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Dietmar Gross · Wolfgang Ehlers
Peter Wriggers · Jörg Schröder
Ralf Müller

Mechanics of
Materials –
Formulas and
Problems
Engineering Mechanics 2

123
Mechanics of Materials – Formulas
and Problems
Dietmar Gross Wolfgang Ehlers
•

Peter Wriggers Jörg Schröder

•

Ralf Müller

Mechanics of
Materials – Formulas
and Problems
Engineering Mechanics 2

123
Dietmar Gross Jörg Schröder
Division of Solid Mechanics Institute of Mechanics
TU Darmstadt Universität Duisburg-Essen
Darmstadt Essen
Germany Germany

Wolfgang Ehlers Ralf Müller

Institute of Applied Mechanics Institute of Applied Mechanics
Universität Stuttgart TU Kaiserslautern
Stuttgart Kaiserslautern
Germany Germany

Peter Wriggers
Institute of Continuum Mechanics
Leibniz Universität Hannover
Hannover
Germany

ISBN 978-3-662-53879-1 ISBN 978-3-662-53880-7 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-3-662-53880-7
Library of Congress Control Number: 2016956827

© Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany 2017

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether
the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation,
reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms
or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval,
electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks,
etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement,
that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and
therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and
information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of
publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty,
express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or
omissions that may have been made.

Printed on acid-free paper

This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature

The registered company is Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany
The registered company address is: Heidelberger Platz 3, 14197 Berlin, Germany
Preface
This collection of problems results from the demand of students for sup-
plementary problems and support in the preparation for examinations.
With the present collection ’Engineering Mechanics 2 - Formulas and
Problems, Mechanics of Materials’ we provide more additional exercise
material.
The subject ’Mechanics of Materials’ is commonly taught in the se-
cond course of Engineering Mechanics classes at universities. The pro-
blems analyzed within these courses use equilibrium conditions and ki-
nematic relations in conjunction with constitutive relations. As we want
concentrate more on basic concepts and solution procedures the focus
lies on linear elastic material behavior and the small strain regime. Ho-
wever, this covers a wide range of elasto-static problems with relevancy
in engineering applications. Special attention is given to structural ele-
ments like bars, beams and shafts as well as plane stress and strain
situations.
Following the warning in the first collection, we would like to make
the reader aware that pure reading and trying to comprehend the pre-
sented solutions will not provide a deeper understanding of mechanics.
Neither does it improve the problem solving skills. Using this collec-
tion wisely, one has to try to solve the problems independently. The
proposed solution should only be considered when experiencing major
problems in solving an exercise.
Obviously this collection cannot substitute a full-scale textbook. If
not familiar with the formulae, explanations, or technical terms the rea-
der has to consider his or her course material or additional textbooks
on mechanics of materials. An incomplete list is provided on page IX.

Darmstadt, Hannover, Stuttgart, Essen and D. Gross

Kaiserslautern, Summer 2016 P. Wriggers
W. Ehlers
J. Schröder
R. Müller
Table of Contents

Literature, Notation .................................................. IX

1 Stress, Stain, Hooke’s Law.......................................... 1

2 Tension and Compression in Bars ................................. 29

3 Bending of Beams ..................................................... 57

4 Torsion ................................................................... 111

5 Energy Methods ....................................................... 143

6 Buckling of Bars ....................................................... 181

7 Hydrostatics ............................................................ 195

Literature
Textbooks
Gross, D., Hauger, W., Schröder, J., Wall, W., Bonet, J., Engineering
Mechanics 2: Mechanics of Materials, 1st edition, Springer 2011
Gross, D., Hauger, W., Wriggers, P., Technische Mechanik, vol 4:
Hydromechanics, Elements of Advanced Mechanics, Numerical
Methods (in German), 9th edition, Springer 2014
Beer, F.P., Johnston, E.R., DeWolf, J.T., Mazurek, D.F., Mechanics of
Materials, 7th edition, McGraw-Hill Education 2012
Hibbeler, R.C., Mechanics of Materials, 10th edition, Pearson 2016
Geer, J.M., Goodno, B.J., Mechanics of Materials, 8th edition, Cengage
Learning 2013
Ghavami, P., Mechanics of Materials, 1st edition, Springer 2015

Collection of Problems
Schaum’s Outlines Strength of Materials, 6th edition, McGraw-Hill
Education 2013
Beer, F.P., Johnston, E.R., DeWolf, J.T., Mazurek, D.F., Mechanics of
Materials, 7th edition, McGraw-Hill Education 2012
Hibbeler, R.C., Mechanics of Materials, 10th edition, Pearson 2016

Notation
The following symbols are used in the solutions to the problems:
↑: short notation for sum of all forces in the direction of the
arrow equals zero.

A: short notation for sum of all moments with reference to
point A equals zero.
; short notation for it follows.
Chapter 1
Stress, Strain, Hooke’s Law
1
 2 Stress
1.1
1.1 Stress, Equilibrium conditions
Stress is related to forces distributed over the
area of a cross section. The stress vector t is
defined as
dF
dF dA
t= ,
dA n
where dF is the force acting on the area ele-
ment dA (unit: 1 Pa = 1 N/m2 ).

Note: The stress vector and its components depend on the orientation
of the area element (with its normal n).

Components of the stress vector:

t
τ
σ – normal stress (perpendicular to the plane)
σ n
τ – shear stress (in plane)

Sign convention: Positive stresses at a positive (negative) face point

in positive (negative) coordinate directions.

Spatial stress state: is uniquely defined

by the components of the stress vectors
in three mutually perpendicular sections.
The stress components are the components z
of the stress tensor σ
τzx z τzy
⎛ ⎞ τxz τyz
σx τxy τxz σy
⎜ ⎟
σ = ⎝τyx σy τyz ⎠ σx τxy τyx
τzx τzy σz x y

Equilibrium of moments yields the following relations

τxy = τyx , τxz = τzx , τyz = τzy .

Hence the stress tensor is a symmetric tensor of second order: τij = τji .
 Plane stress state 3

Plane stress state: is uniquely defined σy

by the stress components of two mutual- τyx
ly perpendicular sections. The stress com-
ponents in the third direction (here z- σx τxy
direction) vanish (σz = τyz = τxz = 0)
σx
 τxy
σx τxy y
σ= . τyx
τxy σy σy
x
τxy = τyx
Coordinate transformation
y
σx + σy σx − σy τξη σξ
σξ = + cos 2ϕ + τxy sin 2ϕ , σx
2 2 ξ
σx + σy σx − σy ϕ
ση = − cos 2ϕ − τxy sin 2ϕ , τxy
2 2
σx − σy ϕ
τξη =− sin 2ϕ + τxy cos 2ϕ . η
2 τyx x
σy
Principal stresses
σ2
σx + σy σx − σy 2
σ1,2 = ± + 2
τxy σ1
2 2
2τxy
tan 2ϕ∗ = σ1
σx − σy
y ϕ∗1
ϕ∗2
Note: • The shear stresses vanish σ2
in these directions! x
• The principal directions are
perpendicular to each other: τmax
ϕ∗2 = ϕ∗1 ± π/2. σ0 σ0

Maximum shear stresses

σx − σy 2 π σ0 σ0
τmax = 2 ,
+ τxy ϕ∗∗ = ϕ∗ ± . y
2 4 τmax
ϕ∗∗
In these sections the normal stresses x
reach the value σ0 = (σx + σy )/2.

Invariants
I σ = σx + σy = σξ + ση = σ1 + σ2 ,
IIσ = σx σy − τxy
2
= σξ ση − τξη
2
= σ1 σ2 .
4 Equilibrium conditions

Mohr’s circle
direction of
τ σ2 σ1 center:
τmax
σm = 12 (σx + σy ) ,

2ϕ τ =0

τxy
radius:
2ϕ∗ τξη
ϕ∗
σ2 ση σy σm σx σξ σ1 σx − σy 2
σ 2
+ τxy
2ϕ ∗∗ 2
y
η
ϕ
ξ
x

• The construction of Mohr’s circle is always possible, provided three

independent quantities are known (e. g. σx , σy , τxy or
σx , σy , ϕ∗ ).
• The shear stress τxy is plotted over σx (τξη over σξ ).
• The angle of transformation ϕ is doubled in the circle (2ϕ) and ori-
ented in opposite direction.

Equilibrium conditions
⎫
∂σx ∂τxy ∂τxz
in space (3D) + + + fx = 0 ,⎪
⎪
⎪
∂x ∂y ∂z ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
∂τyx ∂σy ∂τyz ⎬
+ + + fy = 0 , divσ + f = 0 .
∂x ∂y ∂z ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
+ fz = 0 ,⎪
∂τzx ∂τzy ∂σz ⎭
+ +
∂x ∂y ∂z
⎫
∂σx ∂τxy
in plane (2D) + + fx = 0 ,⎪
⎪
⎬
∂x ∂y
divσ + f = 0 .
∂τyx ∂σy ⎪
⎪
+ + fy = 0 ,⎭
∂x ∂y
where
  ∂σix ∂σiy ∂σiz

divσ = + + ei .
i
∂x ∂y ∂z
 1.2 Strain 5
1.2
1.2 Strain
The strains describe changes in the edge lengths (stretching) and in the
angles (shearing) of a cubic volume element.

Displacement vector P
P u
u = uex + vey + wez

u, v, w = displacement components z
x y
Uniaxial strain state

du
strain ε=
dx
dx du
Biaxial strain state
normal strains shear strains
∂u
dy
∂v ∂y
dy
∂y
dy dy dy ∂v
dx
y ∂x
dx ∂u dx dx
dx x
∂x
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
εx = , εy = , γxy = + .
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
∂u ∂v ∂w
Triaxial strain state εx = , εy = , εz = ,
∂x ∂y ∂z
⎛ ⎞ ∂u ∂v
εx 1
γ 1γ γxy = γyx = + ,
2 xy 2 xz ∂y ∂x
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ∂v ∂w
strain tensor: ε = ⎜ 12 γyx εy 21 γyz ⎟ γyz = γzy = + ,
⎝ ⎠ ∂z ∂y
1
γ 1
γ εz ∂w ∂u
2 zx 2 zy γzx = γxz = + .
∂x ∂z
Remark:
• The strains are, like the stresses, components of a symmetric tensor
of second order. Thus all properties (coordinate transformation, princi-
pal values etc.) of the stress tensor can be used analogously. σx → εx ,
τxy → γxy /2, . . .
• In a plane strain state the following holds: εz = 0, γxz = 0, γyz = 0.
 6 Hook’s law
1.3
1.3 Hooke’s law
Hooke’s law describes the experimentally observed linear relation bet-
ween stresses and strains. The validity of Hooke’s law is restricted by
the proportionality limit (uniaxial σp ). In elastic-plastic materials this
limit frequently conincides with the yield limit (uniaxial σY ).

Uniaxial stress state (bar, beam)

σ
ε= + αT ΔT .
E
E – Young’s modulus,
αT – coefficient of thermal expansion,
ΔT – temperature change.
Plane stress state
1
εx = (σx − νσy ) + αT ΔT ,
E
1
εy = (σy − νσx ) + αT ΔT ,
E
1
γxy = τxy ,
G
E
shear modulus: G= , Poisson s ratio : ν.
2(1 + ν)
Triaxial stress state
1 1
εx = [σx − ν(σy + σz )] + αT ΔT , γxy = τxy ,
E G
1 1
εy = [σy − ν(σz + σx )] + αT ΔT , γyz = τyz ,
E G
1 1
εz = [σz − ν(σx + σy )] + αT ΔT , γzx = τzx .
E G

Selected material data

material E [MPa] ν αT [1/◦ C]

steel 2, 1 · 105 0, 3 12 · 10−6

aluminium 0, 7 · 105 0, 3 23 · 10−6
copper 1, 2 · 105 0, 3 16 · 10−6
concrete 0, 3 · 105 0, 15 . . . 0, 3 10 · 10−6
wood 0, 1 · 105 3 . . . 9 · 10−6

Remark: 1MPa = 103 kPa = 106 Pa , 1Pa = 1N/m2

 1.3 Hooke’s law 7

Problem 1.1 In a thin metal sheet σy P1.1

the stresses σx , σy , τxy are given. De- τxy
termine value and direction of the
principal stresses. σx τxy

Given: σx = 20 MPa, σy = 30 MPa, τxy σx

y
τxy = 10 MPa.
τxy
x σy

Solution We start with the analytical method. The principal stresses

are computed by

σx + σy σx − σy 2 √
σ1,2 = ± 2 = 25 ±
+ τxy 25 + 100 = 25 ± 11.18
2 2
leading to
σ1 = 36.18 MPa , σ2 = 13.82 MPa .

For the principal directions, we obtain according to σ1

σ2
2τxy
tan 2ϕ∗ = = −2
σx − σy σ2
σ1
the results y

ϕ∗1 = 58.28◦ , ϕ∗2 = 148.28◦ . ϕ∗1

x

To illustrate the results an element loaded by the principal stresses is

sketched.
We can also solve the problem graphically by using Mohr’s circle:

τ
direction of scale: 10 MPa
σ1
σ2

τxy We read off the

σ2 ϕ∗1 2ϕ∗1 σ1 results:
σx σy σ
σ1 ∼
= 36.5 MPa ,
σ2 ∼
= 14 MPa ,
ϕ∗1 ∼
= 59◦ .
 8 Plane

P1.2 Problem 1.2 Determine the stress components, the principal stresses,
and the principal directions, as well as the maximum shear stress in
any cross section for the given special cases of plane stress states :
a) σx = σ0 , σy = 0, τxy = 0 (uniaxial tension),
b) σx = σy = σ0 , τxy = 0 (biaxial, equal tension),
c) σx = σy = 0, τxy = τ0 (pure shear).

Solution to a) The stress components are obtained for any cross sec-
tion which has the angle ϕ to the x- and y-
direction by inserting σx , σy and τxy into the
transformation relations
σ0 σ0
σξ = 12 (σ0 + 0) + 1
2
(σ0 − 0) cos 2ϕ + 0 · sin 2ϕ
= 12 σ0 (1 + cos 2ϕ) ,

ση = 12 (σ0 + 0) − 1
2
(σ0 − 0) cos 2ϕ − 0 · sin 2ϕ τξη
= 12 σ0 (1 − cos 2ϕ) , σξ

τξη =− 12 (σ0 − 0) sin 2ϕ + 0 · cos 2ϕ

= 12 σ0 sin 2ϕ . ση

Due to τxy = 0 the stresses σx , σy are principal y

ϕ
stresses, and the x- as well as y-direction are prin-
x
cipal directions:
τmax
π σ0 σ0
σ1 = σx = σ0 , σ2 = σy = 0, ϕ∗1 = 0, ϕ∗2 = ± .
2 2 2

The maximum shear stress and the corresponding

direction is determined by the following relations
y 45◦
1 1 ∗∗ π
τmax = |σ1 − σ2 | = σ0 , ϕ =± . x
2 2 4

Remark: A plate made from a material that supports only limited shear-
stresses will fail along lines under an angle of ±45◦ to the
x-axis.

to b) Inserting the given values into the coordinate transformation

yields

σξ = σ0 , ση = σ0 , τξη = 0 .
 stress state 9

Therefore the normal stress σ0 σ0

is acting in any section, and the
shear stress vanishes. There is σ0
no distinguished principal direc-
tion, any section is a principal σ0
direction: σ0 y ϕ
σ1 = σ2 = σ0 . x

to c) In this case the coordinate transformation yields

τ0
σξ = τ0 sin 2ϕ , ση = −τ0 sin 2ϕ , τξη = τ0 cos 2ϕ .

The principal stresses and directions are

π π
σ1 = +τ0 , σ2 = −τ0 , ϕ∗1 = , ϕ∗2 = − . σ1 = τ0
4 4
For the maximum shear stress and the correspon-
ding directions we obtain y σ1
45◦ |σ2 | = τ0
τmax = τ0 , ϕ∗∗
1 = 0 , ϕ∗∗
2 = π/2 . x

Remark: A plate made from a material that supports limited normal

stresses will fail along lines under an angle of ±45◦ to the
x-axis.
The results of all three stress states can be illustrated by the correspon-
ding Mohr’s circles:
to a) τ to c) τ

τmax
σ1 = σ0 σ1 = τ0
σ2 = 0 σ σ2 = −τ0 σ

τ
to b)

σ1 = σ2 = σ0 σ

Note: In case b) Mohr’s circle degenerates to a single point along

the σ-axis!
 10 Plane
σ1
P1.3 Problem 1.3 In a plane section the fol-
lowing principal stresses are present
σ2 σ2
σ1 = 96 MPa and σ2 = −52 MPa .

a) Determine the stresses in sections

which are inclined by ϕa = 60◦ with σ1
regard to the principal axes?
b) In which section ϕb does the normal stress vanish? What are the
values of the shear and normal stresses in a direction perpendicular to
the direction ϕb ?
c) In which directions do the maximal shear stresses appear, and what
are the corresponding normal stresses?

Solution to a) According to the sketch we σy = σ1

use a coordinate system x, y that coincides
with the principal axes. The stresses in the σx = σ2
cross sections inclined by ϕa = 60◦ follow
from the coordinate transformation y
τxy = 0
σ2 + σ1 σ2 − σ1 1
σξa = + cos 2ϕa = 22 + 74 · x
2 2 2
= 59 MPa ,
a
σ2 + σ1 σ2 − σ1 1 τξη
σηa = − cos 2ϕa = 22 − 74 · σηa σξa
2 2 2
= −15 MPa ,
σηa
σ2 − σ1 1√ σξa
a
τξη = − sin 2ϕa = 74 · 3 a
2 2 τξη
60◦
= 64.1 MPa . x

to b) For the normal stress σξ to vanish the following must hold

σ2 + σ1 σ2 − σ1
σξb = + cos 2ϕb = 0
2 2

22
; cos 2ϕb = = 0.297 ; 2ϕb = 72.7◦ ; ϕb = 36.35◦ .
74
 stress state 11

For σηb and τξη

b
we obtain
σηb b
σ2 + σ1 σ2 − σ1 τξη
σηb = − cos 2ϕb = 44 MPa ,
2 2
b
τξη
b σ2 − σ1 b
τξη
τξη = − sin 2ϕb = 74 · 0.955
2 σηb
= 70.7 MPa . x
36, 35◦

to c) The maximum shear stress occurs in directions of ±45◦ with

regard to the principal axes. This results in
σ1 − σ2
τmax = = 74 MPa . σm τmax σm
2
The corresponding normal stresses are

σ1 + σ2 σm σm
σm = = 22 MPa
2 τmax
for the given data. x
45◦

All informations can be illustrated by use of Mohr’s circle for the given
stress state

scale: 50 MPa τ

τmax
σξa ∼
b
= 59 MPa , τξη
a
τξη
σηa ∼
= −15 MPa , 2ϕb 2ϕa
a ∼
τξη = 64 MPa , σ
σx = σ2 σηa σξb = 0 σm σηb σξa σy = σ1
ϕb ∼
= 37◦ ,
σηb ∼
= 44 MPa ,
b
τξη ∼
= 71 MPa ,
τmax ∼
= 74 MPa ,
σm ∼
= 22 MPa .
 12 Plane

P1.4 Problem 1.4 The following stresses σy

are acting in a panel.
σx = 20 MPa, σy = 60 MPa and τxy
τxy = −40 MPa. σx
Determine analytically and graphical- σx
ly the principal stresses, the maximum y
shear stress, and the corresponding di- τxy
rections. Sketch the related sections. x σy

Solution The principal stresses and their directions are calculated ana-
lytically by
σ1
σx + σy σx − σy 2
σ1,2 = ± 2
+ τxy |σ2 |
2 2
 |σ2 |
=40 ± (20) + (40)2 ,
2 y
σ1
x
; σ1 = 84.72 MPa , σ2 = −4.72 MPa , ϕ∗2

2τxy
tan 2ϕ∗ = =2 ; ϕ∗1 = 121.7◦ , ϕ∗2 = 31.7◦ .
σx − σy
To determine which principal stress is associated with which direction,
the transformation relations or Mohr’s circle has to be used.
For the maximum stress the following result is
obtained τmax σm
σm
σx − σy 2
2 = 44.72 MPa , σm
τmax = + τxy
2
ϕ∗∗ = ϕ∗ ± 45◦ = 31.7◦ ± 45◦ . σm τmax

x
The graphic solution by Mohr’s circle is sket- ϕ∗∗
ched below:
τ
scale: 20 MPa
τmax
ϕ∗1 2ϕ ∗∗ 2ϕ∗1
σ1 ∼
= 85 MPa , σx σ1
σ2 ∼
= −5 MPa , σ2 σm σy σ
τmax ∼
= 45 MPa ,
τxy

ϕ∗1 ∼
= 122◦ ,
ϕ∗∗ ∼
= 77◦ . σ2
σ1
direction of
 stress state 13

Problem 1.5 A thin-walled tube B x P1.5

is loaded by a bending moment, an
internal pressure, and a torsional
moment. In points A and B the s
following stresses occur due to the A
loading:

σxA,B = ±50 MPa , σsA,B = 100 MPa , A,B

τxs = 100 MPa .

Determine value and direction of the principal stresses in the points A

and B.
σs
Solution For point A the principal stresses τxs
are computed by σx

σ1,2 = 12 (σx + σs ) ± [ 12 (σx − σs )]2 + τxs
2 σx
s
 τxs
= 75 ± (−25)2 + 1002 x
σs
= 75 ± 103.08 |σ2 |
σ1
yielding
σ1 = 178.08 MPa , σ2 = −28.08 MPa .
|σ2 |
σ1
For the principal directions we obtain 52◦
∗
tan 2ϕ = 2τxs
σx −σs
= 2·100
50−100
= −4 ; ϕ∗1 = 52.02 , ◦
ϕ∗2 = −37.98◦ .

From the coordinate transformation it is obvious that direction ϕ∗1 is

associated with the principal stress σ1 :
σξ = 12 (σx + σs ) + 12 (σx − σs ) cos 2ϕ∗1 + τxs sin 2ϕ∗1
σs
= 75 − 25 · (−0.242) + 100 · 0.970
τxs
= 178.08 MPa = σ1 . |σx |

|σx |
In an analogous way the principal stresses and
s
their directions in point B are obtained: τxs
 x σs
σ1,2 = 25 ± (−75)2 + 1002
|σ2 | σ1
= 25 ± 125
; σ1 = 150 MPa , σ2 = −100 MPa . |σ2 |
2 · 100
tan 2ϕ∗ = = −1.33 σ1
−50 − 100
∗ ◦ 63◦
; ϕ1 = 63.4 , ϕ2 = −26.6◦ .
∗
 14 Plane stress state

P1.6 Problem 1.6 In a thin aluminium sheet

(E = 0.7 · 105 MPa , ν = 0.3) the fol-
lowing strains εx = 0.001, εy = 0.0005, y P
γxy = 0 are experimentally measured in ξ
η
point P .
x
ϕ = 30◦
What are the principal stresses, the ma-
ximum shear stress, and the stresses in
a sections, that are inclined by ϕ = 30◦
with regard to the principal directions?

Solution In the aluminium sheet a state of plane stress is present. From

Hooke’s law

Eεx = σx − νσy , Eεy = σy − νσx , Gγxy = τxy

the following stresses can be computed

E 0.7 · 105
σx = (εx + νεy ) = (0.001 + 0.00015) = 88.5 MPa ,
1 − ν2 1 − 0.09
E 0.7 · 105
σy = (ε y + νε x ) = (0.0005 + 0.0003) = 61.5 MPa ,
1 − ν2 1 − 0.09
τxy = 0 .

As the shear stress τxy is equal to zero, σx , σy are principal stresses,

and axes x, y are principal axes:

σx = σ1 σy = σ2 .

Therefore, the maximum shear stress is

1 1
τmax = (σ1 − σ2 ) = (σx − σy ) = 13.5 MPa .
2 2
For the sections inclined by ϕ = 30◦ , the stresses follow with τxy = 0
from the transformation relations
σx + σx σx − σy
σξ = + cos 2ϕ = 75 + 13.5 cos 60◦ = 81.75 MPa ,
2 2
σx + σy σx − σy
ση = − cos 2ϕ = 75 − 13.5 cos 60◦ = 68.25 MPa ,
2 2
σx − σy
τξη = − sin 2ϕ = −13.5 sin 60◦ = −11.69 MPa .
2
 Displacements 15

Problem 1.7 In a thin sheet the following P1.7

plane displacement field was obtained by A
measurements: v
y
u(x, y) = 3.5 · 10−3 x + 2 · 10−3 y , A u
v(x, y) = 1 · 10−3 x − 0.5 · 10−3 y . x
a) Determine the state of strain.
b) What are principal strains, and under which angle to the x-axis do
they appear?
c) What is the maximum shear strain γmax ?

Solution to a) The strains are computed by differentiation of the dis-

placement components:
∂u ∂v
εx = = 3.5 · 10−3 , εy = = −0.5 · 10−3 ,
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂v
γxy = + = 2 · 10−3 + 1 · 10−3 = 3 · 10−3 .
∂y ∂x
The strains are constant in the entire sheet (=homogeneous strain
state).
to b) The principal strains and their corresponding directions are cal-
culated from the relations for the principal stresses by using the repla-
cements (σx → εx , τxy → γxy /2 etc.). This yields the principal strains

εx + εy εx − εy 2 γxy 2
ε1,2 = ± +
2 2 2

= 1.5 · 10−3 ± (2 · 10−3 )2 + (1.5 · 10−3 )2 = 1.5 · 10−3 ± 2.5 · 10−3

; ε1 = 4 · 10−3 , ε2 = −1 · 10−3 ,

and the principal directions

γxy 3
tan 2ϕ∗ = = ; ϕ∗1 = 18.4◦ , ϕ∗2 = 108.4◦ .
εx − εy 4
to c) The maximum shear strain is

γmax = ε1 − ε2 = 4 · 10−3 + 1 · 10−3 = 5 · 10−3 .

It occurs at angles, which are inclined by ±45◦ with regard to the

principal directions.
 16 Plane stress state
p
P1.8 Problem 1.8 An elastic panel A fits in-
to the rigid socket B of height h
(Young’s modulus E, Poisson’s ratio R vR
ν > 0). B A h
y
Determine the stress σx and the value
x
of the displacement vR at the top edge
R for a constant pressure p. It is ass-
umed that the elastic panel can move
frictionless in the socket mounting.
p = −σy

Solution In the panel a uniform plane

stress state is present, where the stress σx σx
component σy is known: σy = −p. Thus h
Hooke’s law yields

Eεx = σx − νσy = σx + νp ,
y
Eεy = σy − νσx = −p − νσx . p = −σy
x
As the panel cannot expand in x-direc-
tion, it holds

εx = 0 .

Inserting this into Hooke’s law provides the stress σx and the normal
strain in y-direction:

1 − ν2
σx = −νp , εy = −p .
E
Knowing the strain εy we compute the displacement v by integration:

∂v 1 − ν2
= εy ; v(y) = εy dy = −p y+C.
∂y E
The lower edge of the panel does not experience a displacement, i. e.
v(0) = 0, and C = 0. For the value of the displacement at the top edge
we obtain
1 − ν2
vR = |v(h)| = ph .
E
 Plane stress state 17

Problem 1.9 Two quadratic panels made P1.9

of different materials have both the edge
length a in the unloaded state. As sket- 1
a
ched, they are inserted into a rigid socket, 
1 E1 , ν1
which has an opening l, that is smaller l
than 2a.

2 2
What are the stresses and the changes a
E2 , ν2
of the edge lengths, if it is assumed that
the panel can slide frictionless in the rigid a
socket?
σy2
Solution After force fitting into the rigid
socket the panels experience a uniform 
1
plane stress state. Equilibrium in vertical y
x
direction yields σy1 = σy2 = σy . Consi-
dering the condition σx1 = σx2 = 0 in

2
Hooke’s law for both panels provides


1 E1 εy1 = σy , E1 εx1 = −ν1 σy ,
σy1

2 E2 εy2 = σy , E2 εx2 = −ν2 σy .
Δv
With the strain-displacement relation
(constant strains) a y
x
Δu1 Δv1 Δu2 Δv2 Δu
εx1 = , εy1 = , εx2 = , εy2 = a
a a a a
and the kinematic compatibility

(a + Δv1 ) + (a + Δv2 ) = l

we obtain for the normal stress in y-direction

2a − l E1 E2
σy = − .
a E1 + E2

This stress leads to the following length changes

E2 E1
Δv1 = −(2a − l) , Δv2 = −(2a − l) ,
E1 + E2 E1 + E2

Δu1 = −ν1 Δv1 , Δu2 = −ν2 Δv2 .

 18 Thin-walled pressure vessel

P1.10 Problem 1.10 A thin-walled diving sphere

(radius r = 500 mm, wall thickness t = pW water
12.5 mm) is submerged 1000 m under the r
water surface (pressure pW = 10 MPa).
Compute the stresses in the wall of the
sphere. t

Solution We cut the sphere with a section

perpendicular to the surface of the sphere,
σt σt
resulting in two hemispheres. The equilibri-
um conditions r
t
↑ : σt 2πrt + pW r π = 0
2

provide for any section (spherical symme- pW

try) the stresses
r 500
σt = −pW = −10 = −200 MPa .
2t 2 · 12, 5

P1.11 Problem 1.11 A spherical steel tank is heated by r

a hot gas (ΔT = 300 ◦ C) and additionally subjec- ΔT
ted to an internal pressure (p = 1.5 MPa). p
t
Compute the change of the radius.
Given: r = 2 m, t = 10 mm, E = 2.1 · 105 MPa,
ν = 0.3, αT = 12 · 10−6 ◦ C−1 .

Solution For any cross section perpendicular to σt

the surface of the sphere equilibrium provides σϕ

r
σt = σϕ = p .
2t
The strain is computed by the change of circumference
p
2π(r + Δr) − 2πr Δr
εt = εϕ = = .
2πr r σt
Using Hooke’s law
ϕ
Eεt = σt − νσϕ + EαT ΔT

yields
   
p r(1 − ν) 1.5 · 10−3
Δr = r + αT ΔT = 2000 + 3.6 · 10−3 = 8.25 mm .
2Et 3
 Thin-walled pressure vessel 19

Problem 1.12 A thin-walled cylindrical t P1.12

pressure vessel made of steel is subjected
to an internal pressure p. r
p
What is the maximum value of the pres-
sure such that the normal stresses in the l
central part do not to exceed the limit
stress σlim?
Compute for this case the change of radius r and length l.
Given: l = 5 m, r = 1 m, t = 1 cm, E = 2.1 · 105 MPa,
ν = 0.3, σlim = 100 MPa. ϕ
σx
Solution The stresses are determined by x
equilibrium conditions at suitable sections: p
r
→: pr 2 π − σx 2rπt = 0 ; σx = p ,
2t p
r σϕ
↑ : σϕ 2d t − p2rd = 0 ; σϕ = p .
t

These stresses are principal stresses, as the

shear stress vanish in these sections. The lar-
d 2r
gest normal stress exceeds the limit stress for
t
σϕ ≤ σlim ; p ≤ σlim = 1 MPa ; pmax = 1 MPa .
r
The related hoop strain εϕ results from the circumferential change:
2π(r + Δr) − 2πr Δr
εϕ = = .
2πr r
Hooke’s law Eεϕ = σϕ − νσt provides
pmax r ν
Δr = r 1− = 0.41 mm .
Et 2
In an analogous way the strain εt = Δl/l and Hooke’s law Eεt =
σt − νσϕ provide the length change
 
pmax r 1
Δl = l − ν = 0.47 mm .
Et 2
Note: The caps at the ends of the pressure vessel are excluded-
i. e. the solution for the stresses is only valid in a sufficient distance
from the caps.
 20 Thermal strains

P1.13 Problem 1.13 The rails of a train track are installed at a temperature
of 15◦ C such that no internal forces are present.
Determine the stress at a temperature of −25◦ C, if it is assumed that
the rails cannot experience any length change?
Given: E = 2.1 · 105 MPa, αT = 12 · 10−6 ◦ C−1 .

Solution In the rail exists a uniaxial stress state and Hooke’s law
provides

E ε = σ + E αT ΔT .

As displacements are suppressed, ε has to be zero. Using ΔT = −40◦ C

yields for the stresses

σ = −E αT ΔT = 2.1 · 105 · 12 · 10−6 · 40 = 100.8 MPa .

Note: In rails the stresses due to temperature changes can become

considerably large.

P1.14 Problem 1.14 A thin copper ring of radius r is heated due to the tem-
perature difference ΔT .
What are the changes in radius and circumference if it is assumed that
the ring can deform freely?
Given: r = 100 mm, αT = 16 · 10−6 ◦ C−1 , ΔT = 50◦ C.

Solution A uniform, stress-free uniaxial strain state exists in the ring

after heating. The strain is determined by the change in circumferencial
direction (change in length) Δl:
Δl 2π(r + Δr) − 2πr Δr
ε= = = . Δr
l 2πr r
Using the Hooke’s law for uniaxial states r
σ
ε= + αT ΔT
E
and the stress-free condition σ = 0, leads to

Δr = r αT ΔT = 100 · 16 · 10−6 · 50 = 0.08 mm ,

l
Δl = Δr = 2πΔr = 0.50 mm .
r
 Thermal strains 21
δ
Problem 1.15 A rectangular plate (a > b) P1.15
is inserted into a rigid oversized opening, E , ν , αT
y
such that spacings of size δ are present. b
Subsequently the plate is heated. It is as- x
sumed, that the plate can move frictionless
along its edges. a δ
a) Which temperature increase ΔTa is re-
quired to just close the spacing on the right?
b) For which temperature increase ΔTb is the upper spacing just clo-
sing? What is the value of σx in this situation?
c) What are the stresses in the plate for ΔT > ΔTb ?

Solution to a) For ΔT < ΔTa the plate expands in a stress-free way.

With σx = σy = 0 Hooke’s law reduces to

εx = εy = αT ΔT .

The spacing on the right is closing, if the condition εx = δ/a is met.

Introducing this result yields the temperature increase:
δ
ΔTa = .
αT a

to b) At a temperature increase ΔTa ≤ ΔT ≤ ΔTb the plate can only

expand freely in y-direction, while the strain in x-direction remains
constant. With σy = 0 and εx = δ/a it follows
δ σx σx
= + αT ΔT , εy = −ν + αT ΔT .
a E E
The upper spacing is closing, if the the condition εy = δ/b is satisfied.
All above relations provide
δ a + νb E δ(a − b)
ΔTb = , σx = − .
αT a (1 + ν)b 1+ν ab

to c) For ΔT > ΔTb the strains in both directions remain constant:

εx = δ/a, εy = δ/b. Then

Eεx = σx − νσy + EαT ΔT , Eεy = σy − νσx + EαT ΔT

provide the stresses

   
δ(νa + b) αT ΔT δ(νb + a) αT ΔT
σx = E − , σy = E − .
(1 − ν 2 )ab 1−ν (1 − ν 2 )ab 1−ν
 22 Thermal stresses

P1.16 Problem 1.16 A thin-walled bushing

has to be heated by the temperature
difference ΔT ∗ , to be mounted on a t
shaft. r
E , ν , αT
What are the stresses in the bushing, x
and what is the pressure p between rigid
bushing and shaft after cooling? It is
assumed that the shaft is rigid and
that the displacements of the bushing
in x-directions are blocked by friction.

Solution Before cooling the bushing is stress-free. The stresses after

cooling are obtained by equilibrium, Hooke’s law, and kinematics. The
equilibrium condition provides
r
p · 2rd = σϕ 2t d ; σϕ = p .
t
Hooke’s law with ΔT = −ΔT ∗ (coo-
ling!) states x
ϕ
∗
Eεϕ = σϕ − νσx − EαT ΔT ,
p σϕ
σϕ
d
Eεx = σx − νσϕ − EαT ΔT ∗ .

During cooling the strains in the bushing (shrinking) are blocked by

the shaft and friction. Thus the kinematic relations are given by

εϕ = 0 , εx = 0 .

Combining the above relations and solving for stresses and pressure
yields
E t E
σx = σϕ = αT ΔT ∗ , p= αT ΔT ∗ .
1−ν r 1−ν

Note: • In the bushing a plane stress state is present with equal nor-
mal stresses: σx = σϕ .
• If the bushing can deform freely in x-direction (no friction,
εx = 0), then σx = 0 and σϕ = EαT ΔT ∗ follow.
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trace of a digestive tract at any stage of the life-history of Cestodes. For
nourishment they absorb, through the skin, the previously-digested food (of the
host) that bathes them. In a few Cestodes the body is simple and not divided into
"proglottides" or generative segments, but in most cases it is jointed in such a way
that the last segment is the oldest, and each contains a set of reproductive organs.
The life-histories of Cestodes are most remarkable. The proglottides containing the
eggs pass out of the final host along with the faeces and enter the intermediate
host with the food. The larvae hatch, and boring their way into the blood-vessels,
are carried by the circulation to various internal organs. Here they usually become
"bladder-worms," and develop the "head" of the future sexual form. Then, if, as is
usually the case, the intermediate host is preyed upon by the final host, the larval
Cestodes enter the alimentary canal of the latter. The head of the larva alone
survives digestion, and from it the mature worm is formed.

Of these three branches of the phylum Platyhelminthes, the Turbellaria possess

features of special interest and importance. Not only do they furnish the
explanation of the structure of the two parasitic groups (which have probably arisen
from Turbellarian-like ancestors), but they occupy the lowest position in the whole
group of worms. There are reasons for thinking that this is the simplest group of
bilateral animals which adopt the habit of creeping. The Turbellaria are most
closely allied to that great extinct group from which they, the Nemertinea, Rotifera,
and even the Annelids, offer increasingly convincing evidence of having been
derived. Many questions relating to the affinities of, or the origin of organs in, the
Annelids, resolve themselves into similar questions about the Turbellaria. For these
reasons, this group is here dealt with at greater length than the others, the interest
of which is of a more special nature.

The history of our knowledge of the Cestodes dates back to ancient times, as the
presence and effects of tape-worms early attracted the attention of physicians.
Trematodes are first distinctly referred to in the sixteenth century, while Turbellaria
first figure in Trembley's memoir on Hydra (1744).[3] The whole subject of the
increase in our knowledge of parasitic Platyhelminthes is dealt with in the standard
work, The Parasites of Man, by Leuckart,[4] and a complete list of references in
zoological literature to Cestodes and Trematodes is to be found in Bronn's
Thierreich.[5] O. F. Müller[6] and Ehrenberg founded our knowledge of the
Turbellaria, but for a long time the group remained in a most neglected condition. In
this country Montagu, G. Johnston, and in Ireland, William Thompson, discovered
several marine species, one of which, Planocera folium (from Berwick), has not
again been met with on British shores. Dalyell[7] conducted classical researches on
the habits of Planarians, and Faraday[8] made interesting experiments on their
power of regenerating lost parts. The credit of assigning the correct interpretation
to most of the various organs of fresh-water Planarians belongs to von Baer[9] and
Dugès,[10] while Mertens[11] effected a similar service for the marine forms, or
Polyclads. The minute Rhabdocoels were first successfully investigated and
classified by Oscar Schmidt.[12] The great work on this group is, however, the
monograph by von Graff.[13] A similarly comprehensive and indispensable treatise
by Lang, on the Polycladida,[14] contains references to all previous publications on
the group, among which the papers by Quatrefages, Johannes Müller, Keferstein,
Minot, and Hallez stand out conspicuously. Moseley's work[15] on the Land
Planarians of Ceylon is undoubtedly the most revolutionary paper referring to this
group, and the best contribution towards elucidating the structure of the Tricladida
at a time when the subject was very obscure. A monograph on Land Planarians is
being prepared by von Graff.

The Turbellaria are divided into: (1) Polycladida, marine forms with multiple
intestinal branches; (2) Tricladida, marine, fresh-water, and terrestrial Planarians
with three main intestinal branches; (3) the Rhabdocoelida, as varied in habit as
the Triclads, but possessing a straight and simple or slightly lobed, intestine. A
detailed description of an example of the Polyclads, and then a comparative
account of each division, will now be given.

Fig. 1.—Leptoplana tremellaris O. F. M. Seen from the dorsal surface. The

alimentary canal runs down the middle line and sends branches to the margin
of the body. × 6.

Turbellaria. I. Polycladida.

Description of Leptoplana tremellaris.

Appearance and Habits.—An account of the Polyclad Turbellaria may be fitly

prefaced by a description of a very common representative, Leptoplana tremellaris,
so called on account of the thin, flat body which executes when disturbed,
quivering or tremulous swimming movements.

Like all Polyclads, Leptoplana is marine. It is probably found on all European

shores, northwards to Greenland and southwards to the Red Sea, while vertically it
ranges from the littoral zone down to fifty fathoms. There is, however, an
apparently well-marked difference between the littoral specimens, which vary from
three-quarters to one inch in length, are brownish in colour and firm in consistency,
and the more delicate examples half an inch long, white with a brown tinge, which
occur in deeper water.

Fig. 2.—Leptoplana tremellaris. Three-quarters view from the ventral surface. The
pharynx (ph) is widely protruded through the month (mo) as in the act of
attacking prey. br, Brain with nerves, close to which are the four groups of eyes;
mg, stomach; mgc, "marginal groove"; pe, penis; sc, sucker; ut, uterus; vd, vasa
deferentia; ♀ , female genital aperture surrounded by the shell-gland; ♂ , male
aperture. (Semi-diagrammatic, and × 6.)

At low water Leptoplana may be found buried in mud or on the under surface of
stones, in pools where darkness and dampness may be ensured till the return of
the tide. It is, however, by no means easy to detect and remove it from the
encrusting Polyzoa, Ascidians, or Sponges with which it is usually associated. The
flat, soft, unsegmented body is so closely appressed to the substratum that its
presence is usually only betrayed by its movement, an even gliding motion of the
mobile body, which suggested the apt name "la pellicule animée" to Dicquemare.
The creeping surface is called ventral, the upper one dorsal, and as the broader
end of the body always goes first, it is anterior as opposed to the more pointed
posterior extremity. With a lens the characters shown in Figs. 1 and 2 may be
observed. The eyes are seen as black dots near the anterior end, and are placed
at the sides of a clear oval space, the brain. Along the transparent margin of the
body, the ends of the intestinal branches may be seen. These ramify from a lobed
stomach or main-gut, and should the specimen be mature, the "uterus" loaded with
eggs forms a dark margin round the latter (Figs. 1 and 2, ut). The ventral surface is
whitish, and through it the "pharynx," a frilled protrusible structure, may be dimly
observed. The "mouth,"[16] through which the pharynx at the time of feeding is
thrust out (Fig. 2, mo), is almost in the centre of the ventral surface. Behind this, a
white, V-shaped mark (vd) indicates the ducts of the male reproductive organs, and
still further back is the irregular opaque mark of the "shell-gland," by which the egg-
shells are formed (Fig. 2, ♀).
 Fig. 3.—Leptoplana tremellaris in the act of swimming. A, Seen from the right side
during the downward stroke (the resemblance to a skate is striking); B, from
above, showing the upward stroke and longitudinal undulations of the swimming
lobes; C, side view during the upward stroke; D, transverse sections of the body
during the strokes. × 5.

Leptoplana employs two kinds of movement, creeping and swimming. Creeping is

a uniform gliding movement, caused by the cilia of the ventral surface, aided
perhaps by the longitudinal muscular layers of this surface, and is effected on the
under side of the "surface-film" of water almost as well as on a solid substratum.
Swimming is a more rapid and elegant movement, employed when alarmed or in
pursuit of prey. The expanded fore-parts of the body act as lobes, which are
flapped rapidly up over the body and then down beneath it, undulations running
rapidly down them from before backwards. The action in fact is somewhat similar
to that by which a skate swims, a resemblance pointed out long ago by Dugès[17]
(Fig. 3).

We have few direct observations on the nature of the food of Leptoplana, or the
exact mode by which it is obtained. Dalyell,[18] who observed this species very
carefully, noticed that it was nocturnal and fed upon a Nereis, becoming greatly
distended and of a green colour after the meal, but pale after a long fast.
Keferstein[19] noticed a specimen in the act of devouring a Lumbriconereis longer
than itself, and also found the radulae of Chiton and Taenioglossate Molluscs in the
intestine. That such an apparently weak and defenceless animal does overpower
large and healthy Annelids and Mollusca, has not hitherto been definitely proved.
Weak or diseased examples may be chiefly selected. The flexible Leptoplana
adheres firmly to its prey, and the rapid action of the salivary glands of its mobile
pharynx quickly softens and disintegrates the internal parts of the victim. The food
passes into the stomach (Fig. 2, mg), and is there digested. It is then transferred to
the lateral branches of the intestine, and, after all the nutritious matters have been
absorbed, the faeces are ejected with a sudden contraction of the whole body
through the pharynx into the water.

Leptoplana probably does not live more than a year. In the spring or summer,
batches of eggs are laid and fixed to algae or stones by one individual, after having
been fertilised by another. Young Leptoplana hatch out in two to three weeks, and
lead a pelagic existence till they are three or four millimetres in length. In late
summer, numbers of such immature examples may be found among sea-weeds
and Corallina in tide pools. In the succeeding spring they develop first the male and
then the female reproductive organs.

Fig. 4.—Portion of a transverse section of Leptoplana tremellaris in the hinder part of

the body. × 100. bm, Basement (skeletal) membrane; cil, cilia; d.m, diagonal
muscles; d.v.m, dorso-ventral muscles; ep, epidermis; f.p, food particles; l.g,
lateral intestinal branches cut across; l.m ext, external, and l.m int, internal
longitudinal muscle layers; m.c, glandular (mucous) cells; md, their ducts; N,
longitudinal nerve; Nu, nuclei of the intestinal epithelium; ov, ovary; ovd,
oviduct; par, cells of the parenchyma; r.d, vasa deferentia, with spermatozoa;
rm, circular musculature; rh, rhabdites; sh, cells of the shell-gland; te, testes; ve,
vasa efferentia; y.c, "yellow cells." (After Lang.)

Anatomy of Leptoplana tremellaris.—Leptoplana may be divided into

corresponding halves only by a median vertical longitudinal plane. The body and all
the systems of organs are strictly bilaterally symmetrical. Excepting the cavities of
the organs themselves, the body is solid. A connective "parenchyma" (Fig. 4, par)
knits the various internal organs together, while it allows free play of one part on
another. These organs are enclosed in a muscular body-wall, clothed externally by
the ciliated epidermis, which is separated from the underlying musculature by a
strong membrane (Fig. 4, bm), the only skeletal element in the body.

Body-Wall.—The epidermis (Fig. 4, ep) is composed of a single layer of ciliated

cells, containing small, highly refractive, pointed rods or "rhabdites" (rh), and gives
rise to deeply-placed mucous cells (m.c), which are glandular and pour out on the
surface of the body a fluid in which the cilia vibrate. The tenacious hold on a stone
which Leptoplana exerts if suddenly disturbed, or when grasping its prey, is
probably due to the increased glutinous secretion of these glands, aided perhaps
by rhabdites, which on such occasions are shot out in great numbers. The
basement membrane is an elastic skeletal membrane composed of stellate cells
embedded in a firm matrix. It serves chiefly for the origin and insertion of the dorso-
ventral muscles (d.v.m). Under the basement membrane lies a very thin layer of
transverse muscular fibres (Fig. 4, rm), which are, however, apparently absent on
the ventral surface. Then follows a stout layer of longitudinal fibres (l.m ext), and
beneath this a diagonal layer (d.m), the fibres of which intersect along the median
line in such a way that the inner fibres of one side become the outer diagonal fibres
of the other. Lastly, within this again, on the ventral surface, is a second stout
longitudinal layer (l.m int). The sucker (sc, Figs. 2 and 5) is a modification of the
body-wall at that point. In addition to the dorso-ventral muscles, there exists a
complex visceral musculature regulating the movements of the pharynx, intestine,
and copulatory organs.

Parenchyma.—The spaces between the main organs of the body are filled by a
tissue containing various kinds of cells, salivary glands, shell-glands, and prostate
glands. Besides these, however, we find a vacuolated, nucleated, thick-walled
network, and to this the word parenchyma is properly applied. Besides its
connective function, the parenchyma confers that elasticity on the body which
Leptoplana possesses in such a high degree. Pigment cells are found in the
parenchyma in many Polyclads.

Digestive System.—The general arrangement of this system may be seen in Figs.

2, 5, and 7; and may be compared, especially when the pharynx is protruded, as in
Fig. 2, with the gastral system of a Medusa. The "mouth" (there is no anus) is
placed almost in the centre of the ventral surface. It leads (Fig. 7, B, phs) into a
chamber (the peripharyngeal space) divided into an upper and a lower division by
the insertion of a muscular collar-fold (the pharynx, ph), which may be protruded,
its free lips advancing, through the mouth (Fig. 2), and is then capable of enclosing
by its mobile frilled margin, prey as large as Leptoplana itself. The upper division of
the chamber communicates by a hole in its roof[20] (the true mouth, Figs. 5 and 7,
g.m) with the cavity of the main-gut or stomach (m.g), which runs almost the length
of the body in the middle line, forwards over the brain (Fig. 5, up). Seven pairs of
lateral gut-branches convey the digested food to the various organs, not directly
however, but only after the food mixed with sea-water has been repeatedly driven
by peristalsis first towards the blind end of the gut-branches and then back towards
the stomach. Respiration is probably largely effected by this means. The epithelium
of the intestine (Fig. 4, l.g) of a starving specimen is composed of separate
flagellated cells frequently containing "yellow cells."[21] After a meal, however, the
cell outlines are invisible. Gregarines, encysted Cercariae, and Orthonectida[22]
occur parasitically in the gut-branches.
An excretory system of "flame-cells" and fine vessels has hitherto been seen only
by Schultze[23] in this species, which will not, however, resist intact the
compression necessary to enable the details to be determined. They are probably
similar to those of Thysanozoon described on p. 25.

Nervous System.—The brain, which is enclosed in a tough capsule (Fig. 5, br), is

placed in front of the pharynx, but some distance behind the anterior margin of the
body. It is of an oval shape, subdivided superficially into right and left halves by a
shallow depression, and is provided in front with a pair of granular-looking
appendages, composed of ganglion-cells from which numerous sensory nerves
arise, supplying the eyes and anterior region. Posteriorly the brain gives rise to a
chiefly motor, nervous sheath (Fig. 5, nn), which invests the body just within the
musculature. This sheath is thickened along two ventral lines (Fig. 5, ln) and two
lateral lines (n.s), but is very slightly developed on the dorsal surface. Ganglion-
cells occur on the course of the nerves, and are particularly large at the point of
origin of the great motor nerves.
 Fig. 5.—Diagrammatic view of the structure of Leptoplana tremellaris
as a type of the Polycladida. The body is cut across the middle to
show the relative position of organs in transverse section. In the
posterior half the alimentary canal has been bisected and
removed from the left side, to exhibit the deeply placed nervous
sheath (nn) and the male reproductive organs. br, Brain; dp,
"diaphragm"; e, cerebral group of eyes; et, tentacular eye-group;
gr, marginal groove; gm, true mouth; lg, lateral gut-branch; ln,
longitudinal nerve stem; m, external mouth; mg, mg', main-gut,
whole, and bisected; n, sensory nerve supplying the eyes; nn,
nervous network lying on the ventral musculature; n.s, lateral
nerve; od, oviduct; ov, ovary; pe, penis (in section); ph, pharynx;
pr, prostate or "granule gland"; sc, sucker; sg, shell-gland; te,
testes; up, anterior unpaired gut-branch; ut, uterus; va, vagina (in
section); vd, vas deferens; ve, vasa efferentia; ♂ , male genital
pore; ♀, female pore.

Sense Organs.—Leptoplana possesses eyes, stiff tactile, marginal

cilia, and possibly a sense organ in the "marginal groove." The eyes,
which are easily seen as collections of black dots lying at the sides
of the brain, may be divided into two paired groups: (1) cerebral eyes
(Fig. 5, e), and (2) tentacle eyes (et), which indicate the position of a
pair of tentacles in allied forms (Fig. 8, A, t and B). Each ocellus
consists of a capsule placed at right angles to the surface of the
body in the parenchyma, below the dorsal muscles, and with its
convex face outwards. It is a single cell in which pigment granules
have accumulated. The light, however, can only reach the refractive
rods, which lie within it, obliquely at their outer ends. These rods are
in connexion with the retinal cells, and thus communicate by the
optic nerve with the brain. The cerebral eyes are really paired, and
are directed some upwards, some sideways, some downwards.

The "marginal groove" is a shallow depression of the epidermis (Fig.

5, gr) lined by cilia, and containing the ducts of very numerous gland-
cells. It runs almost parallel to the anterior margin of the body, a
short distance from it, but we have no observations on its functions.

Fig. 6.—Diagram of an eye of Leptoplana from the tentacle group. ×

600. (After Lang.)

Reproductive Organs.—Leptoplana is hermaphrodite, and, as in

most hermaphrodites, the reproductive organs are complicated. The
male organs are the first to ripen, but this does not appear to prevent
an overlapping of the periods of maturity of the male and female
products, so that when the eggs are being laid, the male organs are,
apparently, still in a functional state. The principal parts are seen in
Fig. 5. The very numerous testes (te) are placed ventrally, and are
connected with fine vasa efferentia (ve), which form a delicate
network opening at various points into the two vasa deferentia (vd).
These tubes, especially when distended with spermatozoa, may
easily be seen (Fig. 2, vd) converging at the base of the penis, and
connected posteriorly by a loop that runs behind the female genital
pore (Fig. 5). The penis (pe) is pyriform and muscular, and is divided
into two chambers, a large upper one for the spermatozoa, and a
smaller lower one for the secretion of a special "prostate" gland. The
apex of the penis is eversible and not merely protrusible, being
turned inside out when evaginated. The ovaries (Fig. 5, ov) are
numerous and somewhat spherical. They are dorsally placed, but
when fully developed extend deeply wherever they can find room to
do so, and they not only furnish the ova, but elaborate food-yolk in
the ova, as there are no special yolk-glands. The slender oviducts
(od) open at several points into the "uterus" (ut) (a misnomer, as no
development takes place within it), which encircles the pharynx, and
opens by a single duct into the vagina (va). Here the ova are
probably fertilised, and one by one invested by the shell-gland (sg)
with a secretion which hardens and forms a resistant shell. They are
then laid in plate-like masses which are attached to stones or shells.
The development is a direct one, and the young Leptoplana, which
hatches in about three weeks, has the outline of a spherical triangle,
and possesses most of the organs of the adult. After leading a
floating life for a few weeks it probably attains maturity in about nine
months.

Classification, Habits, and Structure of the Polycladida.

The Polyclads were so called by Lang on account of the numerous

primary branches of their intestine. They are free-living, purely
marine Platyhelminthes, possessing multiple ovaries, distinct male
and female genital pores (Digonopora), but no yolk-glands. The eggs
are small, and in many cases give rise to a distinct larval form,
known as "Müller's larva" (Fig. 12). The Polyclads, with one
exception,[24] fall into two sub-groups, Acotylea and Cotylea:—

Character. Acotylea. Cotylea.

Sucker A sucker absent.[25] A sucker always present
(Figs. 8, D, s; 7, A, sc).
 Mouth In the middle, or
behind the middle, of
the ventral surface.
Pharynx More or less intricately
folded.
Tentacles A pair of dorsal
tentacles usually
present.
Development Usually direct. Larva
when present, not a
typical Müller's larva.
In the middle, or in front
of the middle, of the
ventral surface.
Rarely folded. Usually
cylindrical or trumpet-
shaped.
A pair of marginal
tentacles (except in
Anonymus).
Müller's larva present.
Metamorphosis,
however, extremely
slight.

Fig. 8 shows that, starting with a member (A, D) of each division, in

which the mouth is almost in the middle of the ventral surface, and
the brain and sense organs somewhat remote from the anterior end,
we find in the Acotylea a series leading to an elongated form
(Cestoplanidae), in which the mouth, pharynx, and genital pores are
far back near the hinder end of the body; while in the Cotylea the
series leads similarly to the elongated Prosthiostomatidae, in which,
however, the pharynx and external apertures are in the front part of
the body. This view of the morphology of the Polyclads is due to
Lang, and is based on the assumption that the more radially-
constructed forms (Fig. 8, A, D) are the primitive ones.

Fig. 7.—Diagrammatic vertical longitudinal sections: A, Of

Prosthiostomum (type of Cotylea); B, of Leptoplana; C, of
Cestoplana (types of Acotylea). (After Lang.) These figures
illustrate the changes which follow the shifting of the mouth from a
 central position (B) to either end of the body. br, Brain; dphm,
"diaphragm"; gm, true mouth; lg, openings of lateral gut-branches;
m, mouth; mg, main-gut or stomach; mgbr, median gut-branch;
ph, pharynx; ph.m, aperture in pharyngeal fold; phs,
peripharyngeal sheath; sc, sucker; ♂, male, and ♀, female, genital
aperture.

Fig. 8.—Chief forms of Polycladida: A-C, Acotylea; D-F, Cotylea. A,

Planocera graffii Lang, nat. size; B, Stylochoplana maculata
Stimps, × 7; C, Cestoplana rubrocincta Lang, × 4⁄3; D, Anonymus
virilis Lang, × 3, ventral surface; E, Thysanozoon brocchii Grube,
nat. size; the head is thrown back and the pharynx (ph) is
protruded. F, Prosthiostomum siphunculus Lang, × 3. Br, Brain;
CG, cerebral eye group; DM, true mouth; Ey, marginal eyes; m,
mouth; MG, main-gut or stomach; P, dorsal papillae; Ph, pharynx;
s, sucker (ventral); T, tentacles; UP, dorsal median gut-branch. ♂,
male, and ♀, female, genital aperture, except in D, where ♂ refers
to the multiple penes. (After Lang and Schmidt.)

Classification of Polycladida.

ACOTYLEA.
 Family. Genus. British
Representatives.
Planocera (Fig. 8,
Planocera folium
A).
Grube. Berwick-
Imogine.
on-Tweed.
Planoceridae. Conoceros.
Stylochoplana
With dorsal tentacles. Stylochus.
maculata Quatref.
Mouth sub-central. Stylochoplana
Among brown
(Fig. 8, B).
weeds in
Diplonchus.
Laminarian zone.
Planctoplana.
Leptoplana
tremellaris O. F.
Müll.
Discocelis.
L. fallax Quatref.
Leptoplanidae. Cryptocelis.
Plymouth.
Without dorsal Leptoplana.
L. droebachensis
tentacles. Penis Trigonoporus.
Oe. Plymouth
directed backwards. ?Polypostia (see
Sound.
p. 27).
L. atomata O. F.
Müll. Doubtful
species.
Cestoplana (Fig. 8,
Cestoplanidae. C).
No tentacles. Body In Mediterranean
elongated. Penis and on French
directed forwards. side of the
Channel.
Enantiidae.
No sucker. No
tentacles. Main-gut Enantia.
very short. External Adriatic Sea.
apertures as in
Euryleptidae.

COTYLEA.
Anonymidae. Anonymus (Fig. 8,
Mouth central. No D).
tentacles. With two Naples (two
rows of penes. specimens).
Pseudoceridae. Thysanozoon (Fig.
Marginal tentacles 8, E).
folded. Mouth in Pseudoceros.
anterior half. Yungia.
Prostheceraeus
vittatus Mont. On
west coast.
P. argus Quatref.
Guernsey.
Cycloporus
Euryleptidae. papillosus Lang.
Tentacles usually Prostheceraeus. On Ascidians in
present and pointed, Cycloporus. 2-30 fms.
or represented by Eurylepta. Eurylepta cornuta
two groups of eyes. Oligocladus. O.F. Müll. On
Mouth close to Stylostomum. sponges and
anterior end. Aceros. shells, 2-10 fms.
Pharynx cylindrical. Oligocladus
sanguinolentus
Quatref.
O. auritus Clap.
Doubtful.
Stylostomum
variabile Lang.
Prosthiostomatidae.
Tentacles absent.
Body elongated.
Prosthiostomum
Pharynx long,
(Fig. 8, F).
cylindrical. Penis
with accessory
muscular vesicles.
Appearance and Size of Polyclad Turbellaria.—Polyclads are
almost unique amongst animals in possessing a broad and thin,
delicate body that glides like a living pellicle over stones and weeds,
moulding itself on to any inequalities of the surface over which it is
travelling, yet so fragile that a touch of the finger will rend its tissues
and often cause its speedy dissolution. The dorsal surface in a few
forms is raised into fine processes (Planocera villosa), or into hollow
papillae (Thysanozoon brocchii), and in very rare cases may be
armed with spines (Acanthozoon armatum,[26] Enantia spinifera); in
others, again, nettle-cells (nematocysts) are found (Stylochoplana
tarda, Anonymus virilis). Some Polyclads, especially the pelagic
forms, are almost transparent; in others, the colour may be an
intense orange or velvety black, and is then due to peculiar deposits
in the epidermal cells. Between these two extremes the colour is
dependent upon the blending of two sources, the pigment of the
body itself and the tint of the food. Thus a starved Leptoplana is
almost or quite white, a specimen fed on vascular tissue reddish.
Many forms are coloured in such a way as to make their detection
exceedingly difficult, but this is probably not merely due, as Dalyell
supposed, to the substratum furnishing them with food and thus
colouring them sympathetically, but is probably a result of natural
selection.

The largest Polyclad, the bulkiest Turbellarian, is Leptoplana gigas

(6 inches long and 4 in breadth), taken by Schmarda, free-
swimming, off the coast of Ceylon. The largest European form is
Pseudoceros maximus, 3½ inches in length and stoutly built. A
British species, Prostheceraeus vittatus, attains a length of from 2 to
3 inches. These large forms, especially the Pseudoceridae (pre-
eminently the family of big Polyclads), are brightly coloured, and
usually possess good swimming powers, since, being broad and flat,
they are certainly not well adapted for creeping rapidly, and this is
well shown by the way these Polyclads take to swimming when in
pursuit of prey at night. The size of any individual is determined,
amongst other factors, by the period at which maturity sets in, after
which probably no increase takes place. Polyclads apparently live
about twelve months, and mature specimens of the same species
vary from ½ inch to 2½ inches in length (Thysanozoon brocchii),
showing that growth is, under favourable conditions, very rapid.

Habits of Polyclad Turbellaria.—Polyclads are exclusively marine,

and for the most part littoral, animals. Moreover, there is no evidence
of their occurrence in those inland seas where certain marine
animals (including one or two species of otherwise characteristically
marine Rhabdocoelida, p. 46) have persisted under changed
conditions. From half-tide mark down to 50 fathoms, some Polyclads
probably occur on all coasts, but as to their relative abundance in
different seas we have very little accurate information. The southern
seas of Europe possess more individuals and species than the
northern, and probably the maximum development of the group
takes place on the coasts and coral islands of the tropics.[27] No
Polyclads have been taken below 60 fathoms; but their delicacy and
inconspicuousness render this negative evidence of little value. Six
truly pelagic forms, however, are known,[28] and these are interesting
on account of their wide distribution (three occurring in the Atlantic,
Pacific, and Indian oceans), and also from the distinct modifications
they have undergone in relation to their pelagic existence.

Whatever may be the interpretations of the fact, Polyclads are

notoriously difficult to detect, and this fact doubtless explains the
scanty references to them by the older naturalists who collected
even in tropical seas. Lang, who worked seven years at Naples,
added to the Mediterranean fauna as many Polyclads as were
previously known for all Europe, in spite of the assiduous labours of
his predecessors, Delle Chiaje and Quatrefages. Again Hallez,
collecting at Wimereux at low-water, obtained some twenty
specimens of Leptoplana tremellaris in an hour, while some other
collectors working by his side could only find two or three. Yet, even
making allowance for the difficulty of finding Polyclads, few of them
appear to be abundant.

Leptoplana tremellaris is frequently associated with colonies of

Botryllus, and if separated soon perishes, whereas the free-living
individuals are distinctly hardy (Hallez). A closely allied but possibly
distinct form lives upon the surface of the Polyzoon Schizoporella, on
the French side of the Channel, and cannot long endure separation
from its natural habitat, to which it is adaptively coloured. A striking
case of protective mimicry is exhibited by Cycloporus papillosus, on
the British coasts. This species, eminently variable in colour and in
the presence or absence of dorsal papillae, is usually a quarter of an
inch in length and of a firm consistency. Fixed by its sucker to
Polyclinid and other Ascidians, Cycloporus appears part and parcel
of the substratum, an interesting parallel to Lamellaria perspicua,[29]
though we are not justified in calling the Polyclad parasitic. Indeed,
though a few cases of association between Polyclads and large
Gasteropods, Holothurians, and Echinids are known,[30] there is only
one case, that of Planocera inquilina,[31] in the branchial chamber of
the Gasteropod Sycotypus canaliculatus, which would seem to bear
the interpretation of parasitism. The jet-black Pseudoceros velutinus
and the orange Yungia aurantiaca of the Mediterranean, are large
conspicuous forms with no attempt at concealment, but their taste,
which is not known, may protect them. Other habits, curiously
analogous with devices employed by Nudibranch Mollusca (compare
Thysanozoon brocchii with Aeolis papillosa), emphasise the
conclusion that the struggle for existence in the littoral zone has
adapted almost each Polyclad to its particular habitat.

As regards the vertical distribution of this group on the British coasts,

Leptoplana tremellaris has an extensive range, and appears to come
from deeper to shallower water to breed.[32] In the upper part of the
Laminarian zone, Cycloporus papillosus, and, among brown weeds,
Stylochoplana maculata are found. At and below lowest water-mark
Prostheceraeus vittatus, P. argus, and Eurylepta cornuta occur.
Stylostomum variabile and Oligocladus sanguinolentus, though
occasionally found between tide-marks, especially in the Channel
Islands, are characteristic, along with Leptoplana droebachensis and
L. fallax, of dredge material from 10 to 20 fathoms.
Locomotion.—Locomotion is generally performed by Polyclads at
night when in search of food, and two methods, creeping and
swimming, are usually employed—creeping by the cilia, aided
possibly, as in the case of some Gasteropod Mollusca, by the
longitudinal muscles of the ventral surface; and swimming, by
undulations of the expanded margins of the body. In the former case
the cilia work in a glandular secretion which bathes the body, and
enables them to effect their purpose equally well on different
substrata. The anterior region is generally lifted up, exploring the
surroundings by the aid of the tentacles, which are here usually
present. The rest of the body is closely appressed to the ground.

Swimming is particularly well performed by the Pseudoceridae,

certain species of Prostheceraeus, the large Planoceridae, some
Stylochoplana, Discocelis, and Leptoplana, and in the same manner
as in Leptoplana tremellaris (p. 9). In Cryptocelis, Leptoplana alcinoi,
and L. pallida, however, the whole body executes serpentine
movements like an active leech (e.g. Nephelis); a cross section of
the body would thus present the same appearance during the whole
movement. Many Polyclads, notably Anonymus (Lang), if irritated,
spread out in all directions, becoming exceeding thin and
transparent.

Fig. 9.—Discocelis lichenoides Mert. (after Mertens), creeping on the

inner side of a glass vessel by means of the lobes of the extended
and exceedingly mobile pharynx (ph). These lobes also serve to
enclose Crustacea (a), and one lobe may then be withdrawn
independently of the rest, back into the body (b). The brain (br)
and shell-gland (sg) are shown by transparency.
Discocelis lichenoides, Planocera graffii, and Anonymus virilis have
peculiar modes of progression. The first, according to Mertens, will
climb up the sides of a vessel by means of the expanded lobes of
the pharynx (Fig. 9, ph), a habit of considerable interest, since we
know that certain Ctenophores—Lampetia, for instance—progress
when not swimming on the expanded lobes of their "stomach."[33]
Planocera and Anonymus creep by extending parts of the anterior
margin and dragging the rest of the body behind. In consequence,
the brain and dorsal tentacles may come to lie actually behind the
middle of the body, and thus no definite anterior end or "head"
advances first. Along with this curious habit it may be noticed (Lang)
that the radial symmetry of the body is well marked; but even without
accepting this author's suggestion of the concurrent development of
a "head" with locomotion in a definite direction, the facts, whether
these two forms are primitive or not, are highly interesting.

Food.—Though we are probably right in calling Polyclads a

carnivorous group, the food of very few forms has been ascertained.
Those which possess a large frilled pharynx (most Acotylea)
probably enclose and digest large, and, it may be, powerful prey, as
appears to be the case in Leptoplana tremellaris. Cryptocelis alba
has been seen by Lang with the pharynx so distended, owing to a
large Drepanophorus (Nemertine) which it contained, as to resemble
a yolk-sac projecting from the under surface of an embryo. The
Cotylea such as Thysanozoon, with a bell- or trumpet-shaped
pharynx, are fond of fixing this to the side of the aquarium, but
whether they thus obtain minute organisms is not clear.
Prosthiostomum shoots out its long pharynx with great vehemence
(Fig. 8, F) and snaps up small Annelids by its aid (Lang). Those
Polyclads which, as Cycloporus and others, are definitely associated
with other organisms are not certainly known to feed upon the latter,
though "Planaria velellae" has been seen by Lesson[34] devouring
the fleshy parts of its host. The salivary glands which open on the
lips and the inner surface of the pharynx powerfully disintegrate the
flesh of the prey. Digestion takes place in the main-gut, and the
circulation of the food is accomplished by the sphinctral musculature
of the intestinal branches (conf. Leptoplana, p. 13).

Fig. 10.—Diagram of the musculature, causing peristaltic movements

of the intestinal branches of Polyclads. (After Lang.)

A distinct vent or anus is always absent. After a meal the faecal

matter collects in the main-gut, and is discharged violently by the
pharynx into the water. In a few species, however, the intestinal
branches open to the exterior (Lang). Yungia aurantiaca, a large and
abundant Neapolitan form, possesses such openings over the
greater part of the dorsal surface; Cycloporus papillosus has
marginal pores; Oligocladus sanguinolentus apparently possesses
an opening at the posterior end of the main-gut; and Thysanozoon
brocchii frequently rends at this point, in consequence of the
accumulation of food.

Respiration.—The oxygen of the atmosphere dissolved in the sea-

water is, in default of a special circulatory fluid, brought to the tissues
of Polyclads in two ways. The ciliated epidermis provides a constant
change of the surrounding water, by which the superficial organs
may obtain their supply; and the peristaltic movements of the
digestive system, aided by the cilia of the endoderm cells, ensure a
rough circulation of the sea-water, which enters along with the food,
to the internal organs. The papillae of Thysanozoon brocchii,
containing outgrowths of the intestinal branches, are possibly so
much additional respiratory surface, although still larger forms (other
Pseudoceridae) are devoid of such outgrowths.

Excretion.—The excretory system of only one Polyclad

(Thysanozoon brocchii) is accurately known. Lang, by compressing
light-coloured specimens, found the three parts of the system known