MAJOR PROJECT REPORT

ON

“STUDY OF STOMATAL TYPE AND ITS

DISTRIBUTION ON LEAVES OF SOME
PLANTS”

SUBMITTED BY
KM RESHAMA 2215077750058
ANJALI SHARMA 2215077750037
KAJAL 2215077750054

B. SC. PART III SEMESTER V (BOTANY)

UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF

Dr. IRFAN AHMAD

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY
AKHILBHAGYA POST GRADUATE COLLEGE, RANAPAR,
GORAKHPUR

(AFFILIATED TO DEEN DAYAL UPDHYAY GORAKHPUR

UNIVERSITY GORAKHPUR)

DECEMBER 2023
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the Minor Project Report entitled “STUDY OF

STOMATAL TYPE AND ITS DISTRIBUTION ON LEAVES OF
SOME PLANTS” is a faithful record of the bonafide research work carried
out at Akhilbhagya Post Graduate College Ranapar, Gorakhpur by my
students under my guidance and supervision and that no part of it has been
submitted for any other degree or diploma.

KM RESHAMA 2215077750058
ANJALI SHARMA 2215077750037
KAJAL 2215077750054

Date: Dr Irfan Ahmad

Assistant Professor
Department of Botany
Akhilbhagya Post Graduate
College Ranapar, Gorakhpur
 DECLARATION

We hereby declare that this minor project work entitled “STUDY OF

STOMATAL TYPE AND ITS DISTRIBUTION ON LEAVES OF
SOME PLANTS” has been prepared by us during the year 2023-2024
under the guidance of Dr Irfan Ahmad Assistant Professor, Department of
Botany, Akhilbhagya Post Graduate College Ranapar, Gorakhpur
We also declare that this project is the outcome of our own efforts, that it
has not been submitted to any other college.

TEAM MEMBERS

NAME ROLL NO. SIGNATURE

KM RESHAMA 2215077750058
ANJALI SHARMA 2215077750037
KAJAL 2215077750054
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It is my privilege to express my sincere gratitude to Dr. Irfan Ahmad

Assistant Professor Akhilbhagya Post Graduate College Ranapar, Gorakhpur
for his guidance, encouragement and valuable advice. It is his confidence
imbibing attitude and splendid discussions and endless endeavours through
which I have gained significant experience.
My sincere thanks to Dr. Aradhana Singh, Dean, Department of
Botany Akhilbhagya Post Graduate College Ranapar, Gorakhpur for her
immense concern throughout the project work.
I am also thankful for facility provided by Dr Raginee Rai, Principal,
Akhilbhagya Post Graduate College Ranapar, Gorakhpur in completion of
my project report.for the help rendered by the different staff of department.
I extend my thanks and deep sense of gratitude to my friends for their
constant help. In fact, they had been a constant source of inspiration and
encouragement for me.
Student’s Name with Roll No.

KM RESHAMA 2215077750058
ANJALI SHARMA 2215077750037
KAJAL 2215077750054
 CONTENTS

ABSTRACT 1

INTRODUCTION 2-4

REVIEW OF LITERATURE 5-10

MATERIALS AND METHODS 11

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 12-16

CONCLUSION 17

REFERENCES 17-19
 ABSTRACT

Stomatal morphology of Cordyline fruticose, Dieffenbachia, Ficus benghalensis,

Ficus religiosa, Hibiscus rosa-sinensis, Kalanchoe integra, Citrus limon and
Tradescantia spathacea found in Ranapar was examined by light microscopy. In
all 6 types of stomata i.e., actinocytic, brachyparatetracytic, paracytic, diacytic,
helicocytic and tetracytic were recognized. Leaves of above-mentioned plants were
found to be amphistomatic, hypostomatic and epistomatous.

Key words: Stomata, type, distribution, monocot, dicot.

1
INTRODUCTION

Pfeffer discovered Stomata, and Malphigii gave it the name Stomata. Stomata cover
1% to 2% of the leaf surface. It's a tiny pore found in the plant's sensitive aerial
portions. Stomata are absent in algae, fungus, and submerged plants. Stomata have
played a key role in the Earth System for at least 400 million years. They provide
for the exchange of gases between the outside air and the branched system of
interconnecting air canals within the leaf. A stomate opens and closes in response to
the internal pressure of two sausage-shaped guard cells that surround it. The inner
wall of a guard cell is thicker than the outer wall. When the guard cell is filled with
water and it becomes turgid, the outer wall balloons outward, drawing the inner wall
with it and causing the stomate to enlarge. Guard cells work to control excessive
water loss, closing on hot, dry, or windy days and opening when conditions are more
favourable for gas exchange. For most plants, dawn triggers a sudden increase in
stomatal opening, reaching a maximum near noon, which is followed by a decline
because of water loss. Recovery and reopening are then followed by another decline
as darkness approaches. In plants that photosynthesize with the CAM carbon fixation
pathway, such as bromeliads and members of the family Crassulaceae, stomata are
opened at night to reduce water loss from evapotranspiration. The concentration of
carbon dioxide in the air is another regulator of stomatal opening in many plants.
When carbon dioxide levels fall below normal (about 0.03 percent), the guard cells
become turgid and the stomata enlarge (https://www.britannica.com/science/retinospora).
The distribution of stomata varies among different plant species, between dicots and
monocots, and between the top and bottom surfaces of leaves. Stomata are generally
found on plant surfaces that receive ample sunlight, where carbon dioxide levels are
relatively low, and in environments with high humidity.

In dicot leaves, the lower surface usually has a higher stomata distribution compared
to the upper surface. In contrast, in monocot leaves, the distribution of stomata is
typically equal on both surfaces.

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(a) Stomata are elliptical-shaped minute pores made up of two specialized epidermal
cells termed guard cells.
(b) In dicotyledon, the guard cells are kidney-shaped, but in monocotyledon, they
are dumbell-shaped.
(c) The guard cell wall surrounding the pore is thick and inelastic, despite the fact
that the rest of the guard cell walls are thin, elastic, and semi-permeable.
(d) Each guard cell has a central vacuole with a cytoplasmic lining. It has a single
nucleus and a large number of chloroplasts in its cytoplasm. Because of the lack of
RUBISCO enzyme, the chloroplast of guard cells can only do very weak
photosynthesis.
(e) Guard cells are surrounded by modified epidermal cells called subsidiary cells or
accessory cells, which help guard cells migrate.
On the surface of a single leaf, the number of stomata can range from a few thousand
to hundreds of thousands per square cm. Stomata can be found on both the upper
and lower surfaces of a leaf, but they are more common on the upper surface.
Restricted to the bottom portion of the surface Stomata are only found in floating
leaves. Located on the leaf's top surface.

1. Topographical or Morphological Classification:

Vesque was the first to classify

dicotyledon stomata into four
categories.

1. Ranunculaceous type:
Stoma mother cell is separated
from mature stomata by a
simple U-shaped wall; mature
stomata are surrounded by
many unevenly arranged
epidermal cells.
3
 2. Cruciferous type: Three or more cell walls inclined at an angle of about 60°
cut off the stoma mother cell in the primordial cell; mature stomata are
surrounded by three subsidiary cells, one of which is smaller than the other
two.
3. Caryophyllaceous or Labiateous type: Stoma mother cell is cut off from
primordial cell by two U-shaped cell walls oriented in opposite directions.
4. Rubiaceous type: Two parallel walls cut off the mother cell of the stoma in
the primordial cell; mature stomata are accompanied by two subsidiary cells
parallel to the pore's long axis (https://collegedunia.com/exams/study-of-
stomatal-distribution-in-the-lower-and-upper-level-of-leaves-biology-
articleid-4876).

Keeping in mind the various important functions, we decided to observe shape and
type of stomata in certain plants found in the vicinity of college campus.

4
REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Presence of stomata is a form of adaptation to the environment which aims to reduce

transpiration (Campbell et. al., 2013). Stomata in each species of plant have different
numbers and sizes. Haryanti (2010) found that the number of stomata in
dicotyledons and monocotyledons plants varied in each plant species. According to
Tambaru (2013) stomatal size related to the stomatal number on plant leaves. If the
size of the stomata is small, the number of stomata found on the leaves is high,
whereas if the stomata are large, the number of stomata on the leaves is low. The
number of stomata is strongly influenced by the species of plant itself (genetic factor)
(Tambaru, 2013); however, Juariah (2014) states that each species of plant had a
different number and size, which is related to the indication of the plant's response
to extreme environmental conditions, such as the availability of water and nutrients,
to maintain its physiological functions, for example, photosynthesis and
transpiration in the leaves (environmental factors).

Sunarseh and Daningsih (2021) has been reported the benefits of ornamental plants
which are not only for aesthetic values but also for cooling down its environmental
temperature. This cooling effect is due to the transpiration rate. The transpiration
rate is influenced by the stomatal number and size. This study aimed to measure the
stomatal number and size of monocotyledon plants. The method used factorial
Completely Randomized Design (CRD). The main treatment factors were six
monocotyledon plant species and three plant parts namely top, middle, and bottom
plant parts, and a combination of the treatments was between the two with five
replications. The data were analyzed using SAS with the model of factorial CRD
and if the treatments were significant it was followed by LSD test. Plant species,
plant parts, and the combination between the two significantly influenced on
stomatal number and size. Cordyline fruticosa had the highest stomata number (340)
significantly compared to others while Rhoeo discolor had the lowest one (30).
However, Rhoeo discolor had the largest stomatal size (2285,7 μm) significantly

5
compared to others while Cordyline fruticosa had the smallest (114,1 μm). Top plant
parts had the highest stomatal number (172) significantly compared to the middle
(141) and bottom parts (138). The stomatal number correlated inversely with
stomatal size both in plant species and plant parts.
Vaidya (2015) conducted an experiment to study the type of stomata found in six
species of genus Dieffenbachia and four species of genus Colocasia. She has
observed that stomata of six species of genus Dieffenbachia and four species of
genus Colocasia were paracytic and brachyparatetracytic, respectively.
Shakir and Baji (2016) conducted an experiment to study the leaf characters of 3
species from Ficus growing in Iraq which is (F. carica, F. elasticaa and F. religiosa).
All species of Ficus have crystals appeared very clear in the epidermis also recorded
the stomatal type and found all the species under study have Actinocytic type and
characterized by Hypostomatic (stomata on abaxial only). The shape of the guard
cells are reniform in all species under study, and the ordinary cells straight walls and
ribbed also the cell shapes are rectangular to polygonal as well as the study showed
that the unglandular trichomes are normally founded on the Ficus carica and Ficus
religiosa and the species Ficus elasticaa was glabrous.
Boni T et.al. (2022) studied the distribution pattern and morphology of stomata
and cystoliths in the leaves of six taxa of the genus Ficus of the family Moraceae
in Arunachal Pradesh. All the plant species studied contained stomata and
cystoliths, which vary in shape and size. Actinocytic stomata type was present
in only one species (Ficus sp. 1). Anomocytic type in three, and paracytic in
four species. Stomata! frequency calculation revealed that the highest frequency
was reported in F. hispida and the lowest in F. rumphii. There is also an
indication that semi-coriaceous and coriaceous glabrous leaved species of Ficus
are linked to the stomata! characters.
Khan et.al. (2011) had been conducted a detailed morphological study of leaf
epidermis of Genus Ficus (Moraceae). The study based on the micro characters of
leaf epidermis of some species of Ficus collected from Pakistan. Pavement cells are

6
often polygonal and irregular. Among the species the F. virens has larger pavement
cells as well as stomata as compare to other species. Whereas there are little
variations represented in qualitative and quantitative characters among the species
of same genus. Stomata are paracytic except in F. nerrifolia and F. callosoa and are
restricted on abaxial surface. Trichomes present in some species mostly are
unicellular and non-glandular with bulbous base. Cuticular membrane is mostly
smooth and pubescent. And in some species peltate glands also observed.
Sethuramani et.al. (2021) investigated the Pharmacognostical parameters of Ficus
religiosa. Linn leaves, macroscopical and microscopical characters were evaluated
as per standard method. Morphological features of Ficus religiosa leaves, shape is
ovate rotund, apex is caudate – acuminate, surface is glabours shiny and coriaceous,
stipules are small, sheathing, ovate – lanceolate, acute and caducous, venation is
pinnate reticulate. Microscopical characters showed the presence epidermis,
collenchyma, parenchyma, cystolith, prismatic crystals, stomata, spirals vessesl etc.
Essiett and Iwok (2014) have performed a comparative anatomical studies of the
leaves and flowers of H. arnottianus, H.surattensis, H. acetosella and H. rosa-
sinensis are described. The anisocytic stomatawas the commonest followed by
brachyparacytic, anomocytic, staurocytic stomata and laterocytic stomatas
respectively. H. acetosella are distinguished on other species byhaving laterocytic
stomata on both surfaces of leaves and parallel contiguous stomata are found on
abaxial surface while in H. rosa-sinensis laterocytic is found only on adaxial surface.
There are five different types of abnormal stomata, unopened stomatal pore, two
stomata sharing one subsidiary cell, parallel contiguous stomata and aborted guard
cell found in all the surfaces of the leaves and flowers. In addition, parallel
contiguous stomata are found on adaxial surface of H. rosa-sinensis and abaxial
surface of H. arnottianus flower. H. rosa-sinensis had five-armed trichome on the
abaxial surface that helps in distinguishing it from other species studied.
Crystaldruses are only present on both adaxial surface of H. arnottianus and H. rosa-
sinensis leaf and on the abaxial surface of H. acetosella flower. The shape of

7
epidermal cells, anticlinal cell walls, guard cell areas, stomatal index and trichomes
varied.
Rao and Ramayya (1975) reported that In Hibiscus, stomata are anisocytic,
anomocytic, paracytic and tetracytic, the first type being the most frequent and
occurring in all plant parts in the ten species studied, whereas the others are scarce
and have a limited organographic distribution. The stem, petiole, pedicel, stamina1
tube, ovary and style are stomatiferous; the leaf-blade, stipule, bracteole and sepals
are amphistomatic and petals hypostomatic in the species investigated. The stomatal
types are often homoplastic, the anisocytic being either mesogenous trilabrate or
mesoperigenous dolabrate, the anomocytic, mesoperigenous dolabrate or
mesogenous trilabrate, and the tetracytic, mesoperigenous dolabrate or
mesoperigenous trilabrate. But the typical paracytic stomata (with the subsidiaries
completely enclosing the poles) are constantly mesogenous dolabratc and therefore
probably indicate mesogenous dolabrate development. Although several patterns of
stomatogenesis are encountered in any specific organ, only one of them is found to
be dominant.
Chachad and Vaidya (2016) studied types of stomata found in Malvaceae family.
Abutilon Ranadei: Upper epidermis shows anomotetracytic, cyclocytic type of
stomata with kidney shaped guard cells. Adensonia digitata: Upper epidermis shows
polygonal cells which form glands with wavy margin. Hypostomatic. Lower
epidermis shows anisocytic, anomotetracytic and cyclocytic type of stomata with
kidney shaped guard cells. Bombax ceiba: Upper epidermis shows tetra-pentagonal
cells. Hypostomatic. Lower epidermis shows anisocytic, anomotetracytic and
cyclocytic type of stomata with kidney shaped guard cells. Bombax malabaricum:
Upper epidermis shows pentagonal to hexagonal epidermal cells which are
irregularly scattered. Hypostomatic. Lower epidermis shows anisocytic, & paracytic
type of stomata with kidney shaped guard cells. Epidermal cells are irregular with
wavy margin etc.

8
Xu et al (2018) examined stomatal development and the orthologues of Arabidopsis
stomatal genes in a basal angiosperm plant, Nymphaea colorata, and a member of
the eudicot CAM family, Kalanchoe laxiflora, which represent the adaptation to
aquatic and drought environments, respectively. Our results showed that despite the
conservation of core stomatal regulators, a number of critical genes were lost in the
N. colorata genome, including EPF2, MPK6, and AP2C3 and the polarity regulators
BASL and POLAR. Interestingly, this is coincident with the loss of asymmetric
divisions during the stomatal development of N. colorata. In addition, we found that
the guard cell in K. laxiflora is surrounded by three or four small subsidiary cells in
adaxial leaf surfaces. This type of stomatal complex is formed via repeated
asymmetric cell divisions and cell state transitions. This may result from the doubled
or quadrupled key genes controlling stomatal development in K. laxiflora. Our
results show that loss or duplication of key regulatory genes is associated with
environmental adaptation of the stomatal complex.
Turrell in 1947 has been reported that stomatal pore size in citrus leaves is of
practical importance because penetration of sprays used for control of insect and
fungus pests of citrus may be a function of pore size, shape, and conformation, as
well as of spray composition.
Joshi and Kumar (2020) have been reported that maximum number of stomata was
observed on the basal surface of Adaxial portion of leaf of Tradescantia pallida
(Rose)D.R,Hunt and there is no stomata was found on the abaxial surface of
Tradescantia spathacea Sw. Tetracytic type of stomata was present in both the
species of Tradescantia. In both the species Tradescantia pallida (Rose)D.R,Hunt.
was amphistomatic in nature and Tradescantia spathacea Sw. was hypostomatic.
Bercu in 2013 reported a detailed histoanatomical description of the vegetative
organs (root, stem and leaf), measurements of the leaf epidermal cells and stomata,
and microphotographs of an ornamental plant Tradescantia spathacea Sw. The roots
had a typical primary monocot structure. The stems had a primary structure, the stele
comprising two concentric rings of closed collateral vascular bundles. The leaves
were heterogeneous, bifacial and hypostomatic, with brachyparatetracytic stomata.
9
However, the upper epidermal cells were larger (186-245 μm long and 112-156 μm
wide) than those of the lower epidermis (104-178 μm long and 82-116 μm wide). In
addition, the average stomatal length was 57 μm ± 2.54, stomatal index - 16.43 and
2
stomata density - 35.82 stomates/mm .

10
MATERIALS AND METHODS

Eight plant species i.e. Cordyline fruticose, Dieffenbachia, Ficus benghalensis,

Ficus religiosa, Hibiscus rosa-sinensis, Kalanchoe integra, Citrus limon and
Tradescantia spathacea, from the vicinity of college campus were selected for this
study. Following materials were arranged for this experiment:

1. Blade
2. Forceps
3. Dropper
4. Glycerine
5. Coverslip
6. Compound microscope
7. Glass Slide
8. Distilled water
9. Needle and brush
10. Safranin solution
11. Leaves of selected plants
12. Watch glass

Following steps were taken to prepare the temporary slide of lower epidermal layer
of leaves:

 Some distilled water was poured into two watch glasses.

 Using an oblique slit, the leaves were slit.
 A portion of the leaf peeled off from the upper and lower surface with forceps.
 These parts were placed on two separate watch glass filled with water.
 Few drops of safranin solution were dropped into watch glass with a dropper.
 With the use of a brush, a transparent glass slide was applied on the peel.
 With the use of a blade, a rectangular piece was cut from the peel.
 By using a dropper, one drop of glycerine was applied to the slide.
 A coverslip was placed on the peel with the help of a needle.
 Under the microscope, glass slide was observed and observations had been
noted down.
 Photograph of each slide was also taken by using smart phone camera.
 Quality of images was enhanced by using AI.
11
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Observations of the replica stomata slides showed Cordyline fruticose had stomata
on both sides (amphistomatic) and it was actinocytic type as was reported by Nurza
(2019) Table 1.
In Dieffenbachia exotica the stomata were observed to be brachyparatetracytic type
and present on abaxial as well adaxial surface of the leaf. This is in line with Vaidya
(2015) Table 1.
Stomata were observed and it had been found that Ficus benghalensis as well as in
Ficus religiosa leaves with stomata restricted to the lower surface and paracytic type,
same observation was also reported by Khan et.al. 2011 Table 1.
In Hibiscus rosa-sinensis upper epidermis showed polygonal epidermal cells which
were irregularly scattered to form glands i.e., Hypostomatic. Lower epidermis
showed diacytic stomata with kidney shaped guard cells. Similar observation was
also reported by Chachad and Vaidya (2016) Table 1.
Stomata of Kalanchoe integra were of helicocytic type and present only on upeer
surface of the leaf. Xu et.al. 2018 also reported the same result Table 1.
Citrus limon which belongs to the Rubiaceae family showed paracytic type of
stomata and present on lower surface of the leaf, similar observation was also
reported by Ogundare and Saheed (2012) Table 1.
In Tradescantia spathacea leaf tetracytic type of stomata were observed and present
on lower surface (hypostomatic) as was reported by Joshi and Kumar (2020) Table
1.

12
Table 1: Shows type and distribution of stomata on leaves of some plants.
SN Photograph Botanical Name Family Type Distribution
1. Cordyline fruticosa Asparagaceae Actinocytic Amphistomatic

2. Dieffenbachia exotica Araceae Brachyparatetracytic Amphistomatic

13
3. Ficus benghalensis Moraceae Paracytic Hypostomatic

4. Ficus religiosa Moraceae Paracytic Hypostomatic

14
5. Hibiscus rosa-sinensis Malvaceae Diacytic Hypostomatic

6. Kalanchoe integra Crassulaceae Helicocytic Epistomatous

15
7. Citrus limon Rutaceae Paracytic Hypostomatic

8. Tradescantia spathacea Commelinaceae Tetracytic Hypostomatic

16
CONCLUSION

The study of type and distribution of stomata is proved to be a useful character

for the taxonomic characterization of different species. So, to reach a reliable
conclusion on the taxonomic and ecological values of such character linked
to stomata, many more species need to be studied from different distributional
areas and geographical coverage. The present investigation of stomata study
can be a reliable tool for the characterization and analysis of different
species.

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17
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and-upper-level-of-leaves-biology-articleid-4876

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