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Opportunistic
Networking
Vehicular, D2D, and Cognitive
Radio Networks
Opportunistic
Networking
Vehicular, D2D, and Cognitive
Radio Networks
Edited by
Nazmul Siddique
Syed Faraz Hasan
Salahuddin Muhammad Salim Zabir
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable
efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher can-
not assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The
authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in
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been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know
so we may rectify in any future reprint.
Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced,
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Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and
are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
Editors................................................................................................................vii
Contributors........................................................................................................ix
1 Introduction............................................................................................1
SYED FARAZ HASAN, NAZMUL SIDDIQUE, AND
SALAHUDDIN MUHAMMAD SALIM ZABIR
v
vi ◾ Contents
Index............................................................................................................315
Editors
Syed Faraz Hasan is with the School of Engineering and Advanced Technology
at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand, where he leads the
Telecommunication and Network Engineering research group. He also sits on
the Prime Minister’s Chief Science Advisor’s panel on Science Policy Exchange. He
holds a PhD from the University of Ulster, Coleraine, UK, and a bachelor’s degree
in engineering (with distinction) from the NED University of Engineering and
Technology, Karachi, Pakistan. He frequently reviews book proposals and journal
and conference articles for reputed publishers. His main expertise is in wireless
networks with more specific interests in 5G networks and device-to-device com-
munication. His ongoing research has appeared in several newspapers including
those in New Zealand, India, and the United States.
vii
viii ◾ Editors
ix
x ◾ Contributors
Introduction
Syed Faraz Hasan, Nazmul Siddique, and
Salahuddin Muhammad Salim Zabir
Contents
1.1 Introduction..................................................................................................1
1.2 Mobile Ad Hoc Networks.............................................................................2
1.3 Opportunistic Networking...........................................................................3
1.3.1 Opportunistic Vehicular Communication.........................................4
1.3.2 Routing in Opportunistic Networks..................................................5
1.4 Applications..................................................................................................6
1.4.1 Smart Environments..........................................................................6
1.4.2 Smart Homes.....................................................................................7
1.4.3 Smart Cities ......................................................................................8
1.4.4 Smart Agriculture..............................................................................8
1.4.5 Smart Health Care.............................................................................9
1.4.6 Emergency Communications: An Introduction to
Never-Die Networks..........................................................................9
1.5 The Road Ahead..........................................................................................10
References............................................................................................................10
1.1 Introduction
The concept of interconnecting computer systems began in the 1970s when a few
academic institutes in the United States wanted to share data. This culminated in
the development of Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET),
which connected four academic institutions together. The successful deployment
and operation of ARPANET gave rise to limitless discussion on how information
1
2 ◾ Opportunistic Networking
N2
N5
N1
N3 N4
Figure 1.1 A MANET comprising 11 nodes. Node 1 uses Nodes 2–4 as relays to
convey information to Node 5.
Introduction ◾ 3
VANET
Context information may include users’ behaviors, their mobility patterns, network
demands, and so on. Context information can be useful for selecting an appropriate
set of forwarders to achieve better routing services in a rapidly changing environment.
Based on the use of context information, Chapter 5 classifies routing protocols into
three categories and comparatively analyzes them. Several examples are drawn from
each category to explain the main concept behind routing and its use of context infor-
mation. Towards the end, this chapter introduces a few recent projects that aim to
analyze the routing issues pertinent to opportunistic networking scenarios.
The end of Chapter 5 also concludes the first half of this book, which describes
the basic theory and operation of new networking paradigms. The second half of
this book is dedicated to exploring the application of these concepts in a number
of scenarios.
1.4 Applications
The use of state-of-the-art communications technology can help raise the standard
of living for people across the world. Following this theme, the second half of this
book considers the use of technology in a number of daily life setups. The book
discusses the notion of smart environments in the context of our homes, cities,
hospitals, and so on. Smart agriculture is also discussed in this half of the book,
as a large number of countries are driven by their agricultural products. The topics
covered in the second half are outlined in the following subsections.
Figure 1.3 A conceptual block diagram describing the hierarchy of smart entities.
Central
Gateway management
system
Figure 1.4 A smart farm that comprises sensors deployed on land and mounted
on animals. All sensors send data to the central server via the gateway, where it
is processed.
References
1. A. Zemlianov and G. de Veciana, Capacity of Ad Hoc Wireless Networks With
Infrastructure Support, IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Communications, 23(3),
2005.
2. P. Li, Y. Fang, J. Li and X. Huang, Smooth Trade-Offs between Throughput and
Delay in Mobile Ad Hoc Networks, IEEE Transactions on Mobile Computing, 11(3),
2012.
3. Y. Lu, X. Li, Y.-T. Yu and M. Gerla, Information-Centric Delay-Tolerant Mobile
Ad-Hoc Networks, IEEE INFOCOM Workshops, 2014.
Introduction ◾ 11
24. N. Uchida, K. Takahata, Y. Shibata and N. Shiratori, A Large Scale Robust Disaster
Information System based on Never Die Network, IEEE International Conference
on Advanced Networking and Applications, 2012.
25. N. Uchida, K. Takahata, Y. Shibata and N. Shiratori, Evaluation of Never Die
Network for a Rural Area in an Ultra Large Scale Disaster, 6th International
Conference on Complex, Intelligent and Software Intensive Systems, 2012.
Chapter 2
Opportunistic
Networking:
An Application
Abdolbast Greede and Stuart M. Allen
Contents
2.1 Wireless Mobile Communication................................................................14
2.1.1 Infrastructure-Based Communication.............................................14
2.1.2 Infrastructureless Communication..................................................15
2.2 Opportunistic Networks.............................................................................17
2.2.1 Characteristics of Opportunistic Networks.....................................17
2.3 Data Delivery in Opportunistic Networks..................................................18
2.3.1 Forwarding Protocols.......................................................................19
2.3.1.1 Flooding-Based Protocols..................................................19
2.3.1.2 Context-Based Protocols....................................................20
2.3.2 Data Dissemination Protocols.........................................................21
2.4 Repository-Based Data Dissemination System............................................22
2.4.1 Repository-Based Data Dissemination Design Assumptions............24
2.4.2 Repository-Based Data Dissemination Architecture........................25
2.4.2.1 Data Object Management.................................................25
2.4.2.2 User Preference Management............................................27
2.4.2.3 Dissemination Protocol.....................................................28
2.4.2.4 Repository Placement........................................................29
2.5 Repository-Based Data Dissemination for Opportunistic Networking ......32
2.5.1 Performance Metrics........................................................................33
13
14 ◾ Opportunistic Networking
Recent years have seen an explosive growth in data-hungry mobile services, includ-
ing social networking, video conferencing, photos, and streaming video, m otivating
the design of more efficient networking technologies. Opportunistic networking
(OppNet) has emerged as a potential solution; however, there remain several different
research issues that need to be addressed before mainstream adoption is practical.
In an OppNet, mobile nodes are able to communicate without an available end-to-end
path or explicit knowledge of the network topology. Instead, mobile devices carry
data until an opportunity arises to forward it to a peer via a short-range wireless link.
The start of this chapter discusses wireless mobile communication in general, before
giving an overview of OppNets and their applications in the context of general wire-
less communications. The specific problem of efficient data delivery in OppNets is
then considered, addressing the limitations of current approaches and what is needed
to overcome these. Finally, repository-based data dissemination (RDD) is introduced
as a proposed approach to improve data delivery in practical OppNets.
(e.g., cellular network). This kind of network is limited to the regions where such an
infrastructure is deployed and by the bandwidth provided by the network. The sec-
ond approach is infrastructureless wireless communication, wherein mobile devices
communicate with each other either directly (when a pair of devices are within
mutual transmission range) or indirectly (a multihop network). Most wireless
mobile devices nowadays can support both types of wireless networks, as can be
seen in smartphones that are equipped with a Global System for Mobile communi-
cation (GSM) [1] (infrastructure), Wi-Fi, and Bluetooth (infrastructureless) wire-
less networks.
The most widely used infrastructure wireless networks are cellular. When
the first-generation (1G) cellular network was commercially introduced in the
United States in 1983 [1], voice communication was the main servicep rovided.
However, the great advances in wireless technologies have taken mobile devices
beyond this classic use as a voice communication tool to also encompass data
communication. In fact, mobile users’ demand for content is increasing,
driven particularly by streaming multimedia and the growth of user-generated
content, which has led to cellular networks shifting toward data-oriented
services. This direction is clearly seen in the third-generation (3G) cellular net-
work standard, which has a higher data rate and data-oriented services, com-
pared to the second-generation (2G) standard, which has a low data rate and
voice-oriented services [1,2].
Although the bandwidth provided by 3G to some extent solves the problem of
mobile users’ data demands, continuous advances in smartphones, the fast-growing
number of users for new social network applications such as Facebook and Twitter,
and an increase in user-generated content (i.e., more sharing between users) have led
to increased demand for data. There is thus a need for a new cellular network stan-
dard that provides a better data rate. For this reason, in October 2009, six technolo-
gies were submitted to the International Telecommunications Union (ITU) seeking
approval as the fourth-generation (4G) communications standard [3]. In January
2012, two of the six technologies—namely LTE Advanced and WirelessMAN
Advanced (known as WiMAX )—were approved as official platforms for 4G. 4G
represents a big shift in data rate, which can peak at 1 Gb/s compared to 10 Mb/s
for 3G. Although the 4G standard could solve the data rate problem, it still requires
the mobile user to be attached to the network infrastructure to enjoy the benefits of
the new standard. In addition to this infrastructure requirement, cellular network
providers usually apply expensive charges for the use of their bandwidth. Although
the cost problem may be solved at some stage, the infrastructure requirement is still
hard to guarantee.
[2] Kasteentoistaja.
— Mistä?
— On, siitä asti kuin olin tuon pituinen, sanoi Margit ja piti kättään
jonkun verran lattiaa ylempänä.
— Ah Margit!
*****
"Suoraan sydämestä" seura oli koossa. Istuntoa pidettiin nyt
niinkuin ennen Gudmund mestarin tilavassa, somasti sisustetussa
maalarimajassa. Maalikupposet, siveltimet ja muut maalarinkalut oli
korjattu pois omaan kaappiinsa, jonka ovilautaan joku tuntematon
taiteilija edelliseltä vuosisadalta oli kuvannut Luukas evankelistan
paraillaan tekemässä pyhän neitsyen muotokuvaa. Toiseen isoon,
runsailla veistokuvilla koristettuun kaappiin oli mestari pannut ne
pergamentit, jotka hän viimeksi oli maalannut siellä ennestään
säilytettyjen lisäksi. Hän oli aina ollut ujo näyttämään teoksiaan; nyt
oli Lauri puheellansa "tuhrimisesta" saanut hänet kauhistumaan sitä.
— Minä en tiennyt, sanoi esimunkki, että syyt ovat niin tukevia tai
— olkoon minun kannaltani sanottuna — niin vietteleviä. Kuinka
niiden laita nyt lieneekään, niin en voi pelkäämättä odottaa sitä
aikaa, jolloin moni ja ehkäpä selvimmät päät juuri tuon selvyyden
takia tulevat suosimaan ja julistamaan tätä maailmankäsitystä ja
siten syntyy sota raamatun käsitystapaa vastaan. Ja tuo sota tulee
nähdäkseni käymään syviin syihin asti ja koskemaan korkeimpia
uskonnon kysymyksiä, semmoisia kuin kuolevaisten pelastusta ja
kuoleman kukistamista Herramme Jesuksen kautta. Tämä
pelastustyö on, sanoo Paavali, yliyltäinen merkitykseltään ja käsittää
itseensä sekä maanyliset että maanalaiset. Mutta jos nyt maa on
kiertotähti kiertotähtien joukossa, ja jos lienee olemassa, kuten
Svante veli äsken viittasi, lukemattomia aurinkokuntia, joilla myöskin
on kullakin omat kiertotähtensä, niin tästäpä liiankin usea meistä
johtanee sen päätelmän, että ihmisen Jesuksen kuolema tällä
tähtipallolla ei saata koskea noita monia äärettömässä maailman
avaruudessa asuvia kuolonalaisia sukukuntia, eipä olla niille
tunnettunakaan. Minua hirvittää tämmöinen mahdollisuus, mutta
lohdutan itseäni sillä tiedolla, että meidän kohtalomme on Sen
käsissä, joka johtaa meitä totuuteen ja on tienä siihen.