the Protremata. The Telotremata subsequently gave off two main
branches, which became specialised with the loop-bearing and spire-bearing
forms respectively.
The evolution and mutual relationships of genera have been indicated with
much probability by Hall, Clarke, and others. The Obolelloid type may be
connected with the Linguloid by means of Lingulella and Linyulepis, while in
Lingula itself we find the point of divergence for the ancestors of Trimerella,
and for a line of variation culminating in Dignomia. The Palaeozoic
Rhynchonelloids branched off at an early period from the same stock as
Orthis, and are connecting links between this genus and Mesozoic
Rhynchonellae; and a whole series of genera exhibit intermediate stages of
structure between the Rhynchonelloid and Pentameroid groups. The
Terebratuloids can be traced back to the primitive type Renssoellaria; and
amongst spire-bearing forms, the protean genus Spirifera can be split up into
groups of species which diverge along lines tending to forms no longer
congeneric. When we come to deal with specific differences we find frequently
such a host of intermediate varieties that the separation of many species, as in
the case of Mesozoic Terebratulae, is to a large extent arbitrary and artificial.