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Textbook Mechanical Measurements Thomas G Beckwith Ebook All Chapter PDF
Textbook Mechanical Measurements Thomas G Beckwith Ebook All Chapter PDF
Beckwith
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6 Sensors
Thomas G. Beckwith/Roy D. Marangoni/John H. Lienhard V . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . 191
7 Signal Conditioning
Thomas G. Beckwith/Roy D. Marangoni/John H. Lienhard V . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
10 Measurement of Pressure
Thomas G. Beckwilh/Roy D. Marangoni/John H. Lienhard V . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .... . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
12 Temperature Measurements
Thomas G. Beckwith/Roy D. Marangoni/John H. Lienhard V . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
13 Measurement of Motion
Thomas G. Beclcwith/Roy D. Marangoni/John H. Lienhard V . . . .... . . . . . . . . ... . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. . .. . ... . . . 563
INTRODUCTION
2 THE SIGNIACANCE OF M ECHANICAL M EASUREMENT
3 FUNDAMENTAL M ETHODS OF MEASUREM ENT
4 THE GENERALIZED MEASURING SYSTEM
s TYPES OF INPUT QUANTmEs
6 M EASUREMENT STANDARDS
7 CALIBRATION
8 UNCERTAINTY: ACCURACY OF RESULTS
9 REPORTING RESULTS
10 FINAL REMARKS
INTRODUCTION
It has been said, "Whatever exists, exists in some amount." The detennination of the amount
is what measurement is all about. If those things that exist are related 10 the practice of
mechanical engineering, then the de!ermination of their amounts conslilutes the subject of
mechanical measurements.1
The process or the act of measurement consists of obtaining a quantitative comparison
between a predefined standard and a measurand. The word measurand is used to designate
the particular physical parameter being observed and quanlified; that is, the input quantity
to the measuring process. The act of measurement produces a result (see Fig. I ).
The standard of comparison must be of the same character as the measuranid, and
usually, bu! not always, is prescribed and defined by a legal or recognized agency or
organization-for example, the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST),
fonnerly called the National Bureau of Standards (NBS), the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO), or the American Naiional Standards Institute (ANSI). The me:ter, for
example, is a clearly defined siandard of length.
Such quantities as temperature, strain, and the parameters associated with fluid flow,
acoustics, and motion, in addiiion to the fundamental quantities of mass, length, time, and
so on. arc typical of those within the scope of mechanical measurements. Unavoidably,
Processor
Measurand Result
(input)
comparison
(measurement) (readout)
3
The Process of Measurement: An Overview
answer, no perfect measure. "2 It is quite important that engineers interpreting the results of
measurement have some basis for evaluating the likely uncertainty. Engineers should never
simply read a scale or printout and blindly accept the numbers. They must carefully place
realistic tolerances on each of the measured values, and not only should have a doubting
mind but also should attempt to quantify their doubts. We will discuss uncertainty in more
detail in Section 8.
4
The Process of Measurement: An Overview
....-
Catibration Auxfliary power Auxiliary power
in�t Indicator
''
(not always required) (usually required )
'' ·� � - Recorder
Senses desired input to exclusion Modifies transduced signal into Provides an indication or
final stage. recording in form that can be
evaluated by an unaided human
of all others and provides fonn usable by
Usually increases amplitude
sense or by a control ler. Records
analogous output
and/or power, depending on
requirement. May also selectively data digitally on a computer
IDirect
alphanumeric readout
Hydraulic-pneunuuic: Buoyant Hydraulic-pneumatic: Piping. lndicalors (digital type):
float, orifice, venturi. vane, valving, dashpots, plenum
propeller chambers
Optical: Photographic film. Optical: Mirrors, lenses, optical Recorders: Digital printing, inked
photoelectric diodes and filters, optical fibers. spatial filters pen and chart, direct phot1>graphy.
transistors, phOlomultiplier tubes. (pinhole, slit) magnetic recording (hard disk)
holographic plates
Controllers: AU types
Stem
Compression
spring
Piston
Cylinder
(a)
- - ----- - - '
' '
-
'
-
'
Sensor-transducer
'
'
• Signal
:
Readout
Piston/cylinder Spring
'
concfiUoning
' (Scale and
Input
(Pressure lo (Fon:a lo '
: (None) '
pressure
lorce)
index)
displacement)
·- - - - - - - .. - - .!
(b)
FIGURE 3: (a) Gage for measuring pressure in automobile tires. (b) Block diagram of tire-gage
functions. In this example, the spring serves as a secondary transducer.
To illustrate a very simple measuring system, let us consider the familiar tire gage
used for checking automobile tire pressure. Such a device is shown in Fig. 3(a). It consists
of a cylinder and piston, a spring resisting the piston movement, and a stem with scale
divisions. As the air pressure bears against the piston, the resulting force compresses the
spring until the spring and air forces balance. The calibrated stem, which remains in place
after the spring returns the piston, indicates the applied pressure.
The piston-cylinder combination constitutes a force-summing apparatus, sensing and
transducing pressure to force. As a secondary transducer, the spring converts the force to
a displacement. Finally, the transduced input is transferred without signal conditioning to
the scale and index for readout [see Fig. 3(b)].
The Process of Measurement: An Overview
1. Static-<:<>nstant in time
2. Dynamic-varying in time
(a) Steady-state periodic
(b) Nonrepetitive or transient
Of course. the unchanging, static mcasurand is the most easily measured. If the system
is terminated by some form of meter-type indicator. the meter's pointer has no difficulty
in eventually reaching a definite indication. The rapidly changing. dynamic measurand
presents the real measurement challenge.
Two general forms of dynamic input are possible: steady-stale periodic input and
transient input. The steady-stale periodic quantity is one whose magnitude has a definite
repeating time cycle, whereas the time variation of a transient quantity docs not repeat .
"Sixty-cycle" line voltage is an example of a steady-slate periodic signal. So also are many
mechanical vibrations, after a balance has been reached between a constant input exciting
energy and energy dissipated by damping.
An example of a pulsed transient quantity is the acceleration-lime relationship accom
panying an isolated mechanical impact. The magnitude is temporary. being completed in
a matter of milliseconds, with the portions of interest existing perhaps for only a few
microseconds. The presence of extremely high rates of change, or wavefronts. can place
seven: demands on the measuring system.
l Although lhe accelerometer may be susceptible to an analysis of "stages" within i1self, we shall forgo such
an analysis in this ex.ample.
Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3
Sensor-lransducer Signal-conditioning system i Recording-readout system
I
I
I
I
i
I
Integrating I I Data-acquisition
Fitter circuit
Ampllller
computer
·Printer
Tlme,s
Computer graph
at every instant during its motion. A sensor that responds to velocity will produce: an output
signal having a time variation analogous to the time change in the auto's speed. We refer to
such a signal as an analog signal because it is analogous to a continuous physical process.
An analog signal has a value at every instant in time, and it usually varies smoothly in
magnitude.
Some quantities, however, may change in a stepwise manner between two distinct
magnitudes: a high and low voltage« on and off, for instance. The revolutions of a shaft
could be counted with a cam-actuated electrical switch that is open or closed, depending on
the position of the cam. If the switch controls current from a battery, current either flows
with a given magnitude or does not flow. The current flow varies discretely bet ween two
values, which we could represent as single digits: I (flowing) and 0 (not Hewing). The
amplitude of such a signal may thus be called digital.
Many electronic circuits store numbers as sets of digits-strings of ls and Os-with
each string held in a separate memory register. When digital circuits, such as those in
computers, are used to record an analog signal, they do so only at discrete points in time
. because they have only a fixed number of memory registers. The analog signal, which has
a value at every instant of time, becomes a digital signal A digital signal is a set of discrete
.
numbers, each corresponding to the value of the analog signal at a single specilfic instant
of time. Clearly, the digital signal contains no information about the value of tine analog
signal at times other than sample times.
Mechanical quantities-such as temperatures, fluid-flow rates, pressure, stress, and
strain-normally behave timewise in an analog manner. However, distinct advantages
are often obtained in converting an analog signal to an equivalent digital signal for the
purposes of signal conditioning and/or readout. Noise problems are reduced or s1Jmetimes
eliminated altogether, and data transmission is simpler. Computers are designed to process
digital information, and direct numerical display or recording is more easily accomplished
by manipulating digital quantities.
6 M EASUREMENT STANDARDS
As stated earlier, measurement is a process of comparison. Therefore, regardless of our
measurement method, we must employ a basis of comparison-standardized units. The
standards must be precisely defined, and, because different systems of units exist, the method
of conversion from system to system must be mutually agreed upon.
Most importantly, a relationship between the standards and the readout scale of each
measuring system must be established through a process known as calibration.
7 CALIBRATION
At some point during the preparation of a measuring system, known magnitudes of the input
quantity must be fed into the sensor-transducer, and the system's output behavior· must be
observed. Such a comparison allows the magnitude of the output to be correctly interpreted
in terms of the magnitude of the input. This calibration procedure establishes the correct
output scale for the measuring system.
By performing such a test on an instrument, we both calibrate its scale and prove its
ability to measure reliably. In this sense, we sometimes speak ofproving an instrument. Of
10
The Process of Measurement: An Overview
course, if the calibration is to be meaningful, the known input must i tsel f be derived from
a defined standard.
If the output is exactly proportional to the input (output = cons tant x input ), then
a single simultaneous observation of input and output will suffice to fix the constant of
proponionality. This is called single-point calibration. M ore often, however, multipoint
calibrations are used, wherein a number of different input values are applied. Multipoint
calibration works when the output is not simply proportional, and, more generally, improves
the accu racy of the calibration.
If a meas ur ing system will be used to detect a time-varying input, then the calibration
should ideally be made using a time-dependent input standard. Such dynamic cal i bration
can be di fficult, however, and astatic calibration, using a constant input signal, is frequently
substituted. Naturally, this procedure.is not optimal; the more nearly the calibration standard
corresponds to the measurand in all its characteristics, the better the resulting measurements.
Occasionally, the nature of the system or one of its components makes the introduc
tion of a sample of the basic input quantity di ffi cul t OI' impossible. One of the important
characteristics of the bonded resistance-type strain gage is the fact that, through quality con
trol at the time of manufacture, spot calibration may be appl ied to a complete lot of gages.
As a result, an indirect calibration of a strain-measuring system may be provided through
the gage factor s up p l ied by the manufacturer. Instead of attempting to apply a known unit
strain to the gage installed on the test s tructure-which , if possible, would often result in an
ambiguous situation-a resistance change is substituted. Through the predetermined gage
factor, the system's suain response may thereby be obtained.
a day-the average is very close to 60 Hz. The wandering is random and the moment
to-moment error in the frequency meter readout (from this source) is called
precision, or
random, error.
Randomness may also be introduced by variations in the measurand itself. If a
number of hardness readings is made on a given sample of steel, a range of readings will
be obtained. An average hardness may be calculated and presented as the actual hardness.
Single readings will deviate from the average, some higher and some lower. Of course,
the primary reason for the variations in this case is the nonhomogeneity of the crystalline
structure of the test specimen. The deviations will be random and are due to variations in
the measurand. Random error may be estimated by statistical methods.
9 REPORTING RESULTS
When experimental setups are made and time and effort are expended to obtain results, it
normally follows that some form of written record or report is to be made. The purpose
of such a reconl will determine its form. In fact, in some cases, several versions will be
prepared. Reports may be categorized as follows:
1. Executive summary
2. Laboratory note or tech nical memo
3. Progress report
4. Full technical report
S. Technical paper
Very briefly, an executive summary is directed at a busy overseer who wants only
the key features of the work: what was done and what was concluded, outlined in a few
paragraphs. A laboratory note is written to be read by someone thoroughly familiar with the
project, such as an immediate supervisor or the experimentalist himself or herself. A full
report tells the complete story to one who is interested in the subject but who has not been
in direct touch with the specific work-perhaps top officials of a large company or a review
committee of a sponsoring agency. A progress report is just that-one of possibly several
interim reports describing 1he current status of an ongoing project, which will eventually be
incorporated in a full report. Ordinarily, a technical paper is a brief summary of a project,
the extent of which must be tailored to fit either a time allotmenl at a meeting or space in a
publication.
Several factors are common to all the various forms. With each type, the first priority
is to make sure that the problem or project that has been tackled is clearly stated. There is
nothing quite so frustrating as reading details in a technical report while never being certain
of the raison d'etre. It is extremely importanl 10 make certain 1hat the reader is quickly
clued in on the why before one attempts to explain the how and the results. A clearly stated
objective can be considered the most important part of the report. The.entire report should
be written in simple language. A rule stated by Samuel Clemens is not inappropriate: "Omit
unnecessary adverbs and adjectives."
12
The Process of Measurement: An Overview
be sufficient, including a sentence or two statin g the problem . a block diagram of the
experimental setup, and some data presented either in tabular form or as a plotted diagram.
Any pertinent observations not directly evident from the data should also be included.
Sufficient information should be included so that the experimenter can mentally reconstruct
the situation and results I year or even years hence. A date and signature should always be
5
included and, if there is a possibility of important developments stemming from the work,
such as a patent, a second witnessing signature should be includL'<I and dated.
9.2 Full Report
The full report must relate all the facts pertinent to the p roj ect . II is even more important in
this case to make the purpose of the project comp le tel y clear, for the report will be read by
persons not closely assoc iated with the work. The full report should also include enough
detail to allow another pro fessional lo repeal the measurements and calculations.
One format that has much merit is to make the report proper-<he main body-short
and to the point, releg ati ng to appendices the supporting materials, su ch as data, detailed
descriptions of equipm ent, review of literature, sample calculations, and so on. Frequent
reference to these mate rial s can be made throughout the report proper, but the option to
peruse the de tai ls is left to the reader. This scheme also provides a good basis for the
technical paper, should it be planned.
93 Technical Paper
A primary purpose of a technical paper is to make known (to advertise) the work of the
writer. For this reason, two particularly important portions of the writing are the problem
statement and the results. Adequately done, these two item s will attract the attenti on of
other workers interested in the particular field , who can then make direct contact with the
writer{s) for additional details and discussion.
Space, number of words, limits on illustrat ions, and perhaps lime are all factors
m aking the preparation of a technical paper particularly challe n gin g . Once the problem
statement and the p ri mary results have been adeq uately established, the rem aining available
space may be used to summarize procedures, test setups, and the like.
10 FINAL REMARKS
An attempt has been made in th i s chapter to provide an overall preview of the problems
of mechan ical measurement. In conformance with Section 9, we have tried to state the
problem as fu lly as possible in only a few pages.
PROBLEMS
3. For the thermometer of Problem 2, specify how practical single point calibration may be
obtained.
4. Set up test procedures you would use to estim at e, with the aid only of your present judgment
and experience, the magnitudes of the common quant it ies list ed.
13
The Process of Measurement: An Overview
5. Consider the impac1 frame shown in Figure 5. Mass M, which travels along gui�le rails, is
raised to an initial height H and released from resl Discuss how you would me:asure the
mass velocity just prior to impacl wilh lhe leSI ilem in order to accounl for friction between
mass M and lhe guide rails.
I
H
Test
Item
INTRODUCTION
2 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF MEASUREMENT IN THE UNITED STATES
3 THE SI SYSTEM
4 THE STANDARD OF LENGTH
5 THE STANDARD OF MASS
6 TIME AND FREQUENcY STANDARDS
7 TEMPERATURE STANDARDS
B ELECTRICAL STANDARDS
9 CONVERSIONS BETWEEN SYSTEMS OF UNITS
10 SUMMARY
1 INTRODUCTION
The basis of measurement is the comparison between a measurand and a suitable standard.
In this article, we will take a clos er look at the establishment of standards.
The term dimension connotes the defini ng characteristics of an entity (measurand),
and the dimensional unit is the basis for quantification of the entity. For example, length is
a dimension, whereas centimeter is a unit of length; time is a dimension, and the second is
a unit of time. A dimension is unique; however, a partic ular dim ension--;ay, length-may
be measured in various units, such as feet, meters, inches, or miles. Systems of units must
be established and agreed to; that is, the systems must be standardized. Because there are
various systems, there must also be agreement on the basis for conversion from system to
system. It is clear, then, that standards of measurement apply to units, to systems of units,
and to unitary conversion between such systems.
In general terms, standards are ubiquitous. There are standards governing food prepa
ration, m arketing , professional behavior, and so on. Many are established and governed
by either federal or state laws. So that we may avoid chaos, it is especially important that
the basic measurement standards carry the authority of not only federal, but also interna
tional, laws.
In the following sections, we will disc uss those standards, systems of units, and
problems of conversion that are fundamental to mechanical measurement.
Prom Mechmiical Measunments, Sixth Edition, Thomas G. Beckwith, Roy D. Marangoni, John H. Lienhard V.
Copyright 0 2007 by Peanon Education. Inc. Published by Prentice HaU. All rights reserved.
15
Standards and Dimensional Units of Measurement
Constitution: "1be congress shall have power to . . . fix the standard or weights and mea
sures." Although Congress was given the power, considerable time elapsed before anything
was done about it. In 1 832, the Treasury Department introduced a uniform system or
weights and measures to assist the customs service; in 1 836, these standards were approved
by Congress [ 1 ) . In 1 866, the Revised Statutes or the United States, Section 35 69 , added
the stipulation that "It shall be lawful throughout the United States of America to employ
the weights and measures of the metric system." This simply makes it clear that the metric
system may be used. In addition, this act established the following (and now obsolete)
relation for conversion:
1 meter = 39.37 inches
The Office of Weights and Measures with the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury, will in
the future regard the international prototype meter and the kilogram as fundamental standards.
and the customary unils, the yard and pound, will be derived therefrom in accordan�-c with the
Act of July 28, 1 866.
The Mendenhall Order turned out to be a very important action. First, it recogn i zed
the meter and the kilogram as bei ng fundamental units on which all other units of length
and mass should be based. Second, it tied togeth er the metric and English systems of le n g t h
and mass in a definite relationship, thereby making possible international exchange on an
exact basis.
In response to requests from scientific and industrial sources, and to a great degree
influenced by the establishment or like institutions in Great Britain and Germany, 1 Congress
on March 3, 1901 passed an act providing that "The Office of Standard Weights and Measures
shall hereafter be known as 'The National Bureau of Standards"' [5). Expanded functions
of the new bureau were set forth and included development or standards, research basic to
standards, and the calibration of standards and devices. The National Bureau of Standards
(NBS) was formally established in July 1 9 1 0, and its functi ons were considerably expanded
by an amendme nt passed in 1 950. In 1 988, Congress changed the name of the bureau to
"The National Institute of Standards and Technology" (NIST) [6].
Commercial standards are largely regulated by state laws; to mainta in uniformity,
regular meetings (National Conferences on Weights and Measures) are held by officials
of NIST and officers of state governments. Essent i ally all state standards of weighL• and
measures are in accordance w i th t he Conference's standards and codes. International uni
fomtity is maintained through regularly scheduled meetings (held at about 6-ycar intervals),
1 The N11ional Physical laboratory. Teddington. Middlesex and Physikalisch-TL-chnische Reichsanstalt. 8raun
schweig.
16
Standards and Dimensional Units of Measurement
called the GeMral Conference on Weights and Measures and attended by representatives
from most of the industrial countries of the world. In addition, numerous interim meetings
are held to consider solutions to more specific problems, for later action by lhe General
Conference.
3 THE SI SYSTEM
3.1 Establishment of the SI System
The International System of Units, or SI System, has its origins in the Decimal Metric System
that was introduced at the time of the French Revolution. During the next two centuries,
metric systems of measurement continued to evolve, and they came to encompass both
mechanical and electrical dimensions. Finally, in 1 960, the Eleventh General Conference
on Weights and Measures formally established the SI System, consisting of dimensional
standards for length, mass, time, electric curren t, thermodynamic temperature, and luminous
inten sity. The Fourteenth General Conference on Weights and Measures ( 1 97 1 ) added the
mole as the unit for amount of substance, completing the seven dimensional system in use
today (7] .
The seven base units of the SI S ystem are listed in Table 1. Other dimensions can be
derived from these base units by multiplying or dividing them. A few such derived units
are assigned special names; others are not For example, the unit of force, the newton , is
obtained from the kilogram, the meter, and the second as
2
I newton = I kg/m . s
In contrast, area is simply meters squared (m2 ) . Work and energy are expressed in joules
(kg · m 2/s). The term hertz is used for frequency (s- 1 ) and the term pascal is used for
pressure (N/m 2 ). Some derived units carrying special names are listed in Table 2. and some
without special names are given in Table 3. Note 1hat, whereas those assigned special names
that originate from proper names are not capitalized, the corresponding abbreviations are
capitalized.
It should be clear that all the various derived units can be expressed in terms ofbase
units. In certain instances when a unit balance is attempted for a given equation. it may be
desirable, or necessary, to convert all vari ab les to base uni1s.
Unit
Name Symbol
Quantity
length meter m
mass kilogram kg
time second s
elcc1ric current ampere A
temperature kelvin K
amount of substance mole mol
luminous intensity candela cd
17
Standards and Dimensional Units of Measurement
Expressed in
Q uantity Unit Symbol Other Unit1a
plane angle radian rad m · m-1
2 2
solid angle steradian sr m . m-
frequency hertz Hz s-•
force newton N kg · mls2
pressure, stress pascal Pa N/m2
energy joule J N · m
power watt w J/s
electric charge coulomb c A · s
electric potential difference volt v W/A
electric capacitance farad F CN
electric resistance ohm 0 VIA
magnetic ftux weber Wb v. s
magnetic flux density tesla T Wblm2
inductance henry H Wb/A
To accommodate the writing of very large or very small values, lhe SI S:ystem defines
lhe multiplying prefixes shown in Table 4. For example, 2,500,000 Hz may be written as
2 .5 MHz (megahertz), and 0.000 000 000 005 farad as 5 pF (picofarad). Only one prefix
should be used with a given dimension; thus, it would be incorrect to write 2.5 lckHz in place
of 2 .5 MHz. Likewise, for units of mass, I 000 kg might be written as I Mg (megagram).
In lhe following seclions, we discuss lhe SI standards of length, mass, time, and
current in greater detail. The standards of luminous intensity and amount of subslance are
described in reference [7).
18
Standards and Dimensional Units of Measurement
19
Standards and Dimensional Units of Measurement
The meter is the length of the path traveUed by light in vacuum during a ti me interval of
11299,792,458 of a second
This definition has the profound effect of defi11ing the speed of light to be 299, 792,458 mis,
which had been the accepted experimental value since 1 975 [ 12).
This simpler relationship had already been used as an appro xi m at i on by e ng i neers for years .
The difference between these two standards may be written as
�
or 0.0002% , which is about in. per mile.
We gain a sense of the significance of the difference by con sidering the fo l l owing
situation. In 1959, the work of the United States National Geodetic Survey was based on the
39.37 inJm relationship and a coordinate system with its ori g in located in Kansas. Ch ang i ng
the relationship from 39.37 inJm (exactly) to 2.54 in .fem (exactly) would have caused
discrepancies of almost 1 6 ft at a distance of 1 500 miles. One can only i m ag i ne the confusion
over property lines if such a change had been made! This prob lem was resolved by defin i ng
separately the U.S. surveyfoot ( 1 2139.37 m) and the i11ternat(o11a/foot ( 1 2 x 2 .54 cm). The
survey foot is still used with U.S. geodetic data and U.S. statute miles [ 14).
20
Standards and Dimensional Units of Measurement
The kilogram is defined as the mass of the International Prototype Kilogram, a platinum
iridium weight kept at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures near Paris. Of
the basic standards, this remains the only one established by a prototype (by which is
meant the original model or pattern, the unique example, to which all others are referred
for comparison). Various National Prototype Kilogram masses have been calibrated by
comparison to the International Prototype Kilogram. These 1 asses n are in tum used by the
standards agencies of various countries to calibrate other standard masses, and so on, until
one reaches masses or weights of day-to-day goods and services.
Apart from the inconvenience of maintaining this chain of calibration, the definition
of the kilogram by an international prototype leads to several very fundamental problems:
The prototype can be damaged or destroyed; the mass of the prototype fluctuates by about
one part in 108 owing to gas absorption and cleaning; and the prototype ages i n an unknown
manner, perhaps having resulted in 50 µ.g of variation during the past century [ 1 5].
In recent years, considerable effort has been given to developing a new mass slandard
that can be reproduced in any suitably equipped lab, without the use of a prototype. One
approach being considered is to precisely detennine Avogadro 's number by mass and density
measurements of silicon crystals. This value of Avogadro's number could then be used with
an atomic unit of mass to define the kilogram as the mass of a specific number of atoms
[ 1 5 , l 6). An alternative approach, which promises somewhatbetter accuracy, uses a "moving
coil wall balance" to compare the mechanical and electrical power exerted on a current
carrying conductor that moves against gravity in a magnetic field. This technique leads to
a definition of the kilogram in terms of fundamental physical quantities [ 1 7, 1 8) .
The pound was defined in terms of the kilogram by the Mendenhall Order o f 1 893.
In 1 959, the definition was slightly adjusted ( 1 3 ], g iving the relationship still in use today :
Until 1 956, the second was defined as 1186,400 of the a verage period of revolution of the
earth on its axis. Although this seems to be a relatively simple and straightforward definition,
problems remained. There is a gradual slowing of the earth's rotation (about 0.001 second
per century) ( 1 9), and, in addition, the rotation is irregular.
Therefore, in 1 956, an improved standard was agreed on; the second was defined as
1 13 1 ,556,925.9747 of the time required by the earth to orbit the sun in the year 1 900. This is
called the ephemeris second. Although the unit is defined with a high degree of exactness,
implementation of the definition was dependent on astronomical observation, which was
incapable of realizing the implied precision.
In the 1 950s, atomic research led to the observation that the frequency of electro
magnetic radiation associated with certain atomic transitions may be measured with great
21
Standards and Dimensional Units of Measurement
repeatabil ity. One-the hyperfine transition of the cesium atom-was related to t he ephem
eris second with an estimated accuracy of two parts i n 109. On October 13, 1967, in Paris,
the Thirteenth General Co n ference on Weights and Measures offic ially adopted the follow
i ng definition or the second as the un it ofti me in the SJ System (7):
The second is the duration or 9 . 1 92,63 1 .770 periods or lhe radia1ion com:sponding 10 1he
lransition belween lhc lwo hyperline levels of lhe ground stale or the ce siu m 1 33 alom.
Alomic apparatuses, commonly c a lled "ato mic cloc ks ," are used to produce the fre
quency of the tra n s i tion (20). In a fountain clock (2 1 ), a gas of cesium atoms is introduced
into a vacuum chamber, where a set of laser beams is used to slow the molecular motion,
push i ng a gro up of atoms into a ball and coo li ng them to a temperature near absolute zero.
Another laser is then used to toss the ball of atoms upward into a microwave cavi ty, where
some of the atoms are excited to higher energy levels. When the ball falls again, yet another
laser is used to force the emi ss i o n of radi atio n . This radiation is detected, yielding the
s.
desired frequency. The be s t cesium standards reprod uce the second to an accuracy better
than one part in 1 0 1
7 TEMPERATURE STANDARDS
The basic unit of temperature, the kelvin (K), is defi ned as the fraction .11273 . 1 6 of the
thermod ynamic temperature of the triple point of water, the temperature at which the solid,
liquid , and vapor phases of water coexist in equilibrium. The degree Celsius (0C) is defined
by the re l ation ship
I = T - 273. 1 5
In 1 927, 1he national laboratories of lhe United S1a1es, Great Britain, and Germany
proposed a practical temperature slandard lhat became known as lhe International Tem
perature Scale (ITS-27). This standard, adopted by 31 nations, conformed as closely as
possible to the thermodynamic scale lhat had been proposed by Lord Kelvin in 1 854. It was
based on six fixed-temperature points dependent on physical properties of cenain maleri
als, including lhe ice and sleam poinls of water. Several revisions have since been made,
nolably in 1948, 1968, and 1 990. The praclical lemperature scale currently in effecl is lhe
International Temperature Scale of 1990 (ITS-90), adopted by the International Committee
on Weights and Measures and aulhorized by lhe Eighteenlh General Conference (24).
The ITS-90 defines a number of fixed reference temperalures points, some of which
are shown in Fig. 1 and Table S. Between these fixed points, elaborate inlerpolation equa
tions are specified by ITS-90 for use wilh lhe various interpolation slandards. From 0.6S K
to S.O K. 1he standard is based on measurement of lhe vapor pressure of helium and use of
1200
800
23
Standards and Dimensional U nits of Measurement
EA (T) exp(C2/ATrer) - I
EA (T,.r) = exp(C2/AT) - I
24
Standards and Dimensional Units of Measurement ·
where
the radiant energy emitted by the black body per unil lime, per
unit area, and per unit wavelength al a wavelenglh >., and at a
lemperature T or Tref, respeclively
0.0 14388 m · K
The radiant energy is typically measured by oplical pyromcuy. The unknown tempcralure
is lhen calculaled by comparing the emission of a source al lhe unknown 1emperature to
lhal from a source al lhe reference temperature.
The International Temperature Scale of 1990 thus establishes means of de1ermining
any lemperature from 0.65 K to more lhan 4000 K. In actual applications, lhe slandardiz.ed
pyrometer, the standardiz.ed resistance thermometer, or the standardized gas thermometers
are used as secondary standards for calibralion of working instruments. Apart from any
uncertainties introduced in the calibration procedures, lhe major uncertainlies in ITS-90
arise in realizing lhe fixed points. Al a lu level the uncertainties in lhe fixed-point temper
alures are ±0.5 to 1.5 mK for temperatures up 10 lhe mel1ing point of gallium, increasing
to ±60 mK at the freezing point of copper (25 ].
The temperature units of the English Engineering Sys1em are defined in 1erms of lhe
kelvin. Absolute tempera1ure takes units of degrees Rankine (0R). which differ from lhe
kelvin by a fac1or of 1 .8:
T(0R) = 1 .8 x T(K)
The degree Fahrenheit (0F) is defined b y sub1rac1ing 459.67 from 1hc 1empcra1Urc in degrees
Rankine:
T(°F) = T (0 R ) - 459.67
8 ELECTRICAL STANDARDS
In the SI System, all electrical unils originale from 1he defini1ion of the ampere. One
ampere is defined as lhe currenl 1ha1 produces a magnelic force of 2 x I o- 7 Nim on a pair
of lhin parallel wires carrying 1hat currenl and separalcd by one meler. The force on an
appropriate pair of conduc1ors can be measured direc1ly, using a so-called currenl balance
(26). The CUlTCnl may be then calculaled from 1he relalions of eleclromagnetic lheory. The
remaining electrical units, such as volts and ohms, can all be derived from the value of
lhe ampere and lhe mechanical unils of mass, l englh, and time, again usi ng the results of
elec1romagne1ic 1heory.
The meas11remen1 of currenl from the SI defini1ion of lhe ampere is cumbersome, j usl
as is the measuremenl of lemperature from the lhermodynamic 1emperature scale. Obtaining
the volt and the ohm from the SI definition is also difficult. Consequently, practical standards
are normally used in place of the SI definitions in order to obtain the voll and the ohm.
Tradilionally, lhe praclical realizalion of the volt was a so-called standard cell, an
electrochemical cell of relatively high stabilily. National standards laboralories mainlained
25
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tomber aux mains de l'ennemi, quelques hommes dévoués lui firent
un rempart de leurs corps, et, fuyant à bride abattue, furent assez
heureux pour l'emporter sain et sauf loin du théâtre du carnage[135].
Tout le reste se dispersa dans toutes les directions, ou succomba
sous les coups des Francs victorieux. Les Auvergnats venus sous la
conduite d'Apollinaire, fils de l'évêque Sidoine, furent presque
entièrement exterminés. Le chef parvint à fuir, mais la fleur de la
noblesse clermontoise resta sur le carreau[136], et les vainqueurs,
pour entrer à Poitiers, durent passer sur les cadavres de ces braves
catholiques, tombés pour la défense des persécuteurs de leur foi. A
neuf heures du matin, tout était terminé, et il n'avait pas fallu une
demi-journée pour mettre fin à la domination arienne en Gaule.
Néanmoins, la rencontre avait été des plus sanglantes, et quantité
de monticules disséminés dans la plaine marquèrent, pour les
générations suivantes, la place où les victimes de ce drame
dormaient sous le gazon[137]. Clovis alla se prosterner devant le
tombeau de saint Hilaire, pour remercier le grand confesseur de la
protection qu'il lui avait accordée pendant cette brillante journée;
puis il fit son entrée triomphale dans la ville, acclamé comme un
libérateur par la population.
[135] Grégoire de Tours, ii, 37.
[136] Grégoire du Tours, l. c.
[137] Ubi multitudo cadaverum colles ex se visa sit erexisse. Fortunatus, Liber de
virtutibus sancti Hilarii, 21.
Il avait, on s'en souvient, pris le territoire de Tours et de Poitiers sous
sa protection spéciale, par vénération pour les deux grands saints
dont lui-même implorait le secours dans cette campagne. Mais, dans
l'ivresse de la victoire, ses ordres ne furent pas toujours respectés,
et les bandes de soldats isolés qui se répandirent dans les environs,
pendant les premiers jours qui suivirent, purent se croire tout permis.
Quelques-uns d'entre eux arrivèrent, au cours de leurs pillages,
jusqu'au monastère qu'un saint religieux de la Gaule méridionale,
nommé Maixent, avait fondé sur les bords de la Sèvre Niortaise[138].
Il y vivait en reclus, dirigeant, du fond de sa cellule, les moines que
le prestige de sa sainteté avait groupés sous sa houlette. Effrayés
de l'arrivée des pillards, ils coururent supplier le saint homme de
sortir pour leur enjoindre de se retirer, et, comme il hésitait à rompre
sa sévère clôture, ils brisèrent la porte de sa cellule et l'en tirèrent de
force. Alors l'intrépide vieillard alla tranquillement au-devant de ces
barbares, et leur demanda de respecter le lieu saint. L'un d'eux, dit
l'hagiographe, tira son glaive et voulut l'en frapper; mais le bras qu'il
avait levé resta immobile, et l'arme tomba à terre. Ses compagnons,
effrayés, se sauvèrent aussitôt, regagnant l'armée pour ne pas
éprouver le même sort. Le saint eut pitié de leur camarade; il lui
frotta le bras d'huile bénite, fit sur lui le signe de la croix, et le
renvoya guéri. Voilà comment le monastère de Saint-Maixent
échappa au pillage[139].
[138] V. un épisode tout semblable dans l'histoire de la soumission de l'Auvergne
révoltée par Thierry I, en 532. Pars aliqua, dit Grégoire de Tours (Virtut. S. Juliani
c. 13) ab exercitu separata ad Brivatinsim vicum infesta proripuit. Et cela, bien que
Thierry eût défendu, lui aussi, de piller les biens de saint Julien. On a, dans les
deux cas, un exemple de l'espèce de discipline qui régnait dans l'armée franque.
[139] Grégoire de Tours, ii, 37. Sur cet épisode, voir G. Kurth, les Sources de
l'histoire de Clovis dans Grégoire de Tours, pp. 415-422.
Pendant que les destinées du royaume visigoth se décidaient dans
les plaines de Vouillé, l'armée des Burgondes pénétrait dans le
Limousin, et l'un de ses corps, commandé par le prince Sigismond,
mettait le siège devant une place forte qu'un écrivain appelle
Idunum, et dans laquelle il faut peut-être reconnaître la ville actuelle
d'Ahun[140]. La place fut prise d'assaut, et un grand nombre de
prisonniers tombèrent aux mains des soldats[141]. La jonction des
deux armées franque et burgonde se fit non loin de là, et les alliés
entrèrent bannières déployées dans la capitale des Visigoths. Au
bruit de leur arrivée, le concile de Toulouse, qui avait commencé à
siéger dans cette ville en conformité des résolutions prises l'année
précédente, se dispersa en toute hâte, sans avoir achevé ses
travaux et sans avoir pu rédiger ses actes[142]. La ville fut livrée à
toutes les horreurs du pillage et de l'incendie[143], et une grande
partie de l'opulent trésor des Visigoths, qu'on n'avait pas eu le temps
de mettre en lieu sûr, tomba aux mains de Clovis[144]. Ce trésor était
célèbre chez les populations du cinquième siècle; il avait sa légende,
et l'on en racontait mille choses merveilleuses. Là, sous la protection
du dragon qui, dans l'épopée germanique, est le gardien jaloux de
l'or, brillaient dans l'ombre les émeraudes et les autres joyaux du roi
Salomon[145], tombés au pouvoir des Romains après la prise de
Jérusalem par Titus, et enlevés par les Goths après le pillage de
Rome. Quoi qu'il faille penser de cette poétique généalogie, il est
certain que c'était alors la plus précieuse collection d'objets d'art qui
existât en Occident. On y rencontrait, avec les dépouilles de la
capitale du monde, tout ce que les Goths avaient ramassé au cours
des formidables razzias opérées par eux dans les plus belles et les
plus riches contrées de la Méditerranée. Les rois de Toulouse
aimaient à les visiter presque tous les jours, et à se délecter de la
vue de tant de chefs-d'œuvre du luxe et de l'art[146]. Maintenant, il
passait en une seule fois dans les mains de l'heureux Clovis. C'était,
aux yeux des barbares, le complément indispensable de toute
conquête, car la possession d'un royaume était à leurs yeux
inséparable de celle du trésor royal.
[140] Je sais bien que le nom ancien d'Ahun est Acitodunum; mais je ne vois pas
d'autre localité dont le nom ressemble davantage à Idunum, et puis, le texte du
Vita Eptadii est fort corrompu.
[141] Ex Vita sancti Eptadii (dom Bouquet, iii, 381).
[142] Krusch, dans la préface de son édition des lettres de Ruricius, à la suite de
Sidoine Apollinaire, p. 65, prouve contre Baluze que le concile de Toulouse eut
réellement lieu.
[143] Tholosa a Francis et Burgundionibus incensa. Chronique de 511 dans M. G.
H. Auctores antiquissimi, t. IX, p. 665. On voudrait savoir où Kaufmann, Deutsche
Geschichte et Arnold, Cæsarius von Arelate, p. 244, ont vu que Toulouse fut trahie
et livrée aux Francs par son évêque Héraclien.
[144] Grégoire de Tours, ii, 37: Chlodovechus... cunctos thesauros Alarici a
Tholosa auferens. Selon Procope, Bell. Goth., i, 12, ce trésor était conservé à
Carcassonne, et Théodoric le transporta à Ravenne. Je pense que la manière la
plus vraisemblable de faire disparaître la contradiction de ces deux témoins, c'est
de supposer qu'une partie du trésor avait été réfugiée à Carcassonne avant la
bataille de Vouillé.
[145] Procope, Bell. Goth., i, 12. Il faut remarquer qu'ailleurs le même Procope,
Bell. Vandal., lib. II, veut que le trésor de Salomon soit tombé dans les mains de
Genséric au pillage de Rome en 455, et emporté à Carthage, d'où Bélisaire l'aurait
envoyé à Justinien.
[146] Sidoine Apollinaire, Epist., i, 2.
Les résultats acquis au moment où l'hiver de 507 vint mettre fin aux
hostilités étaient plus beaux que l'on n'eût osé l'espérer. A part
quelques villes isolées, les Visigoths ne possédaient plus en Gaule
que les rivages de la Provence, entre le Rhône et les Alpes, et
quelques postes sur la rive droite de ce fleuve; car, si les
montagnards des Pyrénées tenaient encore, c'était par esprit
d'indépendance et non par fidélité à leurs anciens tyrans. Mais que
valait pour les vaincus la Provence, désormais détachée du royaume
par la perte de Narbonne, et qu'ils ne pouvaient ni défendre
efficacement ni même désirer de garder? D'ailleurs, elle semblait
faite pour d'autres maîtres. Les Burgondes avaient hâte de pénétrer
enfin dans ces belles contrées, qu'ils avaient si longtemps regardées
avec convoitise, et que la fortune des armes venait, semblait-il, de
leur livrer. Il n'est pas douteux, en effet, que la Provence ne fût le
prix dont les Francs allaient payer l'utile coopération de Gondebaud.
On peut se demander s'il n'y avait pas, de la part du roi franc, un
calcul insidieux dans cette répartition des provinces. Tout ce qui
avait été conquis pendant la campagne de 507 était resté à Clovis,
même les villes que Gondebaud avait prises seul, même les
contrées voisines de la Burgondie, où il aurait été si naturel de
donner des agrandissements à celle-ci! N'était-ce pas pour enlever à
Gondebaud jusqu'à la possibilité de s'étendre de ce côté qu'on l'avait
envoyé prendre Narbonne, tandis que le fils de Clovis était venu
soumettre à l'autorité de son père le Rouergue, le Gévaudan, le
Velay, l'Auvergne, en un mot, toute la zone qui confinait au royaume
de Gondebaud? Il est vrai qu'on lui promettait une compensation
magnifique: la belle Provence, cet Éden de la Gaule, cette porte sur
la Méditerranée ne valait-elle pas plus que les gorges des
Cévennes? Mais la Provence restait à conquérir, et c'est au moment
de faire cette difficile conquête que Clovis, regardant la guerre
comme terminée, partait de Bordeaux et prenait le chemin du retour!
Le roi des Francs, en quittant la grande cité qui lui avait donné
l'hospitalité pendant l'hiver, y laissait une garnison pour y affermir
son autorité, preuve qu'elle avait besoin de ce renfort, et qu'on se
remuait encore du côté de la Novempopulanie. Il est probable que le
retour eut lieu par les trois grandes cités qui n'avaient pas encore
reçu la visite des Francs: Saintes, Angoulême et Bourges. Nous
savons que Saintes ne fut pas prise sans difficulté, et que là, comme
à Bordeaux, le roi fut obligé de laisser une garnison franque[155].
Angoulême opposa également de la résistance, et, si l'on se
souvient qu'à ce moment la domination visigothique était à peu près
entièrement balayée de toute la Gaule, on conviendra que les Goths
de cette ville avaient quelque courage, ou les indigènes quelque
fidélité. Mais un événement qui n'est pas rare dans l'historiographie
de cette époque vint encore une fois à l'aide de l'heureux Clovis: les
murailles de la ville croulèrent devant lui, et l'armée franque y entra
sans coup férir[156]. Était-ce l'effet d'un de ces tremblements de terre
que les annales du vie siècle nous signalent différentes fois en
Gaule, ou bien la vieille enceinte, mal entretenue, manquait-elle de
solidité? On ne sait, mais les populations ne se contentèrent pas
d'une explication si naturelle, et elles voulurent que la Providence
elle-même fût intervenue pour renverser par miracle, devant le
nouveau Josué, les remparts de la nouvelle Jéricho. Clovis entra
dans la ville par cette brèche miraculeuse, en chassa les Goths et y
établit les siens[157]. Une légende ajoute que le roi, sur le conseil de
son chapelain saint Aptonius, avait fait élever en vue de la ville des
reliques de Notre-Seigneur, et qu'instantanément les murailles
s'écroulèrent. Pour récompenser Aptonius, Clovis, devenu maître de
la ville, après en avoir chassé l'évêque arien, l'y aurait intronisé à la
place de celui-ci, et contribué à l'érection de la cathédrale[158].
[155] In Sanctonico et Burdigalinse Francos precepit manere ad Gothorum gentem
delendam, Liber historiæ, c. 17.—La continuatio Havniensis de Prosper contient,
sous l'année 496, cette ligne énigmatique: Alaricus anno XII regni sui Santones
obtinuit. On en retiendra, dans tous les cas, que Saintes a été disputé.
[156] Grégoire de Tours, ii, 37.
[157] Tunc, exclusis Gothis, urbem suo dominio subjugavit. Grégoire de Tours, ii,
37. Selon Hincmar (Acta Sanctorum, t. I d'octobre, p. 154 B), et Aimoin, I, 22 (dom
Bouquet, t. III, p. 42), les Goths furent massacrés. Roricon, p. 18 (dom Bouquet, t.
III) embellit tout cela selon son procédé ordinaire, et A. de Valois, t. I, p. 298, a tort
de croire que cet auteur reproduit ici une source ancienne. Sur l'interprétation du
fait, je ne saurais être d'accord avec M. Malnory, qui écrit: «Angoulême, dit
Grégoire de Tours, vit tomber ses murs à l'aspect de Clovis: cela veut dire, sans
doute, que le parti catholique romain lui en ouvrit les portes.» Saint Césaire, p. 68.
Il n'y a, selon moi, à moins d'admettre le miracle, que deux manières d'expliquer le
fait: ou bien il y a eu un événement naturel qui a été regardé comme miraculeux,
ou bien nous sommes en présence d'une invention pure et simple. Si les
catholiques avaient livré la ville au roi, ils s'en seraient vantés, et Grégoire l'aurait
su.
[158] Historia Pontificum et comitum Engolismensium, dans Labbe, Bibliotheca
nova manuscriptorum, t. II, p. 249.
D'Angoulême, Clovis revint par Poitiers, et de là il arriva à Tours.
Selon toute apparence, ce n'était pas la première fois qu'il mettait le
pied dans cette ville fameuse[159], à laquelle le tombeau de saint
Martin faisait alors une célébrité sans pareille dans la Gaule entière.
[159] Voir ci-dessus, p. 323.
Tours était un municipe romain de dimensions médiocres, dont la
massive enceinte circulaire subsiste encore aujourd'hui aux environs
de la cathédrale Saint-Gatien, et qu'un pont de bateaux mettait en
communication avec la rive droite de la Loire. La vie chrétienne y
avait commencé dès avant les persécutions; mais c'est seulement
après la paix religieuse qu'on avait pu fonder au milieu de la ville le
premier sanctuaire, bâti sur l'emplacement de la maison d'un riche
chrétien. Quand saint Martin était venu, Tours et son diocèse avaient
été transformés rapidement par son fécond apostolat. La cathédrale
avait été agrandie, des églises rurales élevées dans les principales
localités avoisinantes, un monastère, Marmoutier, avait surgi dans
les solitudes sur l'autre rive; le paganisme avait été totalement
exterminé, et la Touraine jouissait d'un degré de civilisation bien rare
à cette époque dans la Gaule centrale. Mort, saint Martin continua
de présider à la vie religieuse de son diocèse, qui se concentrait
autour de son tombeau, et y attirait d'innombrables pèlerins.
Ce tombeau se trouvait à dix minutes à l'ouest de la ville, le long de
la chaussée romaine. Il fut d'abord recouvert d'un modeste oratoire
en bois, que l'évêque saint Perpet, au ve siècle, remplaça par une
spacieuse basilique. L'érudition moderne a reconstitué le plan de ce
sanctuaire fameux. C'était une basilique à la romaine, avec une
abside en hémicycle au fond, et, de chacun des deux côtés longs,
deux étages de colonnes dont le premier était supporté par une
architrave, et qui reliaient les nefs latérales à celle du milieu. Le
transept était éclairé par une tour-lanterneau surmontée d'un
campanile. Le corps du saint gisait à l'entrée du chœur, les pieds
tournés vers l'Orient, la tête regardant l'autel; ses successeurs
dormaient autour de lui dans des arcosolium qui reçurent, au ve et
vie siècle, la plupart des évêques de Tours. Tous les murs étaient
ornés d'inscriptions poétiques dues à Sidoine Apollinaire et à Paulin
de Périgueux, qui les avaient composées à la demande de saint
Perpet. Ainsi les derniers accents de la poésie classique
magnifiaient le confesseur, pendant que les cierges et les lampes
flambaient en son honneur autour de sa tombe, et que la foule des
malheureux et des suppliants, prosternée devant l'autel, l'invoquait
avec ferveur, et entretenait dans le lieu saint le bourdonnement
vague et confus d'une prière éternelle.
Devant l'entrée occidentale de l'édifice, un atrium ou cour carrée
servait de vestibule à l'église: il était entouré de portiques et de
bâtiments de toute espèce, notamment de cellules où les pèlerins
étaient admis à passer la nuit. Des croix de pierre, des édicules
contenant des reliques, de petits monuments élevés en mémoire de
guérisons miraculeuses garnissaient le pourtour. Cette cour, qui
participait de l'immunité du lieu saint et qui avait comme lui le droit
d'asile, était le rendez-vous de la foule des fidèles et des simples
curieux. Les marchands s'y tenaient auprès de leurs établis, et
faisaient de leur mieux pour attirer la clientèle; les pèlerins, assis à
l'ombre des hautes murailles, y consommaient leurs provisions; des
amuseurs populaires groupaient autour d'eux des auditoires peu
exigeants qui s'égayaient de leurs récits ou de leurs gestes, et une
animation assez profane, tempérée pourtant par le respect du lieu
saint, y distrayait de la ferveur et des supplications de l'intérieur[160].
[160] Une restitution de la basilique Saint-Martin a été tentée plusieurs fois; la plus
célèbre est celle de Jules Quicherat, publiée dans la Revue archéologique, 1869
et 1870, et rééditée dans les Mélanges d'archéologie et d'histoire du même auteur.
(Cf. Lecoy, Saint Martin, p. 468 et suiv.) Depuis lors, de nouvelles recherches,
appuyées sur des fouilles récentes, ont fait faire un pas à la connaissance du
monument et modifié sur quelques points les conclusions de Quicherat. Voir un
aperçu de ces derniers travaux dans l'article de M. de Grandmaison (Bibliothèque
de l'école des Chartes, t. LIV, 1893). Je me suis rallié, sur plusieurs points, aux
vues de M. de Lasteyrie dans son mémoire intitulé: L'église Saint Martin de Tours.
Étude critique sur l'histoire et la forme de ce monument du cinquième au onzième
siècle (Mémoires de l'Académie des Inscriptions et des Lettres, t. XXXIV, 1892).
Tel était ce sanctuaire, l'un des grands centres de la prière humaine,
un des foyers les plus ardents de la dévotion catholique. Entouré
dès lors d'une agglomération naissante, et visité par des flots de
pèlerins de tous pays, il constituait comme une Tours nouvelle à côté
de la première, qu'il vivifiait et qu'il contribuait à enrichir. Clovis y
était ramené par la reconnaissance, par la piété, par un vœu peut-
être, et aussi par cet intérêt particulier, fait de curiosité et
d'admiration, qu'inspirent toujours les grandes manifestations de la
vie religieuse des peuples. Sa première visite fut donc pour le
tombeau du saint; il y fit ses dévotions et combla l'église de riches
présents. Selon un pieux usage de cette époque, il avait notamment
donné son cheval de guerre à la mense des pauvres de l'église, sauf
à le racheter presque aussitôt. La légende rapporte que lorsqu'il
offrit, pour prix de rachat, l'énorme somme de cent pièces d'or, la
bête ne voulut pas bouger de l'écurie: il fallut que le roi doublât le
chiffre pour qu'elle consentît à se laisser emmener. Alors Clovis
aurait dit en plaisantant:
«Saint Martin est de bon secours, mais un peu cher en affaires[161].»
[161] Liber historiæ, c. 17.
Voilà, probablement, le premier bon mot de l'histoire de France: il a
l'authenticité de tous les autres.
Une grande nouvelle attendait Clovis à Tours, ou vint l'y rejoindre
peu de temps après son entrée dans cette ville. Satisfait de la
campagne de son allié, et voulant resserrer les liens qui l'unissaient
à lui, l'empereur Anastase lui envoyait les insignes du consulat
honoraire. C'était une distinction des plus enviées, car les dignités
honoraires avaient le même prestige que les effectives, et la remise
des insignes était entourée d'un cérémonial imposant. Le roi reçut
l'ambassade byzantine dans la basilique de Saint-Martin, et se laissa
offrir successivement le diplôme consulaire enfermé dans un
diptyque d'ivoire, la tunique de pourpre, le manteau ou chlamyde de
même couleur, et enfin le diadème d'or[162]. Puis il remercia les
ambassadeurs, revêtit la tunique et la chlamyde, se coiffa du
diadème, monta à cheval à la porte de l'atrium[163], et de là
s'achemina solennellement, au milieu d'un grand cortège, jusqu'à la
cathédrale, jetant de l'or et de l'argent au peuple accouru pour
assister à un spectacle aussi pompeux.
[162] Igitur ab Anastasio imperatore codecillos de consolato accepit, et in basilica
beati Martini tunica blattea indutus et clamide, imponens vertice diademam... et ab
ea die tamquam consul aut augustus est vocitatus. Grégoire de Tours, ii, 38. Le
Liber historiæ, c. 17, et Hincmar, Vita sancti Remigii (dom Bouquet, III, p. 379),
reproduisent Grégoire de Tours. Le grand prologue de la Loi salique donne à
Clovis le titre de proconsul (Pardessus, Loi salique, p. 345). Aimoin (I, 22) croit
savoir que Clovis reçut le titre de patricius Romanorum (dom Bouquet, III, p. 42),
et Roricon (dom Bouquet, III, p. 19) dit: et non solum rex aut consul sed et
augustus ab eodem imperatore jussus est appellari. Il est inutile de dire qu'on doit
purement et simplement s'en tenir à Grégoire de Tours. Pour l'inscription runique
de La Chapelle-Saint-Éloi, où Clovis est appelé Konung Chloudoovig consoul
(Leblant, Inscriptions chrétiennes de la Gaule, I, p. 215), c'est une indigne
supercherie.
[163] L'atrium lui-même étant un endroit sacré, on n'y montait pas à cheval. Voir
Grégoire de Tours, Gloria martyrum, c. 60.